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74-610: Franco–German relations were long dominated by the idea of French–German enmity , which asserted that there was a natural rivalry between the two nations. Germany started World War II by invading Poland in 1939. France then declared war on Germany, which prompted the German invasion and occupation of France from 1940 to 1944. Afterwards, France participated in the Allied occupation of Germany from 1945 to 1949. The post-war West German chancellor Konrad Adenauer made rapprochement between

148-678: A "new Élysée Treaty" in January 2018 on the occasion of its 55th anniversary. The so-called Aachen Treaty was signed on 22 January 2019. Franco-German relations France–Germany relations or the Franco-German relations form a part of the wider politics of the European Union . The two countries have a long – and often contentious – relationship stretching back to the Middle Ages . After World War II ,

222-410: A Franco-German federation was a proposed merger between France and Germany after the end of World War II. The idea was promoted by French politician Robert Schuman in his declaration on May 9, 1950, which is now celebrated as Europe Day. The aim of the proposal was to create a lasting peace between the two countries and to promote economic cooperation. The Franco-German federation proposal envisioned

296-478: A combined total of only 5,000 members. When war broke out in 1914, recovery of the two lost provinces became France's primary war aim. After Bismarck's removal in 1890, French efforts to isolate Germany became successful; with the formation of the Triple Entente , Germany began to feel encircled. Foreign minister Delcassé, especially, went to great pains to woo Russia and Great Britain. Key markers were

370-400: A common government, currency, and military. It also sought to establish a European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which would integrate the coal and steel industries of France and Germany. The ECSC was created in 1952 and was the first step toward the creation of the European Union . While the idea of a Franco-German federation never fully materialized, the proposal laid the foundation for

444-633: A conflict between authorities carried out on the backs of their subjects. Napoleon put an end to the millennium-old Holy Roman Empire in 1806, forming his own Confederation of the Rhine , and reshaped the political map of the German states, which were still divided. The wars, often fought in Germany and with Germans on both sides, as in the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig, also marked the beginning of what

518-616: A friendship treaty in 1801 and a formal alliance in August 1805, pushed for by the Bavarian Minister Maximilian von Montgelas . With French support, Bavaria was elevated to the status of a Kingdom in 1806 . Bavaria supplied 30,000 troops for the invasion of Russia in 1812 , of which very few returned. With the decline of the First French Empire, Bavaria opted to switch sides on 8 October 1813 and left

592-722: A gradual cultural alienation during the High and Late Middle Ages, social and cultural interrelations remained present through the preeminence of Latin language and Frankish clergy and nobility. The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , a member of the Austrian House of Habsburg , inherited the Low Countries and the Franche-Comté in 1506. When he also inherited Spain in 1516, France was surrounded by Habsburg territories and felt under pressure. The resulting tension between

666-652: A rerun of 1914–18. There was little enthusiasm and much dread in France at the prospect of actual warfare after the Phoney War . When the Germans launched their blitzkrieg invasion of France in 1940, the French Army crumbled within weeks, and with Britain retreating, an atmosphere of humiliation and defeat swept France. A new government under Marshal Philippe Pétain surrendered, and German forces occupied most of

740-502: A series of treaties. British Foreign Minister Austen Chamberlain enthusiastically agreed. France realized that its occupation of the Ruhr had caused more financial and diplomatic damage than it was worth and went along with the plan. They convened a conference of foreign ministers in the Swiss resort of Locarno and worked out the treaties. The first was the most critical: a mutual guarantee of

814-510: A shared vision of history. The Franco-German University enables students to attain international double degrees from both countries. Additionally, a so-called Élysée-Fond was established to promote Franco-German culture projects in third countries. Also, double citizenships for French and German citizens in the opposite country are now easier to obtain, or in some cases finally possible. Chancellor Angela Merkel and President Emmanuel Macron , along with lawmakers from both countries, called for

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888-678: A so-called Holy League against the "hereditary enemy" of Christian Europe ("Erbfeind christlichen Namens"). Far from joining or supporting the common effort of the Holy Roman Empire and Poland-Lithuania , France, under Louis XIV , invaded the Spanish Netherlands in September 1683, a few days before the Battle of Vienna . While Austria was occupied with the Great Turkish War (1683–1699), France initiated

