159-394: [REDACTED] The Eisenhower Doctrine was a policy enunciated by Dwight D. Eisenhower on January 5, 1957, within a "Special Message to the Congress on the Situation in the Middle East". Under the Eisenhower Doctrine, a Middle Eastern country could request American economic assistance or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression. Eisenhower singled out
318-439: A Republican from Kansas , took office following his landslide victory over Democratic nominee Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 presidential election . Four years later, in the 1956 presidential election , he defeated Stevenson again, to win re-election in a larger landslide. Eisenhower was limited to two terms and was succeeded by Democrat John F. Kennedy , who won the 1960 presidential election . Eisenhower held office during
477-859: A second crisis in 1958 would end in a similar fashion. During the first crisis, the United States and the ROC signed a mutual defense treaty , which committed the United States to the defense of Taiwan. The CIA also supported dissidents in the 1959 Tibetan uprising , but China crushed the uprising. By the end of 1954, the National Security Council, Joint Chiefs of Staff , and State Department had urged Eisenhower, on at least five occasions, to drop atomic bombs on China, but each time he refused. 1952 United States presidential election Harry S. Truman Democratic Dwight D. Eisenhower Republican A Presidential election
636-470: A "middle of the gutter approach" to politics. Truman repeatedly criticized Senator McCarthy's character and temperament and called on Eisenhower to repudiate him. Stevenson ridiculed right-wing Republicans "who hunt Communists in the Bureau of Wildlife and Fisheries while hesitating to aid the gallant men and women who are resisting the real thing in the front lines of Europe and Asia. ... They are finally
795-668: A Salt Lake City speech Stevenson stated that right-wing Republicans were "quick with accusations, with defamatory hints and whispering campaigns when they see a chance to scare or silence those with whom they disagree. Rudely, carelessly, they invade the field of thought, of conscience, which belongs to God, and not to Senators. ... McCarthy and men like him can say almost anything, and if my opponent's conscience permits, he can try to help all of them get reelected." Stevenson said that right-wing attacks on government officials such as General George Marshall , who had served Truman as US Secretary of State and US Secretary of Defense , reflected
954-622: A balanced budget over tax cuts. He played a major role in establishing the Interstate Highway System , a massive infrastructure project consisting of tens of thousands of miles of divided highways . After the launch of Sputnik 1 , Eisenhower signed the National Defense Education Act and presided over the creation of NASA . Eisenhower signed the first significant civil rights bill since the end of Reconstruction and although he didn't fully embrace
1113-695: A balanced ticket. Sparkman remained in the Senate until his retirement in 1978. The Eisenhower campaign was one of the first presidential campaigns to make a major and concerted effort to win the female vote. Many of his radio and television commercials discussed topics such as education, inflation, ending the Korean War, and other issues that were thought to appeal to women. The Eisenhower campaign made extensive use of female campaign workers, who made phone calls to likely Eisenhower voters, distributed "Ike" buttons and leaflets, and threw parties to build support for
1272-638: A base of support in the Midwest. The moderate Eastern Republicans were led by New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey , the party's presidential nominee in 1944 and 1948. The moderates tended to be interventionists who felt that the country needed to fight the Cold War overseas and confront the Soviet Union in Eurasia . They were also willing to accept most aspects of the social welfare state created by
1431-526: A betrayal. He had previously thought Eisenhower would make a good president but said that "he has betrayed almost everything I thought he stood for." Eisenhower retained his enormous personal popularity from his leading role in World War II , and huge crowds turned out to see him around the nation. His campaign slogan, " I Like Ike ", was one of the most popular in American history. Stevenson attracted
1590-577: A crusader against crime and corruption. The Gallup poll of February 15 showed Truman's weakness. Nationally, Truman was the choice of only 36% of Democrats, compared with 21% for Kefauver. Among independent voters, however, Truman had only 18%, and Kefauver led with 36%. In the New Hampshire primary , Kefauver upset Truman by winning 19,800 votes to Truman's 15,927 and capturing all eight delegates. Kefauver graciously said that he did not consider his victory "a repudiation of Administration policies, but
1749-611: A defensive alliance dedicated to preventing the spread of Communism in Southeast Asia . In September 1954, China began shelling the islands of Quemoy and Matsu which were controlled by the Republic of China (ROC). The shelling nearly escalated to nuclear war when Eisenhower considered using tactical nuclear weapons to prevent the invasion of Taiwan, the main island controlled by the ROC. The crisis ended when China halted its shelling and both sides agreed to diplomatic talks;
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#17327691998771908-522: A desire... for new ideas and personalities." Stung by that setback, however, Truman announced March 29 that he would not seek re-election. Truman insisted in his memoirs, however, that he had decided not to run for re-election well before his defeat to Kefauver. With Truman's withdrawal, Kefauver became the frontrunner for the nomination, and he won most of the primaries. Other primary winners were Senator Hubert Humphrey , who won his home state of Minnesota ; Senator Richard Russell Jr. from Georgia, who won
2067-502: A detailed account of his modest financial assets, and offered a glowing assessment of Eisenhower's candidacy. The highlight of the speech came when Nixon stated that a supporter had given his daughters a gift, a dog named Checkers, and that he would not return it because his daughters loved it. The "Checkers speech" led hundreds of thousands of citizens nationwide to wire the Republican National Committee to urge
2226-470: A difficult time appearing relaxed and at ease on camera. The television lighting was not flattering and made him look old and unattractive. In particular, his forehead tended to glisten under the lights. Eisenhower became upset when the CBS correspondent Dave Schoenbrun pointed that out and suggested him to try to alter his poses to make his forehead less noticeable and to apply makeup so that it would not shine from
2385-587: A distinguished family in Illinois and was well known as a gifted orator, intellectual, and political moderate. In the spring of 1952, Truman attempted to convince Stevenson to take the presidential nomination, but Stevenson stated that he wanted to run for re-election as Governor of Illinois. However, Stevenson never completely took himself out of the race, and as the convention approached, many party bosses and normally- apolitical citizens hoped that he could be "drafted" to run. The 1952 Democratic National Convention
2544-411: A gift—a dog named "Checkers"—and that he would not return it, because his daughters loved it. The public responded to the speech with an outpouring of support, and Eisenhower retained him on the ticket. Ultimately, the burden of the ongoing Korean War , Communist threat, and Truman administration scandals, as well as the popularity of Eisenhower, were too much for Stevenson to overcome. Eisenhower won
2703-603: A high priority on undermining Soviet influence on Eastern Europe, and escalated a propaganda war under the leadership of Charles Douglas Jackson . The United States dropped over 300,000 propaganda leaflets in Eastern Europe between 1951 and 1956, and Radio Free Europe sent broadcasts throughout the region. A 1953 uprising in East Germany briefly stoked the administration's hopes of a decline in Soviet influence, but
2862-464: A landslide victory, taking 55.2 percent of the popular vote and 442 electoral votes. Stevenson received 44.5 percent of the popular vote and 89 electoral votes. Eisenhower won every state outside of the South, as well as Virginia, Florida, and Texas, each of which voted Republican for just the second time since the end of Reconstruction . In the concurrent congressional elections, Republicans won control of
3021-563: A longtime bank president who also had extensive government experience, as the director of the Bureau of the Budget . He became the first budget director to be given cabinet-level status. Other Eisenhower cabinet selections provided patronage to political bases. Ezra Taft Benson , a high-ranking member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , was chosen as secretary of agriculture; he
3180-810: A possible nuclear war situation. Known as the Defense Resources Act, this legislative text entered the Congressional Record in 1983. According to page 182 (printed page) of the relevant pdf, the Act would authorize establishment of Censorship of Communications and other emergency federal powers: " Whenever the President shall deem that the public safety demands it, he may cause to be censored under such rules and regulations as he may from time to time establish, communications by mail, cable radio, television or other means of transmission crossing
