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82-438: The manuscript consists of 218 vellum folios measuring 232 by 207 mm. Its Latin text is written in a single column of Carolingian minuscule of 20 lines measuring 156 by 126 mm. Its original binding was made of oak boards covered in gold and set with gemstones, which is described in the "Rijmkroniek van Holland" (Rhyming Chronicle of Holland) that was written around 1300. In another description from 1805, Hendrik van Wijn describes

164-572: A separation of church and state existed in the kingdom. However, William himself was a strong supporter of the Reformed Church . This led to resentment among the people in the mostly Catholic south. William had also devised controversial language and school policies. Dutch was imposed as the official language in (the Dutch-speaking region of) Flanders ; this angered French-speaking aristocrats and industrial workers. Schools throughout

246-552: A binding of wooden boards covered in brown leather, unmarked except for the date 1574. This is likely the year when the valuable binding was removed. The binding was replaced again in 1830 when it was acquired by the Royal Library of the Netherlands, and once more in 1949 with a calfskin parchment after it appeared that the previous hard-glued spine caused damage. Its current binding is made of white goat's skin and dates to

328-587: A diploma as a "sheepskin" alludes to the time when diplomas were written on vellum made from animal hides. British Acts of Parliament are still printed on vellum for archival purposes, as are those of the Republic of Ireland . In February 2016, the UK House of Lords announced that legislation would be printed on archival paper instead of the traditional vellum from April 2016. However, Cabinet Office Minister Matthew Hancock intervened by agreeing to fund

410-490: A high-quality traditional vellum, paper vellum could be produced thin enough to be virtually transparent to strong light, enabling a source drawing to be used directly in the reproduction of field-used drawings. Vellum is ideally stored in a stable environment with constant temperature and 30% (± 5%) relative humidity . If vellum is stored in an environment with less than 11% relative humidity, it becomes fragile, and vulnerable to mechanical stresses . However, if it

492-684: A large number of deserters from the Batavian army accompanied the retreating British troops to Britain. There William formed the King's Dutch Brigade with these troops, a military unit in British service, that swore oaths of allegiance to the British king, but also to the States General, defunct since 1795, "whenever those would be reconstituted." This brigade trained on the Isle of Wight in 1800 and

574-541: A new University of Leuven , the University of Ghent and the University of Liège . The northern provinces, meanwhile, were the centre of trade. This, in combination with the colonies ( Dutch East Indies , Surinam , Curaçao and Dependencies , and the Dutch Gold Coast ) created great wealth for the kingdom. However, the money flowed into the hands of Dutch directors. Only a few Belgians managed to profit from

656-610: A new constitution, presided over strong economic and industrial progress, promoted trade and founded the universities of Leuven , Ghent and Liège . The imposition of the Reformed faith and the Dutch language, as well as feelings of economic inequity, caused widespread resentment in the southern provinces and led to the outbreak of the Belgian Revolution in 1830. William failed to crush the rebellion and in 1839 he accepted

738-491: A new constitution, which granted him extensive powers, and he was a strong proponent of economic development, founding several universities and promoting trade. However, his efforts to impose the Reformed faith and the Dutch language in the southern provinces, combined with economic grievances, sparked the Belgian Revolution in 1830. Unable to suppress the rebellion, William ultimately accepted Belgian independence in 1839 under

820-660: A parolee, William was not allowed to take part in the hostilities anymore. After the Peace of Tilsit William received a pension from France in compensation. In the same year, 1806, his father, the Prince of Orange died, and William not only inherited the title, but also his father's claims on the inheritance embodied in the Nassau lands. This would become important a few years later, when developments in Germany coincided to make William

902-536: A perceived mismanagement of the war effort. High costs of the war came to burden the Dutch economy, fueling public resentment. In 1839, William was forced to end the war. The United Kingdom of the Netherlands was dissolved by the Treaty of London (1839) and the northern part continued as the Kingdom of the Netherlands . It was not renamed, however, as the "United"-prefix had never been part of its official name, but rather

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984-690: A reformed Batavian Republic. Meanwhile, William's brother-in-law Frederick William III of Prussia , neutral at the time, promoted a Franco-Prussian convention of 23 May 1802, in addition to the Treaty of Amiens , that gave the House of Orange a few abbatial domains in Germany, that were combined to the Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda by way of indemnification for its losses in the Batavian Republic. The stadtholder gave this principality immediately to his son. When war broke out between