962-427: Is based on the Élysée Treaty , which was signed by Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer on 22 January 1963. The treaty contained a number of agreements for joint cooperation in foreign policy, economic and military integration and exchange of student education. The treaty was signed under difficult political situations at that time and criticized both by opposition parties in France and West Germany, as well as from

1036-638: The European Union and the close cooperation between France and Germany that has been a driving force behind European integration. Today, France and Germany are considered to be the engine of European integration and have played a key role in the creation of the European Monetary Union, the Schengen Agreement , and the European Stability Mechanism . Earlier in 1948, there were significant key leaders in

1110-661: The Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894, the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Great Britain, and finally the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907 which became the Triple Entente . This formal alliance with Russia, and informal alignment with Britain, against Germany and Austria-Hungary eventually led Russia and Britain to enter World War I as France's Allies. The Allied victory saw France regain Alsace-Lorraine and briefly resume its old position as

1184-748: The Red Army from the Nazis and ensured the political success of Communist parties controlled by the Kremlin. The French, under De Gaulle, hoped to be a balancing act in 1945–46. French fears of a resurgent Germany made it reluctant to support the plan to merge the British and American zones of occupation. However, growing anger at the Soviets behaviour in Poland, and the need for American economic assistance, led

1258-627: The Rhine river and the old focus of French ambition, to be detached from Germany as an independent country. In the end they settled for heavy German reparation payments , the military occupation of the Rhineland (1918–1930) and the demilitarization of it and an area stretching 50 kilometers east of the Rhine. On the remote Eastern end of the German Empire, the Memel territory was separated from

1332-655: The United Kingdom and the United States . Opposition from the United Kingdom and the United States was answered by an added preamble which postulated a close cooperation with those (including NATO ) and a targeted German reunification. The treaty achieved a lot in initiating European integration and a stronger Franco-West German co-position in transatlantic relations. The initial concept for

1406-661: The War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697). The attempt to conquer large parts of southern Germany ultimately failed when German-Roman troops were withdrawn from the Ottoman border and moved to the region. However, following a scorched earth policy that caused a large public outcry at the time, French troops devastated large parts of the Palatinate, burning down and levelling numerous cities and towns in southern Germany. In

1480-475: The '"special relationship" embodied in a cooperation called Franco-German Friendship . In the context of the European Union , the cooperation between the two countries is immense and intimate. Even though France has, at times, been eurosceptical in outlook, especially under President Charles de Gaulle , Franco-German agreements and cooperations have always been key to furthering the ideals of European integration . In recent times, France and Germany are among

1554-433: The 1880s, Franco-German relations were relatively good." After 1880, the rapid growth in the population and economy of Germany left France increasingly far behind. In the 1890s, relationships remained good, as Germany supported France during its difficulties with Great Britain over African colonies. Any lingering harmony collapsed in 1905, when Germany took an aggressively hostile position to French claims to Morocco. There

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1628-664: The 18th century, the rise of Prussia as a new German power caused the Diplomatic Revolution and an alliance between France, the Habsburgs and Russia, manifested in 1756 in the Treaty of Versailles and the Seven Years' War against Prussia and Great Britain. Although a German national state was on the horizon, the loyalties of the German population were primarily with smaller states. The French war against Prussia

1702-756: The Americans' service. They're betraying the spirit of the Franco-German Treaty. And they're betraying Europe." Later, in 1965, the General told his closest aides behind closed doors: "The Germans had been my greatest hope; they are my greatest disappointment." Among the direct consequences of the Treaty are the creation of the Franco-German Youth Office (l'Office Franco-allemande pour la jeunesse/Deutsch-Französisches Jugendwerk),

1776-469: The Army and to intense public demand in Germany for acquisition of the border provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, thereby turning France into a permanent, deeply committed enemy. Theodore Zeldin says: "Revenge and the recovery of Alsace-Lorraine became a principal object of French policy for the next forty years. That Germany was France's enemy became the basic fact of international relations." Bismarck's solution

1850-518: The Austrian-led Catholic Imperial forces. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 gave France part of Alsace . The 1679 Treaties of Nijmegen consolidated this result by bringing several towns under French control. In 1681, Louis XIV marched into the city of Strasbourg on 30 September, and proclaimed its annexation. Meanwhile, the expanding Muslim Ottoman Empire became a serious threat to Austria. The Papal States initiated