3339-424: A powerful presidential contender who would field a competitive campaign. Stevenson concentrated on giving a series of thoughtful speeches around the nation. Although his style thrilled intellectuals and academics, some political experts wondered if he were speaking "over the heads" of most of his listeners, and they dubbed him an "egghead," based on his baldness and intellectual demeanor. His biggest liability however,
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#17327691998773498-470: A presidential candidate to the public in the same manner that one might sell a car or a brand of toothpaste. The liberal journalist Marya Mannes mocked the approach with this ditty: " Eisenhower hits the spot /One full general, that's a lot/Feeling sluggish, feeling sick?/Take a dose of Ike and Dick!/ Philip Morris , Lucky Strike / Alka Seltzer , I like Ike!" For his part, Stevenson would have nothing to do with television at all and condemned Eisenhower's use of
3657-455: A result, it became a standing joke that Eisenhower's inaugural Cabinet was composed of "nine millionaires and a plumber." Dissatisfied with Eisenhower's labor policies, Durkin resigned after less than a year in office, and was replaced by James P. Mitchell . Eisenhower suffered a major political defeat when his nomination of Lewis Strauss as a later Secretary of Commerce was defeated in the U.S. Senate in 1959, in part due to Strauss's role in
3816-555: A strategy of nuclear deterrence based upon the triad of land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), strategic bombers , and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower insisted on having plans to retaliate , fight, and win a nuclear war against the Soviets, although he hoped he would never feel forced to use such weapons. As the fighting in Korea ended, Eisenhower sharply reduced
3975-454: A strong American role in stemming the expansion of Communism. Eisenhower adopted much of the rhetoric and positions of the contemporary GOP, and many of his public statements were designed to win over conservative supporters of Taft. A potentially devastating allegation hit when Nixon was accused by several newspapers of receiving $ 18,000 in undeclared "gifts" from wealthy California donors. Eisenhower and his aides considered dropping Nixon from
4134-588: A temporary partition of Vietnam; the country was divided into a Communist northern half (under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh ) and a non-Communist southern half (under the leadership of Ngo Dinh Diem ). Despite some doubts about the strength of Diem's government, the Eisenhower administration directed aid to the South in the hopes of creating a bulwark against further Communist expansion. With Eisenhower's approval, Diem refused to hold elections which had been scheduled for 1956 to re-unify Vietnam in contravention of
4293-779: The 1953 Iranian coup d'état (or Operation Ajax). Rumors of Soviet subversion had surfaced due to the nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company . Historian Ervand Abrahamian states that Iran's oil was the central focus of the coup, for both the British and the U.S., though "much of the discourse at the time linked it to the Cold War." The CIA also instigated the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état (or Operation PBSuccess). President Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán 's ambitious agrarian reform program attempted to grant land to millions of landless peasants. This program threatened
4452-589: The American Legion , a bastion of hardline conservatism, and boldly declared that there was nothing patriotic or American about what McCarthy was doing. Even with the dignified nature of the campaign, the dislike between the two candidates was visible. Stevenson criticized Eisenhower's noncondemnation of McCarthy and his use of television spots, and Eisenhower, who had initially respected Stevenson, came in time to view him as simply another career politician, which he strongly disliked. The 1952 election campaign
4611-561: The Central Intelligence Agency to engage in covert actions, such as the 1953 Iranian coup d'état and the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état . In domestic affairs, Eisenhower supported a policy of modern Republicanism that occupied a middle ground between liberal Democrats and the conservative wing of the Republican Party. Eisenhower continued New Deal programs, expanded Social Security , and prioritized
4770-403: The Cold War , a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union . Eisenhower's New Look policy stressed the importance of nuclear weapons as a deterrent to military threats, and the United States built up a stockpile of nuclear weapons and nuclear weapons delivery systems during Eisenhower's presidency. Soon after taking office, Eisenhower negotiated an end to
4929-635: The Katangan authorities, including Mobutu Sese Seko and Joseph Kasa-Vubu , received money and weapons directly from the CIA. In January 1953, Senator John W. Bricker of Ohio re-introduced the Bricker Amendment , which would limit the president's treaty making power and ability to enter into executive agreements with foreign nations. Fears that the steady stream of post-World War II-era international treaties and executive agreements entered into by
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5088-739: The Korean War , resulting in the partition of Korea . Following the Suez Crisis , Eisenhower promulgated the Eisenhower Doctrine , strengthening U.S. commitments in the Middle East . In response to the Cuban Revolution , the Eisenhower administration broke ties with Cuba and began preparations for an invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles, eventually resulting in the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion . Eisenhower also allowed
5247-528: The Korean War , which had begun on June 25, 1950, when North Korea invaded South Korea . The U.S. had joined the war to prevent the fall of South Korea, later expanding the mission to include victory over the Communist regime in North Korea. The intervention of Chinese forces in late 1950 led to a protracted stalemate around the 38th parallel north . Truman had begun peace talks in mid-1951, but
5406-579: The New Deal in the 1930s but sought to reform the programs to be more efficient and business-friendly. The moderates were also concerned with ending the Republicans' losing streak in presidential elections and felt that the popular Eisenhower had the best chance of beating the Democrats. For that reason, Dewey declined the notion of a third run for president despite his large amount of support within
5565-810: The New Hampshire primary in which his supporters wrote his name onto the ballot and gave him an upset victory over Taft. However, until the Republican National Convention, the primaries were divided fairly evenly between the two, and when the convention opened, the race for the nomination was still too close to call. Taft won the Nebraska, Wisconsin, Illinois, and South Dakota primaries, and Eisenhower won those in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts and Oregon. Stassen and Warren won only their home states of Minnesota and California respectively, which effectively ended their chances of earning
5724-638: The Oppenheimer security hearing . Eisenhower, who disliked partisan politics and politicians, left much of the building and sustaining of the Republican Party to Vice President Nixon. Eisenhower knew how ill-prepared Vice President Truman had been on major issues such as the atomic bomb when he suddenly became president in 1945, and therefore made sure to keep Nixon fully involved in the administration. He gave Nixon multiple diplomatic, domestic, and political assignments so that he "evolved into one of Ike's most valuable subordinates." The office of vice president
5883-535: The Soviet threat in his doctrine by authorizing the commitment of U.S. forces "to secure and protect the territorial integrity and political independence of such nations, requesting such aid against overt armed aggression from any nation controlled by international communism ." The phrase "international communism" made the doctrine much broader than simply responding to Soviet military action. A danger that could be linked to communists of any nation could conceivably invoke
6042-585: The Supreme Court 's landmark desegregation ruling in the 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education , he did enforce the Court's ruling. Eisenhower maintained positive approval ratings throughout his tenure, but the launch of Sputnik 1 and a poor economy contributed to Republican losses in the 1958 elections . His preferred successor, Vice President Richard Nixon , won the Republican nomination but
6201-451: The Truman administration ) left Truman at a low political ebb. Polls showed that he had a 66% disapproval rating , a record that would be matched only decades later by Richard Nixon and surpassed by George W. Bush . Truman's main opponent was the populist Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver , who had chaired a nationally televised investigation of organized crime in 1951 and was known as