1066-479: A restoration in 1995. The manuscript was written in the third quarter of the 9th century in northwestern France, likely in Reims . It is not known who commissioned it. Around 900, eight folios were added to the manuscript, two at the beginning of each gospel . On the verso side of the first folio is the evangelist's symbol , and on the recto side on the second is his portrait. The second folio's verso side displays

1148-442: Is also used on instruments such as the banjo and the bodhran , although synthetic skins are available for these instruments and have become more commonly used. The Catholic Church still issues its decrees and diplomas for its officials on vellum. Modern imitation vellum is made from plasticized rag cotton or fibers from interior tree bark . Terms include: paper vellum, Japanese vellum, and vegetable vellum. Paper vellum

1230-601: Is based in Newport Pagnell , Buckinghamshire . A modern imitation is made of cotton . Known as paper vellum, this material is considerably cheaper than animal vellum and can be found in most art and drafting supply stores. Some brands of writing paper and other sorts of paper use the term "vellum" to suggest quality. Vellum is still used for Jewish scrolls, of the Torah in particular, for luxury bookbinding , memorial books, and for various documents in calligraphy . It

1312-425: Is made of plant cellulose fibers and gets its name from its similar usage to actual vellum, as well as its high quality. It is used for a variety of purposes including tracing, technical drawings, plans and blueprints . Tracing paper is essentially the same thing, however the quality level differs, sometimes greatly. Though Christopher de Hamel , an expert on medieval manuscripts, writes that "for most purposes

1394-540: Is stored in an environment with greater than 40% relative humidity, it becomes vulnerable to gelation and to mould or fungus growth. The optimal relative humidity for proper storage of vellum does not overlap that of paper, which poses a challenge for libraries. The optimal temperature for the keeping of vellum is approximately 20 °C (68 °F). William I of the Netherlands William I (Willem Frederik; 24 August 1772 – 12 December 1843)

1476-424: Is usually translucent and its various sizes are often used in applications where tracing is required, such as architectural plans . Its dimensions are more stable than a linen or paper sheet, which is frequently critical in the development of large scaled drawings such as blueprints . Paper vellum has also become extremely important in hand or chemical reproduction technology for dissemination of plan copies. Like

1558-619: The Battle of Wagram , where he was wounded in the leg. Tsar Alexander I of Russia played a central role in the restoration of the Netherlands. Prince William VI (as he was now known), who had been living in exile in Prussia, met with Alexander I in March 1813. Alexander promised to support William and help restore an independent Netherlands with William as king. Russian troops in the Netherlands participated with their Prussian allies in restoring

1640-660: The Dominican monastery in Cologne . The Egmond Gospels remained in Cologne with the Dominicans until 1604. In that year Van Mierlo's successor, Sasbout Vosmeer took it into his possession after he was made apostolic vicariate of the diocese of Haarlem. The manuscript was likely kept at the seminary Vosmeer founded in Cologne. The manuscript returned to the Netherlands between 1656 and 1688, namely to Utrecht. In 1688, it

1722-708: The Duke of Nassau . The Great Powers had already agreed via the secret Eight Articles of London to unite the Low Countries into a single kingdom, it was believed that this would help keep France in check. With the de facto addition of the Austrian Netherlands and Luxembourg to his realm, William had fulfilled his family's three-century dream of uniting the Low Countries. Feeling threatened by Napoleon, who had escaped from Elba , William proclaimed

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1804-920: The Dutch Republic , and his wife Wilhelmina of Prussia . Until 1806, William was formally known as William VI, Prince of Orange-Nassau , and between 1806 and 1813 also as Prince of Orange. In Berlin on 1 October 1791, William married his maternal first cousin (Frederica Louisa) Wilhelmina of Prussia , born in Potsdam . She was the daughter of King Frederick William II of Prussia . After Wilhelmina died in 1837, William married Countess Henrietta d'Oultremont (28 February 1792, in Maastricht – 26 October 1864, in Schloss Rahe ), created countess of Nassau, on 17 February 1841, also in Berlin. As eldest son of