1924-515: The Franco-German cooperation however dates back a lot further than the Élysée Treaty and is based on the overcoming the centuries of Franco-German hostilities within Europe. It was compared to a re-establishment of Charlemagne 's European empire as it existed before division by the Treaty of Verdun in 843 AD . Franco-German University Too Many Requests If you report this error to

1998-465: The French alliance in favour of an Austrian one through the Treaty of Ried . During the first half of the 19th century, many Germans looked forward to a unification of the German states; one issue was whether Catholic Austria would be a part. German nationalists believed that a united Germany would replace France as the world's dominant land power. This argument was aided by demographic changes: since

2072-426: The French armies at the Battle of Sedan . Finally, in the Treaty of Frankfurt , reached after a lengthy siege of Paris , France was forced to cede the mostly Germanic-speaking Alsace-Lorraine territory (consisting of most of Alsace and a quarter of Lorraine ), and pay an indemnity of five billion francs. Thereafter, Germany was the leading land power. Although initially against it, Bismarck eventually gave into

2146-498: The French civil service who favoured an agreement with the Germans as well as an integrated Europe that would include Germany. The French European Department was working on a coal and steel agreement for the Ruhr-Lorraine-Luxembourg area, with equal rights for all. One French civil servant recommended 'laying down the bases of a Franco-German economic and political association that would slowly become integrated into

2220-654: The French to merge their zone into what became West Germany. In 1947, the American Secretary of State, George Marshall , announced the Marshall Plan to help economic recovery, economic integration, and business-oriented modernization in Europe. Large sums went to France and Germany, which helped restore trade and financial relations. The Marshall Plan recipients set up the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) in 1948. The idea of

2294-682: The German government, propagating French-German reconciliation, French renewal and European solidarity. The war left Europe in a weak position and divided between capitalism in the West, and communism in the East. For the first time in the history of Europe, both Americans and Soviets had a strategic foothold on the continent. Defeated Germany was under the control of the U.S., USSR, United Kingdom and France, until 1949. Soviet troops remained in those countries in Eastern Europe that had been liberated by

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2368-470: The German minister of economics Ludwig Erhard created a significant evolution in the German economy and a durable, well established trading relationship between the Federal Republic and its European neighbours as well. Later on when the Treaty of Rome came into action in 1958, it took the responsibility to strengthen and sustain the new political and economic relationships that had developed between

2442-554: The German nation and its former victims in Western Europe. The treaty beside it included side deals; it created a customs union and established the rules needed to make the competition mechanism work properly. As a sequence of this, booming European economies, fired by West Germany , led to the formation of the new customs union known as the European Economic Community (EEC). But it did not go well as

2516-544: The Middle Ages, France had the largest population in Western Europe, but in the 19th century its population stagnated (a trend which continued until the second half of the 20th century), and the population of the German states overtook it and continued to rapidly increase. The eventual unification of Germany was triggered by the Franco-German War in 1870 and subsequent French defeat. German forces defeated

2590-525: The New European Order and to keep the unity of France. Therefore, much of WW2 French propaganda was pro-European, exactly as German propaganda was. Therefore, a group called "Group Collaboration" had been established during the war in France, and led a myriad of conferences promoting Pro-Europeanism. The very first time the expression "European Community" was used was at its first sessions, as well as many conferences and guests lectures sponsored by

2664-623: The Rhine and colonized parts of Germania, but had since become militarily inferior to the Germani. He also writes that Germani had once crossed the Rhine into northeast Gaul and driven away its Gallic inhabitants, and that the Belgae claimed to be largely descended from these Germanic invaders. Years later, Both Gaul and Germaina were both invaded by the Roman Empire . Years after the Fall of

2738-422: The Rhineland adjoining France were put under the rule of Prussia . Bavaria as the third-largest state in Germany after 1815 enjoyed much warmer relations with France than the larger Prussia or Austria . From 1670 onwards, the two countries were allies for almost a century, primarily to counter Habsburg ambitions to incorporate Bavaria into Austria. This alliance was renewed after the rise of Napoleon to power with