6360-645: The United Kingdom . This was the first experiment at sharing strategic nuclear weapons in NATO and led to other placements abroad of American nuclear weapons. Critics at the time, led by Democratic Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts levied charges to the effect that there was a " missile gap ", that is, the U.S. had fallen militarily behind the Soviets because of their lead in space. Historians now discount those allegations, although they agree that Eisenhower did not effectively respond to his critics. In fact,
6519-728: The Western European Union to coordinate European defense. In response to the integration of West Germany into NATO, Eastern bloc leaders established the Warsaw Pact . Austria , which had been jointly-occupied by the Soviet Union and the Western powers, regained its sovereignty with the 1955 Austrian State Treaty . As part of the arrangement that ended the occupation, Austria declared its neutrality after gaining independence. The Eisenhower administration placed
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6678-638: The rollback of Soviet influence was a long-term goal, but that NATO would not provoke war with the Soviet Union. Peace would be maintained by being so much stronger in terms of atomic weapons than the USSR that it would never risk using its much larger land-based army to attack Western Europe. He planned for to mobilize psychological insights, CIA intelligence and American scientific technological superiority counter conventional Soviet forces. After Joseph Stalin died in March 1953, Georgy Malenkov took leadership of
6837-531: The "full independence" of Eastern European nations, and United Nations control of atomic energy. Though well received in the West, the Soviet leadership viewed Eisenhower's speech as little more than propaganda. In 1954, a more confrontational leader, Nikita Khrushchev , took charge in the Soviet Union. Eisenhower became increasingly skeptical of the possibility of cooperation with the Soviet Union after it refused to support his Atoms for Peace proposal, which called for
6996-403: The 1952 campaign concerned a scandal that emerged when Richard Nixon, Eisenhower's running mate, was accused by several newspapers of receiving $ 18,000 in undeclared "gifts" from wealthy donors. In reality, contributions were by design only from early supporters and limited to $ 1,000, with full accountability. Nixon, who had been accusing the Democrats of hiding corruption, suddenly found himself on
7155-738: The Attorney General, Herbert Brownell, usually in consultation with the state's senators. The administration appointed 45 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , and 129 judges to the United States district courts . Since nearly all were appointed to serve specific geographical area, their regional origins matched the national population. All were white men. Most judges had an upper-middle-class background. One in five attended an Ivy League undergraduate college; half attended an Ivy League law school. Party affiliation
7314-571: The CEO of General Motors , was Eisenhower's first secretary of defense. In 1957, he was replaced by president of Procter & Gamble , Neil H. McElroy . For the position of secretary of the treasury, Ike selected George M. Humphrey , the CEO of several steel and coal companies. His postmaster general, Arthur E. Summerfield , and first secretary of the interior, Douglas McKay , were both automobile distributors. Former senator Sinclair Weeks became Secretary of Commerce. Eisenhower appointed Joseph Dodge ,
7473-731: The Cold War and anti-communist position led Eisenhower to build a trade and military alliance with the Spanish through the Pact of Madrid . These relations brought an end to Spain's isolation after World War II, which in turn led to a Spanish economic boom known as the Spanish miracle . After the end of World War II, the Việt Minh launched an insurrection against the French-backed State of Vietnam . Seeking to support France and prevent
7632-650: The Congo , and his acceptance of Soviet support during the Congo Crisis , the CIA saw "another possible Cuba." This view swayed the White House. President Eisenhower discussed plans at a National Security Council meeting on August 18, 1960, to assassinate Lumumba. However, the plot to poison him was abandoned. Declassified documents indicate that the Congolese leaders who overthrew Lumumba and transferred him to
7791-716: The Florida primary, and the diplomat W. Averell Harriman , who won West Virginia. However, most states still chose their delegates to the Democratic Convention by state conventions, which meant that the party bosses, especially the mayors and governors of large Northern and Midwestern states and cities, were able to choose the Democratic nominee. The bosses, including Truman himself, strongly disliked Kefauver since his investigations of organized crime had revealed connections between American Mafia figures and many of
7950-487: The General. I doubt that America will entrust its future, its hopes, to the master of a house divided against itself." Stevenson, Truman, and other Democrats campaigning that fall also criticized Senators Joseph McCarthy , William E. Jenner , and other right-wing Republicans for what they believed were reckless and unwarranted attacks and congressional investigations into leading government officials and public servants. In
8109-525: The House of Representatives and the Senate. Eisenhower entered the White House with a strong background in organizing complex operations (such as the invasion of Europe in 1944). More than any previous president he paid attention to improving staff performance and defining duties. He paid special attention to having a powerful Chief of Staff in Sherman Adams , a former governor. Eisenhower delegated
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#17327691998778268-497: The Korean War. Eisenhower, while accepting the doctrine of containment, sought to counter the Soviet Union through more active means as detailed in the State-Defense report NSC 68 . The Eisenhower administration and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) used covert action to interfere with governments abroad. An early use of covert action was against the elected Prime Minister of Iran , Mohammed Mosaddeq , resulting in
8427-636: The New Deal, regarding these programs as diminishing individual liberty and economic freedom. Taft had unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination in the 1940 and 1948 presidential elections but lost both times to moderate candidates from New York: Wilkie and Dewey respectively. At the age of 63, Taft felt that it was his last chance to run for president so his friends and supporters, encompassing many party regulars, worked diligently on his behalf. His feelings were correct, as he died about nine months after
8586-496: The Northeast and Midwest. The fight for the Republican nomination was between General Dwight D. Eisenhower , who became the candidate of the party's moderate Eastern Establishment ; Senator Robert A. Taft from Ohio, the longtime leader of the party's conservative wing; Governor Earl Warren of California, who appealed to Western delegates and independent voters; and former Governor Harold Stassen of Minnesota, who still had
8745-501: The Office of War Resources. A 2010 publication confirms the Office of War Resources plan. The selection and appointment of these administrator-designates was classified Top Secret . In an emergency, each administrator was to take charge of a specifically activated agency to maintain the continuity of government . Named to the group were: Research in 2024 subsequently revealed the existence of standby emergency legislation to be used in
8904-451: The PRC full status in the international community, pursuant to the view that making any concessions would strengthen the PRC. Eisenhower held office during a period in which both the United States and the Soviet Union developed nuclear stockpiles theoretically capable of destroying not just each other, but all life on Earth. The United States had tested the first atomic bomb in 1945, and both
9063-560: The Republican Convention in July, Reeves believed that the general's words were "powerful" but "unfocused" and "all over the map". Eisenhower's public speeches were even worse since he was unable to make his point to the voting public in a clear intelligible manner. Reeves felt that Eisenhower needed to condense his message down to a few simple easily-digestible slogans. Eisenhower at first also fared poorly on television and had
9222-468: The Republican Party to keep Nixon on the ticket, and Eisenhower stayed with him. Despite the red-baiting of the Republicans' right wing, the campaign on the whole was conducted with a considerable degree of dignity, and Stevenson was seen as reinvigorating a Democratic Party that had become exhausted after 20 years in power and as refreshing its appeal with younger voters. He accused Eisenhower of silently tolerating McCarthy's excesses. Stevenson went before
9381-454: The Republican ticket in their neighborhoods. On election day, Eisenhower won a solid majority of the female vote. Eisenhower campaigned by attacking "Korea, Communism, and Corruption", issues that the Republicans regarded as the failures of the outgoing Truman administration to solve. The Eisenhower campaign accused the administration of "neglecting Latin America" and thus "leading them into