1886-644: The Dutch Revolt . It was recorded in the abbey's inventory in 1571. In 1573, the abbey was looted and destroyed, but the Egmond Gospels had already been transported to safety in Haarlem by Godfried van Mierlo , the abbot of Egmond and bishop of Haarlem. The manuscript was handed over in 1578 to Pieter van Driel, the tax collector of Haarlem, along with a number of other valuable items. In 1583, Van Mierlo transferred its possession to Hendrik Bercheyk, from

1968-641: The Flanders campaign , he commanded the Dutch troops and fought against the French invasion. The family went into exile in London in 1795 following the Batavian Revolution . As compensation for the loss of his father's possessions in the Low Countries, William was appointed ruler of the newly created Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda in 1803. When Napoleon invaded Germany in 1806, William fought on

2050-556: The French Empire and Prussia in 1806, William supported his Prussian relatives, though he was nominally a French vassal. He received command of a Prussian division which took part in the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt . The Prussians lost that battle and William was forced to surrender his troops rather ignominiously at Erfurt the day after the battle. He was made a prisoner of war, but was paroled soon. Napoleon punished him for his betrayal, however, by taking away his principality. As

2132-789: The Fürst (Prince) of a diverse assembly of Nassau lands that had belonged to other branches of the House of Nassau . But before this came about, in 1809 tensions between Austria and France became intense, resulting in the War of the Fifth Coalition . William did not hesitate to join the Austrian army as a Feldmarschalleutnant (major-general) in May 1809 As a member of the staff of the Austrian supreme commander, Archduke Charles he took part in

2214-654: The Prussian side and was deposed upon French victory. With the death of his father in 1806, he became Prince of Orange and ruler of the Principality of Orange-Nassau , which he also lost the same year after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and subsequent creation of the Confederation of the Rhine . He spent the following years in exile in Prussia. In 1813, following Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig ,

2296-494: The Royal Library . Vellum Vellum is prepared animal skin or membrane, typically used as writing material . It is often distinguished from parchment , either by being made from calfskin (rather than the skin of other animals), or simply by being of a higher quality. Vellum is prepared for writing and printing on single pages, scrolls , and codices (books). Modern scholars and experts often prefer to use

2378-807: The University of Leiden . In 1790 he was appointed a general of infantry in the Dutch States Army of which his father was Captain general , and he was made a member of the Council of State of the Netherlands . In November 1791 he took his new bride to The Hague . After the National Convention of the French Republic had declared war on the Dutch Republic in February 1793, William was appointed commander-in-chief of

2460-506: The William V, Prince of Orange , William was informally referred to as Erfprins (Hereditary Prince) by contemporaries from his birth until the death of his father in 1806 to distinguish him from William V. Like his younger brother Prince Frederick of Orange-Nassau he was tutored by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler and the Dutch historian Herman Tollius . They were both tutored in

2542-553: The incipit . The text on the following page was adjusted to reproduce the first letters of the text in large, decorative letters. It is still possible to see places where the original text was taken out, for example folio 19 recto, at the beginning of the Gospel of Matthew in the Liber Generationis. A space above the first line 'XPI FILII DAVID FILII ABRAHAM' is clearly visible, where the text has been removed and brought to

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2624-674: The veldleger (mobile army) of the States Army (his father remained the nominal head of the armed forces). As such he commanded the troops that took part in the Flanders Campaign of 1793–95. He took part in the Battles of Veurne and Menin (where his brother was wounded) in 1793, and commanded during the Siege of Landrecies (1794) , whose fortress surrendered to him. In May 1794 he had replaced general Kaunitz as commander of

2706-419: The 180-copy edition of Johannes Gutenberg 's first Bible printed in 1455 with movable type was also printed on vellum, presumably because his market expected this for a high-quality book. Paper was used for most book-printing, as it was cheaper and easier to process through a printing press and to bind . The twelfth-century Winchester Bible was also written on approximately 250 calfskins. In art, vellum

2788-580: The Batavian Republic in the summer of 1795. However, the neutral Prussian government forbade this. In 1799, William landed in the current North Holland as part of an Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland . The hereditary prince was instrumental in fomenting a mutiny on the Batavian naval squadron in the Vlieter , resulting in the surrender of the ships without a fight to the Royal Navy , which accepted

2870-575: The Great Powers impose him on the country. The Dutch population were pleased with the departure of the French, who had ruined the Dutch economy, and this time welcomed the prince. After having been invited by the Triumvirate of 1813 , on 30 November 1813 William disembarked from HMS  Warrior and landed at Scheveningen beach, only a few yards from the place where he had left the country with his father 18 years before, and on 6 December