2812-736: The United Kingdom to the EEC; the achievement of a free trade accord in the framework of the GATT; and for the West's military integration in NATO under US leadership. This effectively emptied the Treaty of any sense (in Gaullist understanding) and put end to General de Gaulle's hopes of building the EEC into a counterweight to the US and the USSR. "The Germans are behaving like pigs. They are putting themselves completely at

2886-587: The United States, United Kingdom, NATO , or the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). However, after US President John F. Kennedy expressed his displeasure about this to the West German ambassador to the United States, the Bundestag ratified the treaty with a preamble which called on France and West Germany to pursue tight cooperation with the United States; the eventual admission of

2960-766: The Western Roman Empire , The death of Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious and the following partition of the Frankish Empire in the 843 Treaty of Verdun marked the end of a single state. While the population in both the Western and Eastern kingdoms had relative homogeneous language groups ( Gallo-Romanic in West Francia, and Low German and High German in East Francia), Middle Francia

3034-525: The country to Normandy, suspected the village of Oradour-sur-Glane of harboring resistance members, arms and explosives. In retaliation, they destroyed the town in the Oradour-sur-Glane massacre , killing 642 of its inhabitants. There was also a free French army fighting with the Allies, numbering almost five hundred thousand men by June 1944, one million by December and 1.3 million by the end of

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3108-582: The country. A minority of the French forces escaped abroad and continued the fight under General Charles de Gaulle and Free France . On the other hand, the French Resistance conducted sabotage operations inside German-occupied France. To support the invasion of Normandy of 1944, various groups increased their sabotage and guerrilla attacks; organizations such as the Maquis derailed trains, blew up ammunition depots, and ambushed Germans, for instance at Tulle . The 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich , which came under constant attack and sabotage on their way across

3182-416: The creation of Franco-German high schools , and the twinning between numerous French and German towns, schools and regions. Another outcome of the Treaty was the Franco-German military brigade , which was established in 1987 and is still intact. In January 2003, the Assemblée Nationale and the Deutsche Bundestag met in Versailles to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the Treaty. The choice of location

3256-418: The framework of the evolving Western organization'. Deighton strongly illustrated that the French leaders sought the cooperation with the Germans as key factor on the path of integrated Europe. On a more practical level the increased level of cooperation between West Germany and France were driven by de Gaulle’s desire to build a power-bloc independently of the US, while Adenauer sought a fast integration into

3330-402: The frontiers of Belgium, France, and Germany, which was guaranteed by Britain and Italy. The second and third treaties called for arbitration between Germany and Belgium, and Germany and France regarding future disputes. The fourth and fifth were similar arbitration treaties between Germany and Poland, and Germany and Czechoslovakia. Poland especially, and Czechoslovakia as well, felt threatened by

3404-441: The historic rivals one of his priorities. The treaty called for regular consultations between France and West Germany on all important questions concerning defense, education and youth issues. It also requires regular summits between high-level officials, which implies that the Heads of State and Government have to meet at least twice a year and the Ministers of Foreign Affairs every three months, to ensure close collaboration between

3478-418: The leading land power on the European continent. France was the leading proponent of harsh peace terms against Germany at the Paris Peace Conference . Since the war had been fought on French soil, it had destroyed much of French infrastructure and industry, and France had suffered the highest number of casualties proportionate to population. Much French opinion wanted the Rhineland, the section of Germany west of

3552-443: The loss of Alsace and Lorraine. Paintings that emphasized the humiliation of the defeat came in high demand, such as those by Alphonse de Neuville . The Alsace-Lorraine issue remained a minor theme after 1880, and Republicans and Socialists systematically downplayed the issue and the monarchists (who emphasized the issue) faded away. Revanchism was not a major cause of war in 1914 because it faded after 1880. J.F.V. Keiger says: "By

3626-444: The main Locarno agreement, and the treaties were attempts to reassure them. The success of the Locarno agreements led to the admission of Germany to the League of Nations in September 1926, with a seat on its council as a permanent member. The result was the euphoric "Spirit of Locarno" across Europe—a sense that it was possible to achieve peace and a permanent system guaranteeing that peace. The Great Depression on 1929-33 soured

3700-486: The mood in France, and plunged Germany into economic hardship and violent internal unrest. From 1933 under Adolf Hitler , Germany began to pursue an aggressive policy in Europe. Meanwhile, France in the 1930s was politically divided, and above all dreaded another war, which the French feared would again be fought on their soil for the third time, and again destroy a large percentage of their young men. France's stagnant population meant that it would find it difficult to withhold