9540-488: The South. The Midwest was a bastion of conservatism and isolationist sentiment. Dislike of Europeans, in particular the British, was common, and there was a widespread feeling that the British manipulated American foreign policy and were eager to kowtow to the Soviet Union, although such attitudes had begun to change among the younger generation who had fought in World War II. In addition, the conservatives opposed much of
9699-401: The Soviet Union did not deploy ICBMs until after Eisenhower left office, and the U.S. retained an overall advantage in nuclear weaponry. Eisenhower was aware of the American advantage in ICBM development because of intelligence gathered by U-2 planes , which had begun flying over the Soviet Union in 1956. The administration decided the best way to minimize the proliferation of nuclear weapons
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#17327691998779858-455: The Soviet Union. Malenkov proposed a "peaceful coexistence" with the West, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill proposed a summit of the world leaders. Fearing that the summit would delay the rearmament of West Germany , and skeptical of Malenkov's intentions, Eisenhower rejected the summit idea. In April, Eisenhower delivered his " Chance for Peace speech ," in which he called for an armistice in Korea, free elections to re-unify Germany,
10017-467: The Soviet Union: Eisenhower knew that the United States had many other assets that could be translated into influence over the Soviet bloc—its democratic values and institutions, its rich and competitive capitalist economy, its intelligence technology and skills in obtaining information as to the enemy's capabilities and intentions, its psychological warfare and covert operations capabilities, its negotiating skills, and its economic and military assistance to
10176-430: The Soviets. On the regional level, the doctrine's intent was to provide the independent Arab regimes with an alternative to Nasser's political control, strengthening them while isolating communist influence through Nasser's isolation. It largely failed on that front, with Nasser's power quickly rising by 1959 to when he could shape the leadership outcomes in neighboring Arab countries such as Iraq and Saudi Arabia ; in
10335-418: The Suez Crisis lead to the collapse of British and French influence in the Middle East, spawning fears of Soviet domination made more credible by Nasser's increasingly pro-Soviet disposition. The Eisenhower Doctrine was a backflip against the previous policy; the U.S. now had the burden of military action in the Middle East to itself. The doctrine was not successfully applied in that year's crisis in Syria but
10494-415: The Supreme Court for just five years before resigning. The fifth and final Supreme Court vacancy of Eisenhower's tenure arose in 1958 due to the retirement of Harold Burton . Eisenhower successfully nominated federal appellate judge Potter Stewart to succeed Burton, and Stewart became a centrist on the court. Eisenhower paid attention to Supreme Court appointments. Other judicial nominees were selected by
10653-577: The Supreme Court. Eisenhower hoped that the appointment of Brennan, a liberal-leaning Catholic, would boost his own re-election campaign. Opposition from Senator Joseph McCarthy and others delayed Brennan's confirmation, so Eisenhower placed Brennan on the court via a recess appointment in 1956; the Senate confirmed Brennan's nomination in early 1957. Brennan joined Warren as a leader of the court's liberal bloc. Stanley Reed 's retirement in 1957 created another vacancy, and Eisenhower nominated federal appellate judge Charles Evans Whittaker , who would serve on
10812-530: The Taft delegates in those states and replace them with Eisenhower delegates and called the proposal "Fair Play." Although Taft and his supporters angrily denied that charge, the convention voted to support Fair Play 658 to 548, and Taft lost many Southern delegates. Eisenhower's chances were boosted when several uncommitted state delegations, such as Michigan and Pennsylvania, decided to support him and also when Stassen released his delegates and asked them to support Eisenhower. The removal of many Southern delegates and
10971-408: The Third World. In 1953, the Eisenhower administration's National Security Council wrote three policy papers on opposing the People's Republic of China. NSC 146 proposed backing Republic of China maritime raids and raids against the Chinese mainland. NSC 148 proposed to foster and support anti-communist Chinese elements both inside and outside of the country. NSC 166 proposed strategies to deny
11130-401: The U.S. protested against the conduct of their allies during the Suez War, Eisenhower thought that the strong position needed to better the situation was further complicated by the positions taken by Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser , who was rapidly building a power base and using it to play the Soviets and Americans against each other, taking a position of "positive neutrality" and accepting aid from
11289-462: The U.S. were undermining the nation's sovereignty united isolationists, conservative Democrats, most Republicans, and numerous professional groups and civic organizations behind the amendment. Believing that the amendment would weaken the president to such a degree that it would be impossible for the U.S. to exercise leadership on the global stage, Eisenhower worked with Senate Minority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson to defeat Bricker's proposal. Although
11448-572: The USSR quickly crushed the insurrection. In 1956, a major uprising broke out in Hungary . After Hungarian leader Imre Nagy promised the establishment of a multiparty democracy and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev dispatched 60,000 soldiers into Hungary to crush the rebellion. The United States strongly condemned the military response but did not take direct action, disappointing many Hungarian revolutionaries. After
11607-539: The United States ." Eisenhower appointed five justices of the Supreme Court of the United States . In 1953, Eisenhower nominated Governor Earl Warren to succeed Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson . Many conservative Republicans opposed Warren's nomination, but they were unable to block the appointment, and Warren's nomination was approved by the Senate in January 1954. Warren presided over a court that generated numerous liberal rulings on various topics, beginning in 1954 with
11766-498: The United States, North Korea, and China agreed to the Korean Armistice Agreement , ending the Korean War. Historian Edward C. Keefer says that in accepting the American demands that POWs could refuse to return to their home country, "China and North Korea still swallowed the bitter pill, probably forced down in part by the atomic ultimatum." Historian William I. Hitchcock writes that the key factors in reaching
11925-663: The United States. The Taft forces put up a strong fight in the remaining primaries, and, by the time of the July 1952 Republican National Convention , it was still unclear whether Taft or Eisenhower would win the presidential nomination. When the 1952 Republican National Convention opened in Chicago , Eisenhower's managers accused Taft of "stealing" delegate votes in Southern states, claiming that Taft's allies had unfairly denied delegate spots to Eisenhower supporters and put Taft delegates in their place. Lodge and Dewey proposed to evict
12084-473: The alleged failures of the Truman administration: "Korea, Communism, and corruption." In addition to the speeches, he got his message out to voters through 30-second television advertisements; this was the first presidential election in which television played a major role. In domestic policy, Eisenhower attacked the growing influence of the federal government in the economy, while in foreign affairs, he supported
12243-652: The amendment started out with 56 co-sponsors, it went down to defeat in the U.S. Senate in 1954 on 42–50 vote. Later in 1954, a watered-down version of the amendment missed the required two-thirds majority in the Senate by one vote. This episode proved to be the last hurrah for the isolationist Republicans, as younger conservatives increasingly turned to an internationalism based on aggressive anti-communism, typified by Senator Barry Goldwater . Eisenhower sought troop reductions in Europe by sharing of defense responsibilities with NATO allies. Europeans, however, never quite trusted
12402-524: The armistice were the exhaustion of North Korean forces and the desire of the Soviet leaders (who exerted pressure on China) to avoid nuclear war. The armistice led to decades of uneasy peace between North Korea and South Korea. The United States and South Korea signed a defensive treaty in October 1953, and the U.S. would continue to station thousands of soldiers in South Korea long after the end of
12561-488: The arms of wily Communist agents waiting to exploit local misery and capitalize on any opening to communize the Americas." Charges that Soviet spies had infiltrated the government plagued the Truman administration and became a "major campaign issue" for Eisenhower. The Republicans blamed the Democrats for the military's failure to be fully prepared to fight in Korea, accused the Democrats of harboring communist spies within