2952-469: The Netherlands a kingdom on 16 March 1815 at the urging of the powers gathered at the Congress of Vienna . His son, the future king William II , fought as a commander at the Battle of Waterloo . After Napoleon had been sent into exile, William adopted a new constitution which included many features of the old constitution, such as extensive royal powers. He was formally confirmed as hereditary ruler of what

3034-532: The Orange-Nassau territories were restored to William; he also accepted the offer to become Sovereign Prince of the United Netherlands . William proclaimed himself king of the Netherlands in 1815. In the same year, he concluded a treaty with King Frederick William III in which he ceded the Orange-Nassau to Prussia in exchange for becoming the new grand duke of Luxembourg. As king, he adopted

3116-646: The Prince of Orange, and Prince Frederick to invade the new state. Although initially victorious in this Ten Days' Campaign , the Royal Netherlands Army was forced to retreat after the threat of French intervention . Some support for the Orange dynasty (chiefly among the Flemish ) persisted for years, but the Dutch never regained control over Belgium. William nevertheless continued the war for eight years. His economic successes became overshadowed by

3198-465: The Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda before Napoleon's conquests forced him out of power. Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1813, William returned to the Netherlands, where he was invited to assume the role of Sovereign Prince of the United Netherlands. In 1815, William proclaimed himself king of the Netherlands and concurrently became the grand duke of Luxembourg. His reign saw the adoption of

3280-453: The Treaty of London. William's later years were marked by dissatisfaction with constitutional changes and personal reasons, leading to his abdication in 1840 in favor of his son, King William II . He spent his final years in Berlin, where he died in 1843. William was the son of William V, Prince of Orange , the last stadtholder of the Dutch Republic , and Wilhelmina of Prussia . During

3362-426: The baselines on which the text was entered and with vertical bounding lines that marked the boundaries of the columns". Most of the finer sort of medieval manuscripts, whether illuminated or not, were written on vellum. Some Gandhāran Buddhist texts were written on vellum, and all Sifrei Torah (Hebrew: ספר תורה Sefer Torah; plural: ספרי תורה, Sifrei Torah) are written on kosher klaf or vellum. A quarter of

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3444-403: The broader term "membrane", which avoids the need to draw a distinction between vellum and parchment. It may be very hard to determine the animal species involved (let alone its age) without detailed scientific analysis. Vellum is generally smooth and durable, but there are great variations in its texture which are affected by the way it is made and the quality of the skin. The making involves

3526-402: The cleaning, bleaching, stretching on a frame (a "herse"), and scraping of the skin with a crescent-shaped knife (a "lunarium" or " lunellum "). To create tension, the process goes back and forth between scraping, wetting and drying. Scratching the surface with pumice , and treating with lime or chalk to make it suitable for writing or printing ink can create a final look. Modern "paper vellum"

3608-413: The combined Austro-Dutch forces on the instigation of Emperor Francis II who apparently had a high opinion of him. William was victorious at the Battles of Gosselies and Lambusart and proved to be an able commander, but the French armies ultimately proved too strong, and the general allied leadership too inept. Despite a well-executed attack by William on the French left, the allied army under Coburg

3690-533: The continued use of vellum from the Cabinet Office budget. On 2017, the House of Commons Commission agreed that it would provide front and back vellum covers for record copies of Acts. Today, because of low demand and complicated manufacturing process, animal vellum is expensive and hard to find. The only UK company still producing traditional parchment and vellum is William Cowley (established 1870), which

3772-531: The covering for stiff board bindings. Vellum can be stained virtually any color but seldom is, as a great part of its beauty and appeal rests in its faint grain and hair markings, as well as its warmth and simplicity. Lasting in excess of 1,000 years—for example, Pastoral Care (Troyes, Bibliothèque Municipale, MS 504) , dates from about 600 and is in excellent condition—animal vellum can be far more durable than paper. For this reason, many important documents are written on animal vellum, such as diplomas. Referring to

3854-501: The distinction, among collectors of manuscripts, is that vellum is a highly refined form of skin, parchment a cruder form, usually thick, harsh, less highly polished than vellum, but with no distinction between skin of calf, or sheep, or of goat. French sources, closer to the original etymology, tend to define velin as from calf only, while the British Standards Institution defines parchment as made from