12720-610: The big-city Democratic political organizations. The party bosses thus viewed Kefauver as a maverick who could not be trusted and so refused to support him for the nomination. Instead, with Truman taking the initiative, they began to search for other more acceptable candidates. However, most of the other candidates had a major weakness. Russell had much Southern support, but his support of racial segregation and his opposition to civil rights for blacks led many liberal Northern and Midwestern delegates, pressed by their many black voters, to reject him. Truman favored Harriman of New York, but
12879-423: The blame from a hostile foreign press. Eisenhower often relied upon him for advice about public opinion, and how to phrase complex issues. Hagerty had a reputation for supporting civil rights initiatives. Historian Robert Hugh Ferrell considered him to be the best press secretary in presidential history, because he "organized the presidency for the single innovation in press relations that has itself almost changed
13038-605: The borders of the United States which for the purposes of this section shall include territories and possessions, the Canal Zone, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the Trust Territories and other areas under the jurisdiction of the United States, or communications which may be carried by any vessel, airplane or other means of transportation bound to or from any foreign country and touching at any port or place of
13197-413: The boss of the Illinois delegation, Stevenson finally agreed to enter his name as a candidate for the nomination. The party bosses from other large Northern and Midwestern states quickly joined in support. Kefauver led on the first ballot, but he had far fewer votes than necessary to win. Stevenson gradually gained strength until he was nominated on the third ballot. After the delegates nominated Stevenson,
13356-606: The cabinet, Eisenhower selected Sherman Adams as White House Chief of Staff , and Milton S. Eisenhower , the president's brother and a prominent college administrator, emerged as an important adviser. Eisenhower also elevated the role of the National Security Council , and designated Robert Cutler to serve as the first National Security Advisor . Eisenhower sought out leaders of big business for many of his other cabinet appointments. Charles Erwin Wilson ,
13515-604: The campaign that he would like to get on the Stevenson campaign trail "with a club and make a good and loyal American" out of Stevenson. Neither Stevenson nor Sparkman had been a part of the Truman administration, and both largely ignored its record, preferred to hark back to the Roosevelt's New Deal achievements, and warned against a repetition of the Great Depression under President Herbert Hoover if Eisenhower
13674-599: The causal factors, but according to historian Stephen M. Streeter, CIA documents show the United Fruit Company played no major role in Eisenhower's decision, that the Eisenhower administration did not need to be forced into the action by any lobby groups, and that Soviet influence in Guatemala was minimal. In the election of Patrice Lumumba as Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of
13833-750: The conditions his administration agreed to at the Geneva Conference. In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of U.S. military advisors in South Vietnam to 900. Eisenhower's commitment in South Vietnam was part of a broader program to contain China and the Soviet Union in East Asia. In 1954, the United States and seven other countries created the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO),
13992-480: The convention then turned to selecting a vice-presidential nominee. After narrowing it down to Senators John Sparkman , and A. S. Mike Monroney , President Truman and a small group of political insiders chose Sparkman, a conservative segregationist from Alabama, for the nomination. The convention largely complied and nominated Sparkman as Stevenson's running mate. He was chosen because of his Southern identity and conservative record, which party leaders hoped would create
14151-710: The creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency and the creation of peaceful nuclear power plants. Eisenhower unveiled the New Look , his first national security policy, on October 30, 1953. It reflected his concern for balancing the Cold War military commitments of the United States with the risk of overwhelming the nation's financial resources. The new policy emphasized reliance on strategic nuclear weapons , rather than conventional military power, to deter both conventional and nuclear military threats. The U.S. military developed
14310-422: The defensive. Eisenhower and his aides even considered dropping Nixon from the ticket and picking Senator William Knowland as a replacement running mate. Eisenhower, who barely knew Nixon, waffled and refused to comment on the incident. Nixon saved his political career, however, with a dramatic half-hour speech, the " Checkers speech ", on live television. In this speech, Nixon denied the charges against him, gave
14469-656: The desegregation case of Brown v. Board of Education . Eisenhower approved of the Brown decision. Robert H. Jackson 's death in late 1954 generated another vacancy on the Supreme Court, and Eisenhower successfully nominated federal appellate judge John Marshall Harlan II to succeed Jackson. Harlan joined the conservative bloc on the bench, often supporting the position of Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter . After Sherman Minton resigned in 1956, Eisenhower nominated state supreme court justice William J. Brennan to
14628-724: The development of the UGM-27 Polaris missile, which was capable of being launched from submarines, and continued funding for long-range bombers like the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress . In January 1956 the United States Air Force began developing the Thor , a 1,500 miles (2,400 km) Intermediate-range ballistic missile . The program proceeded quickly, and beginning in 1958 the first of 20 Royal Air Force Thor squadrons became operational in
14787-595: The doctrine. Most Arabs regarded the doctrine as a transparent ploy to promote Western influence in the Middle East by restraining Nasser's brand of Arab nationalism that opposed Western domination, and some like the Syrians publicly denounced the initiative as an insidious example of U.S. imperialism . Following the 1958 crisis in Lebanon and accusations by U.S. senators of exaggerating the threat of communism to
14946-472: The election. Warren, although highly popular in California, refused to campaign in the presidential primaries, which limited his chances of winning the nomination. He retained the support of the California delegation, and his supporters hoped that in the event of an Eisenhower–Taft deadlock, Warren might emerge as a compromise candidate. After being persuaded to run , Eisenhower scored a major victory in
15105-484: The electorate from its desire to repudiate 'Trumanism'." Eisenhower's goal to unite the Republican Party for the fall campaign led him to campaign with and endorse several Republicans with whom he was uncomfortable. In particular, he resented having to endorse Senator William Jenner's reelection campaign when campaigning in Indianapolis, due to Jenner's accusations against George Marshall as being "a living lie" who
15264-403: The electorate from its desire to repudiate 'Trumanism.' Republican strategy during the fall campaign focused on Eisenhower's unrivaled popularity. Ike traveled to 45 of the 48 states ; his heroic image and plain talk excited the large crowds who heard him speak from the campaign train's rear platform . In his speeches, Eisenhower never mentioned Stevenson by name, instead relentlessly attacking
15423-604: The end, Eisenhower narrowly defeated Taft on the first ballot. To heal the wounds caused by the battle, he visited Taft's hotel suite and met with him. Taft issued a brief statement congratulating Eisenhower on his victory, but he was bitter about the accusation that he had stolen delegates and withheld his active support for Eisenhower for several weeks after the convention. In September 1952, Taft and Eisenhower met again at Morningside Heights , in New York City . Taft promised there an active support of Eisenhower in exchange for
15582-473: The entire campaign, Eisenhower led in all opinion polls and by wide margins in most of them. To circumvent the local Republican Party organizations, which were mostly controlled by Taft supporters, the Eisenhower forces created a nationwide network of grassroots clubs, "Citizens for Eisenhower". Independents and Democrats were welcome, as the group specialized in canvassing neighborhoods and holding small-group meetings. Citizens for Eisenhower hoped to revitalize
15741-637: The fall of Vietnam to Communism, the U.S. played a major role in financing French military operations in Vietnam. By 1954, the Eisenhower administration was paying more than 75 percent of the France's military expenditures in the First Indochina War . The French requested U.S. aid in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu , which proved to be the climactic battle of the war. Seeking to rally public support for