3936-464: The dynasty. Dynastic considerations of marriage between the royal houses of Great Britain and the Netherlands, assured British approval. After Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig (October 1813), the French troops retreated to France from all over Europe. The Netherlands had been annexed to the French Empire by Napoleon in 1810. But now city after city was evacuated by the French occupation troops. In

4018-591: The economic growth. Feelings of economic inequity were another cause of the Belgian uprising. William was also determined to create a unified people, even though the north and the south had drifted far apart culturally and economically since the south was reconquered by Spain after the Act of Abjuration of 1581. The north was commercial, Protestant and entirely Dutch-speaking; the south was industrial, Roman Catholic and divided between Dutch and French-speakers. Officially,

4100-496: The ensuing power vacuum a number of former Orangist politicians and former Patriots formed a provisional government in November 1813. Although a large number of the members of the provisional government had helped drive out William V 18 years earlier, it was taken for granted that his son would have to head any new government. They also agreed it would be better in the long term for the Dutch to restore him themselves, rather than have

4182-597: The first ones themselves. The manuscript later came into the hands of the Frisian count Dirk II, who had its binding richly gilded and decorated with gemstones. He also added two miniatures paintings, in a diptych , in the back of the manuscript. These depict him and his consort, Hildegard of Flanders, giving the manuscript to the Egmond Abbey. The miniature paintings were likely added in Ghent between 975 and 988, while

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4264-418: The gift itself took place in 975. The left miniature on folio 214 verso shows Dirk and Hildegard underneath an arched structure with the open gospel book lying on an altar. The exterior of the abbey (certainly a fictional representation) is depicted as an architectural frame for the event. The text in the upper lefthand corner indicates what is happening: ( This book was given by Dirk and his wife Hildegard to

4346-456: The hair. Once clear, the two sides of the skin are distinct: the body side and the hairy side. The "inside body side" of the skin is usually the lighter and more refined of the two. The hair follicles may be visible on the outer side, together with any scars from when the animal was alive. The membrane can also show the pattern of the animal's vein network called the "veining" of the sheet. The makers remove any remaining hair ("scudding") and dry

4428-454: The independence of Belgium in accordance with the Treaty of London . William's disapproval of changes to the constitution, the loss of Belgium and his intention to marry Henrietta d'Oultremont , a Roman Catholic, led to his decision to abdicate in 1840. His eldest son acceded to the throne as King William II . William died in 1843 in Berlin at the age of 71. King William I's parents were the last stadtholder William V, Prince of Orange of

4510-438: The kingdom were required to instruct students in the Reformed faith and the Dutch language. Many in the south feared that the king sought to extinguish Catholicism and the French language. In August 1830 Daniel Auber 's opera La muette de Portici , about the repression of Neapolitans , was staged in Brussels. Performances of this opera seemed to crystallize a sense of nationalism and "Hollandophobia" in Brussels, and spread to

4592-520: The medieval instructions now followed by modern membrane makers. The makers rubbed them with a round, flat object ("pouncing") to ensure that the ink would adhere to the surface. Even so, ink would gradually flake off of the membrane, especially if it was used in a scroll that was frequently rolled and unrolled. Once the vellum is prepared, traditionally a quire is formed of a group of several sheets. Raymond Clemens and Timothy Graham point out, in their Introduction to Manuscript Studies , that "the quire

4674-401: The merciful father Adalbert, so that he will think of them in eternity .) The recto side shows Dirk kneeling and Hildegard lying in proskynesis before Adalbert , the patron saint of the abbey, who pleads on their behalf to a Christ in Majesty . The accompany text reads: The circular space around Christ likely suggests a Byzantian dome. The manuscript was kept at the Egmond Abbey until

4756-429: The military arts by General Frederick Stamford . After the Patriot revolt had been suppressed in 1787, he in 1788–89 attended the military academy in Brunswick which was considered an excellent military school, together with his brother. In 1790 he visited a number of foreign courts like the one in Nassau and the Prussian capital Berlin, where he first met his future wife. William subsequently studied briefly at

4838-405: The north and the south, although the population of the north (2 million) was significantly less than that of the south (3.5 million). The States General's primary function was to approve the king's laws and decrees. The constitution contained many present-day Dutch political institutions; however, their functions and composition have changed greatly over the years. The constitution was accepted in

4920-427: The north, but not in the south. The under-representation of the south was one of the causes of the Belgian Revolution. Referendum turnout was low, in the southern provinces, but William interpreted all abstentions to be yes votes. He prepared a lavish inauguration for himself in Brussels , where he gave the people copper coins (leading to his first nickname, the Copper King ). The spearhead of King William's policies

5002-417: The piece of skin. The number of sheets depends on the size of the skin and the required length and breadth of each individual sheet. For example, the average calfskin could provide roughly three and a half medium sheets of writing material. The makers can double it when they fold the skin into two conjoined leaves, also known as a bifolium. Historians have found evidence of manuscripts where the scribe wrote down

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5084-426: The possession of Timot de Jongh, the pastor of the Old Roman church in Utrecht's Hoek. Van Musschenbroek's colleague, Hendrik van Wijn, had described the manuscript in his 1805 book "Huiszittend Leven" ("Domestic Life"). The manuscript had also been identified in 1720 by a previous pastor of the Old Roman church, Willibrord Kemp. In 1830, King William I purchased the Egmond Gospels for 800 guilders and donated it to

5166-413: The preceding pages. The page likely originally began: ‘INC EVANG SCDM MATTHEUM / LIBER GENERATIONIS / IHU XPI FILII DAVID FILII ABRAHAM'. The removed text was rewritten in decorative letters on the added folios 17v, 18r, and 19v. At this time the manuscript's current canon tables were also added. These seven folios precede the Gospel of Matthew and may have replaced the original canon tables, or have been

5248-426: The provisional government offered him the title of king . William refused, instead proclaiming himself " Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands ". He also wanted the rights of the people to be guaranteed by "a wise constitution". The constitution offered William extensive, nearly absolute powers: ministers were only responsible to him, while a unicameral parliament (the States General ) exercised only limited power. He

5330-441: The rest of the south. Rioting ensued, chiefly aimed at the kingdom's unpopular justice minister, Cornelis Felix van Maanen , who lived in Brussels. An infuriated William responded by sending troops to repress the riots. However, the riots had spread to other southern cities. The riots quickly became popular uprisings. An independent state of Belgium emerged out of the 1830 Revolution. The next year, William sent his sons William ,

5412-409: The skin by attaching it to a frame (a "herse"). They attach the skin at points around the edge with cords and wrap the part next to these points around a pebble (a "pippin"). They then use a crescent shaped knife, (a "lunarium" or "lunellum"), to clean off any remaining hairs. The makers thoroughly clean the skin and process it into sheets once it is completely dry. They can extract many sheets from

5494-487: The split skin of several species, and vellum from the unsplit skin. In the usage of modern practitioners of the artistic crafts of writing, illuminating, lettering, and bookbinding, "vellum" is normally reserved for calfskin, while any other skin is called "parchment". Vellum allows some light to pass through it. It is made from the skin of a young animal. The skin is washed with water and lime ( calcium hydroxide ), and then soaked in lime for several days to soften and remove

5576-461: The stadtholder and the British government of 11 March 1800. Instead the stadtholder was allowed to sell them to the Royal Navy for an appreciable sum. The stadtholder, feeling betrayed by the British, left for Germany. The hereditary prince, having a more flexible mind, went to visit Napoleon at St. Cloud in 1802. He apparently charmed the First Consul, and was charmed by him. Napoleon raised hopes for William that he might have an important role in

5658-411: The stadtholder decided to flee to Britain, and his sons accompanied him. (On this last day in Holland his father relieved William honorably of his commands). The next day the Batavian Republic was proclaimed. Soon after the departure to Britain the hereditary prince went back to the continent, where his brother was assembling former members of the States Army in Osnabrück for a planned invasion into

5740-411: The surrender in the name of the stadtholder. Not all the local Dutch population, however, was pleased with the arrival of the prince. One local Orangist was even executed. The hoped-for popular uprising failed to materialise. After several minor battles the hereditary prince was forced to leave the country again after the Convention of Alkmaar . The mutineers of the Batavian fleet, with their ships, and

5822-586: The words parchment and vellum are interchangeable", a number of distinctions have been made in the past and present. The word "vellum" is borrowed from Old French vélin 'calfskin', derived in turn from the Latin word vitulinum 'made from calf'. However, in Europe, from Roman times, the word was used for the best quality of prepared skin, regardless of the animal from which the hide was obtained. Calf , sheep , and goat were all commonly used, and other animals, including pig, deer, donkey, horse, or camel were used on occasion. The best quality, "uterine vellum",