15900-469: The federal government, and criticized the Truman administration for the many officials who had been accused of various crimes. Stevenson hoped to exploit the rift between the conservative Taft Republicans and the moderate Eisenhower Republicans. In a speech in Baltimore, Stevenson said, "The GOP elephant has two heads nowadays, and I can't tell from day to day who's driving the poor beast, Senator Taft or
16059-410: The first president to conduct a televised news conference . Reporters found performance at press conferences as awkward. Some concluded mistakenly that he was ill-informed or merely a figurehead. At times, he was able to use his reputation to deliberately obfuscate his position on difficult subjects. His press secretary , James Hagerty , was known for providing much more detail on the lifestyle of
16218-406: The four states which Strom Thurmond had won at the previous election, but lost all but five of the states that Truman had won that year. Eisenhower took three Southern states that the Republicans had won only once since Reconstruction : Virginia, Florida, and Texas. Despite the Republican win in Florida, that year was the last time that a Democrat has won Collier County before southwestern Florida
16377-553: The fulfillment of a number of requests such as a demand that Eisenhower would offer Taft's followers a fair share of patronage positions if he won the election and that Eisenhower would agree to balance the federal budget and "fight creeping domestic socialism in every field." Eisenhower agreed to the terms, and Taft campaigned assiduously for the Republican ticket. In fact, Eisenhower and Taft agreed on most domestic issues, and their disagreements were primarily on foreign policy. Though there were initial suggestions that Warren could earn
16536-486: The general election. Despite not earning the presidential or the vice-presidential nomination, Warren would be appointed as Chief Justice of the United States in October 1953, and Stassen would hold various positions within Eisenhower's administration. The balloting at the Republican convention went as follows: The expected candidate for the Democratic nomination was the incumbent President Harry S. Truman. Since
16695-544: The idea of nuclear deterrence and were reluctant to shift away from NATO into a proposed European Defence Community (EDC). Like Truman, Eisenhower believed that the rearmament of West Germany was vital to NATO's strategic interests. The administration backed an arrangement , devised by Churchill and British Foreign Minister Anthony Eden , in which West Germany was rearmed and became a fully sovereign member of NATO in return for promises to not establish atomic, biological, or chemical weapons programs. European leaders also created
16854-474: The intervention, Eisenhower espoused the domino theory , which held that the fall of Vietnam would lead to the fall of other countries to communism. Congress refused to endorse intervention without the participation of Britain and a pledge from France to grant independence for Vietnam. The French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu on May 7, 1954. At the contemporaneous Geneva Conference , Dulles convinced Chinese and Soviet leaders to pressure Viet Minh leaders to accept
17013-664: The issue of North Korean and Chinese prisoners remained a sticking point. Over 40,000 prisoners from the two countries refused repatriation, but North Korea and China nonetheless demanded their return. Upon taking office, Eisenhower demanded a solution, warning China that he would use nuclear weapons if the war continued. Whether China was informed of the potential for nuclear force is unknown. South Korean leader Syngman Rhee attempted to derail peace negotiations by releasing North Korean prisoners who refused repatriation, but Rhee agreed to accept an armistice after Eisenhower threatened to withdraw all U.S. forces from Korea. On July 27, 1953,
17172-478: The land holdings of the United Fruit Company . American fears heightened when Arbenz purchased weapons from Communist Czechoslovakia. In June 1954, the CIA helped counterrevolutionaries remove Arbenz from power. The CIA then orchestrated a series of power transfers that ended with the confirmation of Carlos Castillo Armas as president in July 1954. Critics have produced conspiracy theories about
17331-399: The last until Donald Trump in 2016 that the Republicans won Pacific County, Washington , or Swift County, Minnesota . It was the last time the Republicans won Missouri until 1968 and the last time that a Republican won the election without Kentucky. Stevenson's 700-vote win was the smallest percentage margin in any state since Woodrow Wilson had won New Hampshire by 56 votes in 1916. Of
17490-596: The latter had never held an elective office and was inexperienced in politics. Truman next turned to Vice President Alben W. Barkley but at 74, he was rejected as being too old by leaders of labor unions . Other minor or favorite son candidates included Oklahoma Senator Robert S. Kerr , Massachusetts Governor Paul A. Dever , Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey, and Arkansas Senator J. William Fulbright . One candidate soon emerged who seemingly had few political weaknesses, Governor Adlai Stevenson of Illinois. The grandson of former Vice President Adlai E. Stevenson , he came from
17649-399: The lighting. Eventually, he gave in and agreed to those modifications. Reeves also wanted Eisenhower to not wear his eyeglasses on camera to look younger, but since he could not read the prompter board without them, Reeves devised a large handwritten signboard. Reeves's television work, although pioneering, was the subject of considerable criticism on the grounds that he was attempting to sell
17808-421: The meantime, his relationship with the Soviet leaders deteriorated, allowing the U.S. to switch to a policy of accommodation. The administration also saw the Middle East as being critical for future foreign policy regarding the United States and its allies. The region contains a large percentage of the world's oil reserves needed by the allies. Eisenhower's protests against longtime allies—Britain and France—during
17967-449: The medium by calling it "selling the presidency like cereal". He made a point of the fact that he did not watch or even own a television, and the same for went many members of his inner circle. Both campaigns made use of television ads. A notable ad for Eisenhower was an issue-free feel-good animated cartoon with a soundtrack song by Irving Berlin called "I Like Ike". For the first time, a presidential candidate's personal medical history
18126-513: The men who seemingly believe that we can confound the Kremlin by frightening ourselves to death." In return, McCarthy often jokingly confused the names Adlai and Alger, the first name of the convicted Soviet spy Alger Hiss , by stating "Alger, I mean Adlai" in his speeches. McCarthy exploited the fact that Stevenson had defended Hiss as innocent despite all of the evidence otherwise. McCarthy, in response to Stevenson's criticisms, also stated during
18285-401: The moderate and conservative wings was so severe that it was feared that party's conservatives would run Taft as a third-party candidate. Eisenhower had apparently given little thought to choosing his running mate. When asked, he replied that he assumed the convention would pick someone. The spot ultimately fell to the young California Senator Richard Nixon , who was viewed as a centrist. Nixon
18444-600: The nature of the nation's highest office in recent decades." As early as 1956, per a memo on page 256 of a 2021 book, Eisenhower established emergency administrators in the event of a national crisis, such as a nuclear attack. The formerly classified memo, "Wartime Structure of the Executive Branch," specifies an Office of War Resources directly under the president, including a War Communications Administration and formerly undisclosed Office for Free World Cooperation. The memo does not specify person(s) selected to head
18603-456: The newcomers with suspicion and hostility. More significantly, activism in support of Eisenhower did not translate into enthusiasm for the party's cause. On election day, Eisenhower won a decisive victory by winning over 55% of the popular vote and carrying 39 of the 48 states. Stevenson did not win a single state north of the Mason–Dixon line or west of Arkansas; he did succeed in winning back
18762-499: The newly passed 22nd Amendment did not apply to whoever was president at the time of its passage, he was eligible to run again. However, Truman entered 1952 with his popularity plummeting, according to polls. The bloody and indecisive Korean War was dragging into its third year, Senator Joseph McCarthy 's anti-communist crusade was stirring public fears of an encroaching "Red Menace", and the disclosure of widespread corruption among federal employees (including some high-level members of
18921-541: The nomination actively. In January 1952, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. announced that Eisenhower's name would be entered in the March New Hampshire primary , even though he had not yet officially entered the race. The result in New Hampshire was a solid Eisenhower victory with 46,661 votes to 35,838 for Taft and 6,574 for Stassen. In April, Eisenhower resigned from his NATO command and returned to
19080-411: The nomination. Taft led the conservative wing of the party, which rejected many of the New Deal social welfare programs created in the 1930s and supported a noninterventionist foreign policy. Taft had been a candidate for the Republican nomination twice before but had been defeated both times by moderate Republicans from New York: Wendell Willkie in 1940 and Thomas E. Dewey in 1948. Dewey,