5904-524: Was King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 1815 until his abdication in 1840. Born as the son of William V, Prince of Orange , the last stadtholder of the Dutch Republic , and Wilhelmina of Prussia , William experienced significant political upheavals early in life. He fought against the French invasion during the Flanders campaign , and after the Batavian Revolution in 1795, his family went into exile. He briefly ruled

5986-630: Was economic progress. As he founded many trade institutions, his second nickname was the King-Merchant . In 1822, he founded the Algemeene Nederlandsche Maatschappij ter Begunstiging van de Volksvlijt , which would become one of the most important institutions of Belgium after its independence. Industry flourished, especially in the South. In 1817, he also founded three universities in the southern provinces, such as

6068-667: Was eventually used by the British in Ireland. When peace was concluded between Great Britain and the French Republic under First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte the Orange exiles were at their nadir. The Dutch Brigade was dissolved on 12 July 1802. Many members of the brigade went home to the Batavian Republic, thanks to an amnesty. The surrendered ships of the Batavian Navy were not returned, due to an agreement between

6150-558: Was finally defeated at the Battle of Fleurus . The French first entered Dutch Brabant which they dominated after the Battle of Boxtel . When in the winter of 1794–95 the rivers in the Rhine delta froze over, the French breached the southern Hollandic Water Line and the situation became militarily untenable. In many places Dutch revolutionaries took over the local government. After the Batavian Revolution in Amsterdam on 18 January 1795

6232-522: Was in the possession of the Geertekerk according to a note written by Joannes Lindeborne. Lindeborn was the pastor at St. Nicolaas and had been a student and rector at Vosmeer's seminary in Cologne. It is likely that Lindeborn brought the manuscript to Utrecht after the seminary was closed in 1683. In 1802, the Utrecht council member and archivist Petrus van Musschenbroek rediscovered the manuscript in

6314-711: Was inaugurated as sovereign prince in the New Church in Amsterdam on 30 March 1814. In August 1814, he was appointed Governor-General of the former Austrian Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège (more or less modern-day Belgium) by the Allied Powers who occupied that country, ruling them on behalf of Prussia. He was also made Grand Duke of Luxembourg , having received that territory in return for trading his hereditary German lands to Prussia and

6396-623: Was known as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands at the Congress of Vienna. The States General was divided into two chambers. The Eerste Kamer (First Chamber or Senate or House of Lords) was appointed by the king. The Tweede Kamer (Second Chamber or House of Representatives or House of Commons) was elected by the Provincial States, which were in turn chosen by census suffrage . The 110 seats were divided equally between

6478-553: Was retrospectively added by historians for descriptive purposes. Constitutional changes were initiated in 1840 because the terms which involved the United Kingdom of the Netherlands had to be removed. These constitutional changes also included the introduction of judicial ministerial responsibility . Although the policies remained uncontrolled by parliament, the prerogative was controllable now. The very conservative William could not live with these constitutional changes. This,

6560-493: Was said to be made from the skins of stillborn or unborn animals, although the term was also applied to fine quality skins made from young animals. However, there has long been much blurring of the boundaries between these terms. In 1519, William Horman could write in his Vulgaria : "That stouffe that we wrytte upon, and is made of beestis skynnes, is somtyme called parchement, somtyme velem, somtyme abortyve, somtyme membraan." Writing in 1936, Lee Ustick explained that: To-day

6642-510: Was the scribe's basic writing unit throughout the Middle Ages". Guidelines are then made on the membrane. They note " 'pricking' is the process of making holes in a sheet of parchment (or membrane) in preparation of its ruling. The lines were then made by ruling between the prick marks ...The process of entering ruled lines on the page to serve as a guide for entering text. Most manuscripts were ruled with horizontal lines that served as

6724-556: Was used for paintings, especially if they needed to be sent long distances, before canvas became widely used in about 1500, and continued to be used for drawings, and watercolours . Old master prints were sometimes printed on vellum, especially for presentation copies, until at least the seventeenth century. Limp vellum or limp-parchment bindings were used frequently in the 16th and 17th centuries, and were sometimes gilt but were also often not embellished . In later centuries vellum has been more commonly used like leather, that is, as

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