19239-836: The nomination. General Douglas MacArthur also won the support of ten delegates from various states (mostly in Oregon) but had made it clear from early in the race that he had no interest in being nominated. When the 1952 Republican National Convention opened in Chicago, most political experts rated Taft and Eisenhower as about equal in delegate vote totals. Eisenhower's managers, led by both Dewey and Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. , accused Taft of "stealing" delegate votes in Southern states such as Texas and Georgia, and claimed that Taft's leaders in those states had unfairly denied delegate spots to Eisenhower supporters, putting Taft delegates in their place. Lodge and Dewey proposed to evict
19398-476: The party by expanding its activist ranks and by supporting moderate and internationalist policies. It did not endorse candidates other than Eisenhower, but he paid it little attention after he had won, and it failed to maintain its impressive starting momentum. Instead, it energized the conservative Republicans, which led finally to the Barry Goldwater campaign of 1964. Longtime Republican activists viewed
19557-457: The party's presidential nominee in 1944 and 1948, led the moderate wing of the party, centered in the Eastern states . These moderates supported most of the New Deal and tended to be interventionists in the Cold War . Dewey himself declined to run for president a third time, but he and other moderates sought to use his influence to ensure that 1952 Republican ticket hewed closer to their wing of
19716-399: The party's vice-presidential slot for the second successive election if he withdrew and endorsed Eisenhower, he ultimately chose not to do so. Eisenhower wished to award the vice-presidential nod to Stassen, who had endorsed Eisenhower and held generally similar political positions. However, the party bosses wanted to find a running mate who could mollify Taft's supporters, as the schism between
19875-618: The party. To this end, they assembled a Draft Eisenhower movement in September 1951. Two weeks later, at the National Governors' Conference meeting, seven Republican governors endorsed his candidacy. Eisenhower, then serving as the Supreme Allied Commander of NATO , had long been mentioned as a possible presidential contender, but he was reluctant to become involved in partisan politics. Nonetheless, he
20034-535: The party. The Republicans had been out of power for 20 years, and there was a strong sentiment that a proper two-party system needed to be re-established. It was also felt that the party winning the White House would have more incentive to rein in radicals and demagogues such as Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy . The conservative Republicans, led by Taft, were based in the Midwest and parts of
20193-415: The polls and decided to not run in 1952. There was no clear frontrunner for the Democratic presidential nomination. Delegates to the 1952 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, nominated Illinois governor Adlai E. Stevenson for president on the third ballot. Senator John Sparkman of Alabama was selected as his running mate. The convention ended with widespread confidence that the party had selected
20352-588: The popular vote and carry every state outside of the South ; he even managed to carry Virginia, Tennessee, Florida, and Texas, Southern states that voted for Democrats since the end of Reconstruction , with the exception of 1928 . Eisenhower received over 34 million votes, which at the time was the largest share of the popular vote a presidential candidate had received, surpassing Franklin D. Roosevelt's record in 1936. Republicans gained among Democrats, especially urban and suburban Southerners, and White ethnic groups in
20511-537: The president than previous press secretaries; for example, he covered in great detail Eisenhower's medical condition. Most of the time, he handled routine affairs such as daily reports on presidential activities, defending presidential policies, and assisting diplomatic visitors. He handled embarrassing episodes, such as those related to the Soviet downing of an American spy plane, the U-2 in 1960. He handled press relations on Eisenhower's international trips, sometimes taking
20670-568: The pro-Taft delegates in these states and replace them with pro-Eisenhower delegates; they called this proposal "Fair Play." Although Taft and his supporters angrily denied this charge, the convention voted to support Fair Play 658 to 548, and Taft lost many Southern delegates. Eisenhower also received two more boosts: first when several uncommitted state delegations, such as Michigan and Pennsylvania, decided to support him; and second, when Stassen released his delegates and asked them to support Eisenhower. The removal of many pro-Taft Southern delegates and
20829-455: The region, Eisenhower privately admitted that the real goal was combating Arab nationalism. In the global political context, the doctrine was made in response to the possibility of a generalized war, threatened due to the Soviet Union's latent threat becoming involved in Egypt after the Suez Crisis . Coupled with the power vacuum left by the decline of British and French power in the region after
20988-460: The reliance on expensive Army divisions. Historian Saki Dockrill argues that his long-term strategy was to promote the collective security of NATO and other American allies, strengthen the Third World against Soviet pressures, avoid another Korean stalemate, and produce a momentum that would steadily weaken Soviet power and influence. Dockrill points to Eisenhower's use of multiple assets against
21147-566: The revolution, the United States shifted from encouraging revolt to seeking cultural and economic ties as a means of undermining Communist regimes. Among the administration's cultural diplomacy initiatives were continuous goodwill tours by the "soldier-musician ambassadors" of the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra . In 1953, Eisenhower opened relations with Spain under dictator Francisco Franco . Despite its undemocratic nature, Spain's strategic position in light of
21306-586: The selection of his cabinet to two close associates, Lucius D. Clay and Herbert Brownell Jr. Brownell, a legal aide to Dewey, became attorney general. The office of Secretary of State went to John Foster Dulles , a long-time Republican spokesman on foreign policy who had helped design the United Nations Charter and the Treaty of San Francisco . Dulles would travel nearly 560,000 miles (901,233 km) during his six years in office. Outside of
21465-545: The superpowers had tested thermonuclear weapons by the end of 1953. Strategic bombers had been the delivery method of previous nuclear weapons, but Eisenhower sought to create a nuclear triad consisting of land-launched nuclear missiles, nuclear-missile-armed submarines, and strategic aircraft. Throughout the 1950s, both the United States and the Soviet Union developed intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBMs) and intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBMs) capable of delivering nuclear warheads. Eisenhower also presided over
21624-499: The support of the uncommitted states decided the nomination in Eisenhower's favor, which he won on the first ballot. Afterward, Senator Richard Nixon of California was nominated by acclamation as his vice-presidential running mate. Nixon, whose name came to the forefront early and often in preconvention conversations among Eisenhower's campaign managers, was selected because of his youth (39 years old) and solid anti-communist record. Incumbent President Harry S. Truman fared poorly in
21783-492: The support of the uncommitted states decided the nomination in Eisenhower's favor. However, the convention was among the most bitter and emotional in American history. When Senator Everett Dirksen from Illinois, a Taft supporter, pointed at Dewey on the convention floor during a speech and accused him of leading the Republicans "down the road to defeat," mixed boos and cheers rang out from the delegates, and there were even fistfights between some Taft and Eisenhower delegates. In
21942-522: The support of the young emerging postwar intellectual class, but Eisenhower was seen as more appealing to Main Street. Stevenson was ridiculed in some quarters as too effeminate to be president, which was sometimes used as a euphemism for a male homosexual. The staunchly-conservative New York Daily News called him "Adelaide" Stevenson even though he had a reputation as a ladies' man, divorced in 1949, and remained single throughout 1952. A notable event of
22101-417: The ticket and picking another running mate. Nixon responded to the allegations in a nationally televised speech, the " Checkers speech ," on September 23. In this speech, Nixon denied the charges against him, gave a detailed account of his modest financial assets, and offered a glowing assessment of Eisenhower's candidacy. The highlight of the speech came when Nixon stated that a supporter had given his daughters
22260-405: The unpopular Truman administration. Instead, he campaigned on the popularity of the New Deal and stoked fears of another Great Depression under a Republican administration. Eisenhower retained his enormous popularity from the war, as was seen in his campaign slogan, " I Like Ike ". Eisenhower's public support, coupled with the unpopularity of Truman, allowed him to win comfortably with 55.18% of
22419-535: Was "joining hands once more with this criminal crowd of traitors and Communist appeasers ... under the direction of Mr. Truman and Mr. Acheson." Many Democrats were particularly upset when Eisenhower, on a scheduled campaign swing through Wisconsin, decided not to give a speech he had written criticizing McCarthy's methods without naming him and later allowed himself to be photographed shaking hands with McCarthy as if he had supported McCarthy. Truman, who had once been friends with Eisenhower, never forgot what he saw as
22578-491: Was Truman's unpopularity. Even though Stevenson had not been a part of the Truman administration, voters largely ignored his record and burdened him with Truman's. Historian Herbert Parmet says that Stevenson: failed to dispel the widespread recognition that, for a divided America, torn by paranoia and unable to understand what had disrupted the anticipated tranquility of the postwar world, the time for change had really arrived. Neither Stevenson nor anyone else could have dissuaded
22737-486: Was charismatic and very well known, in sharp contrast to Stevenson. Republicans attacked President Harry S. Truman's handling of the Korean War and the broader Cold War , alleging Soviet spies infiltrated the U.S. government. Democrats faulted Eisenhower for failing to condemn Senators Joseph McCarthy , William E. Jenner , and other reactionary Republicans, who, the Democrats alleged, engaged in reckless and unwarranted attacks. Stevenson tried to separate himself from
22896-520: Was decisive: 93% of the men were Republicans, 7% Democrats; relatively few had been conspicuous in elective politics. Nearly 80% of the men were Protestants, 15% Catholic, and 6% Jewish. The Cold War dominated international politics in the 1950s. As both the United States and the Soviet Union possessed nuclear weapons , any conflict presented the risk of escalation into nuclear warfare. The isolationist element led by Senator Taft would avoid war by staying out of European affairs. Eisenhower's 1952 candidacy
23055-418: Was elected. The historian Herbert Parmet stated that, "although Stevenson tried to separate his campaign from Truman's record, his efforts failed to dispel the widespread recognition that, for a divided America, torn by paranoia and unable to understand what had disrupted the anticipated tranquility of the postwar world, the time for change had really arrived. Neither Stevenson nor anyone else could have dissuaded
23214-478: Was held in Chicago in the same Coliseum that the Republicans had gathered in several weeks earlier. Since the convention was being held in his home state, Governor Stevenson, who still proclaimed that he was not a presidential candidate, was asked to give the welcoming address to the delegates. He proceeded to give a witty and stirring address that led his supporters to begin a renewed round of efforts to nominate him despite his protests. After meeting with Jacob Arvey ,
23373-570: Was held in the United States on November 4, 1952. Republican nominee Dwight D. Eisenhower defeated Democratic Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson II in a landslide victory , becoming the first Republican president in 20 years. This was the first election since 1928 without an incumbent president on the ballot. Stevenson emerged victorious on the third presidential ballot of the 1952 Democratic National Convention by defeating Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver , Georgia Senator Richard Russell Jr. , and other candidates. The Republican nomination
23532-464: Was instead invoked in the Lebanon crisis the following year, when the U.S. intervened in response to a request by that country's then President Camille Chamoun . Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower [REDACTED] Dwight D. Eisenhower 's tenure as the 34th president of the United States began with his first inauguration on January 20, 1953, and ended on January 20, 1961. Eisenhower,
23691-453: Was known as an aggressive campaigner and a fierce anti-communist but as one who shied away from some of the more extreme ideas of the party's right wing, including isolationism and the dismantling of the New Deal. Most historians now believe that Eisenhower's nomination was the result of his perceived electability against the Democrats. Most of the delegates were conservatives who would probably have supported Taft if they felt that he could win
23850-470: Was motivated by his opposition to Taft's isolationist views in opposition to NATO and American reliance on collective security with Western Europe. Eisenhower continued the basic Truman administration policy of containment of Soviet expansion but added a concern with propaganda suggesting eventual liberation of Eastern Europe. Eisenhower's overall Cold War policy was codified in NSC 174, which held that
24009-498: Was narrowly defeated by John F. Kennedy in the 1960 presidential election. Eisenhower left office popular with the public. Eisenhower is generally ranked among the 10 greatest presidents. Going into the 1952 Republican presidential primaries , the two major contenders for the Republican presidential nomination were General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio . Governor Earl Warren of California and former Governor Harold Stassen of Minnesota also sought
24168-437: Was primarily contested by Eisenhower, a general, widely popular for his leadership in World War II , and the conservative Ohio Senator Robert A. Taft . With the support of Thomas E. Dewey and other party leaders, Eisenhower narrowly prevailed over Taft at the 1952 Republican National Convention . He selected youthful California Senator Richard Nixon as his running mate. In the first televised presidential campaign, Eisenhower
24327-490: Was released publicly, as were partial versions of his financial histories, because of the issues that had been raised in Nixon's speech. Near the end of the campaign, Eisenhower, in a major speech, announced that if he won the election he would go to Korea to see if he could end the war. His great military prestige, combined with the public's weariness with the conflict, gave Eisenhower the final boost he needed to win. Throughout
24486-443: Was the first one to make use of the new medium of television, partly by the efforts of Rosser Reeves , the head of Ted Bates, Inc. , a leading advertising firm. Reeves had initially proposed a series of radio spots to Dewey in the 1948 campaign, but Dewey considered them undignified. Reeves later maintained that Dewey might have won the election if he had been slightly more open-minded. Studying Douglas MacArthur 's keynote speech at
24645-590: Was the only person appointed from the Taft wing of the party. As the first secretary of the new Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) , Eisenhower named the wartime head of the Army's Women's Army Corps, Oveta Culp Hobby . She was the second woman to ever be a cabinet member . Martin Patrick Durkin , a Democrat and president of the plumbers and steamfitters union, was selected as secretary of labor. As
24804-466: Was thereby fundamentally upgraded from a minor ceremonial post to a major role in the presidential team. Nixon went well beyond the assignment, "[throwing] himself into state and local politics, making hundreds of speeches across the land. With Eisenhower uninvolved in party building, Nixon became the de facto national GOP leader." In his two terms he delivered about 750 speeches and conducted 193 news conferences. On January 19, 1955, Eisenhower became
24963-798: Was to tightly control knowledge of gas-centrifuge technology , which was essential to turn ordinary uranium into weapons-grade uranium . American diplomats by 1960 reached agreement with the German, Dutch, and British governments to limit access to the technology. The four-power understanding on gas-centrifuge secrecy would last until 1975, when scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan took the Dutch centrifuge technology to Pakistan . France sought American help in developing its own nuclear program , but Eisenhower rejected these overtures due to France's instability and his distrust of French leader Charles de Gaulle . During his campaign, Eisenhower said he would go to Korea to end
25122-462: Was troubled by Taft's non-interventionist views, especially his opposition to NATO , which Eisenhower considered to be an important deterrence against Soviet aggression. He was also motivated by the corruption that he believed had crept into the federal government during the later years of the Truman administration . Eisenhower suggested in late 1951 that he would not oppose any effort to nominate him for president, although he still refused to seek
25281-575: Was turned into a growing Sun Belt Republican stronghold, and it was also the last time that a Democrat has won Aiken County, South Carolina , before the " Solid South " would collapse in the wake of the Civil Rights Movement . That year was also, however, the last time a Republican won Yolo County, California or the Native American Rolette County, North Dakota and Oglala Lakota County, South Dakota , and
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