3774-416: The most enthusiastic proponents of the further integration of the EU. They are sometimes described as the "twin engine" or "core countries" pushing for moves. A tram straddling the Franco-German border, across the river Rhine from Strasbourg to Kehl , was inaugurated on 28 April 2017 symbolizing the strength of relations between the two countries. Both France and Germany track their early history from

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3848-439: The organization of Europe, because only the members of the coal and steel community 'ECSC' ("the six": Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany) joined the EEC. Seven of the remaining nations belonging to the Organization of European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) which administered the Marshall Plan, did not join the EEC, but instead formed an alternative body, the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). It

3922-415: The reconciliation of France and Germany, the axis of political European integration, furthermore, the plan announced the proposal of a European army. This led to the signing of the treaty of the European Defence Community (EDC) in 1952. The main purpose of establishing such army was to create a "European security identity", through closer Franco-West German military and security cooperation. In like manner,

3996-557: The rest of East Prussia and occupied by France, before being annexed by Lithuania . In response to German failure in 1923 to pay reparations as required under the Treaty of Versailles , France occupied the industrial Ruhr area of Germany, the center of German coal and steel production, until 1925. Also, the French-dominated International Olympic Committee banned Germany from the Olympic Games of 1920 and 1924, illustrating French desire to isolate Germany. In late 1924 German foreign minister Gustav Stresemann made his highest priority

4070-476: The restoration of German prestige and privileges as a leading European nation. French withdrawal from the occupied Ruhr was scheduled for January 1925, but Stresemann sensed that France was very nervous about its security and might cancel the withdrawal . He realized that France deeply desired a British guarantee of its postwar borders, but that London was reluctant. Stresemann came up with a plan whereby all sides would get what they wanted through guarantees set out in

4144-584: The sheer force of numbers of a German invasion; it was estimated Germany could put two men of fighting age in the field for every French soldier. Thus in the 1930s the French, with their British allies, pursued a policy of appeasement of Germany, failing to respond to the remilitarization of the Rhineland , although this put the German army on a larger stretch of the French border. Finally, however, Hitler pushed France and Great Britain too far, and they jointly declared war when Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. But, France remained exhausted and in no mood for

4218-401: The signing of the friendship treaty, a new controversy between France and West Germany occurred. President de Gaulle intended the treaty to make West Germany distance itself and eventually separate itself from its American protector. He saw West Germany (and the other member states of the European Economic Community) as vassalized by Washington. The treaty was notable in that it made no mention of

4292-444: The territories of Gaul to the time of Charlemagne , whose vast empire included most of the area of both modern-day France and Germany, as well as the Netherlands , Belgium , Luxembourg , Switzerland , Austria , Slovenia , and northern Italy . Both nations fought together in the Gallic War against Julius Caesar and the Roman Republic between 58 and 50 BC. According to Caesar, the Gallic Volcae Tectosages had once crossed

4366-512: The two countries. Frederick the Great was soon respected by all of his enemies, and Napoleon himself used him as a model for battle. The civil population still regarded war as a conflict between their authorities, and did not so much distinguish between troops according to the side on which they fought but rather according to how they treated the local population. The personal contacts and mutual respect between French and Prussian officers did not stop entirely while they were fighting each other, and

4440-405: The two nations have largely reconciled. Since the signing of the Treaty of Rome in 1958, they have been among the founders and leading members of the European Communities and later the European Union . General relations between the two countries since 1871, according to Ulrich Krotz, have had three grand periods: "hereditary enmity" (down to 1945), "reconciliation" (1945–1963) and since 1963

4514-405: The two powers caused a number of conflicts such as the War of the Spanish Succession , until the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 made them allies against Prussia . The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), devastating large parts of the Holy Roman Empire , fell into this period. Although the war was mostly a conflict between Protestants and Catholics, Catholic France sided with the Protestants against

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4588-519: The two states. The first meeting between the two heads of state took place at the private home of General de Gaulle at Colombey-les-Deux-Églises in September 1958. Since then, French and German heads of state have kept up the strong relationship, often considered as the engine of European integration. Additionally, an interministerial commission was established to coordinate and oversee the Franco-German collaboration. It consisted of high-ranked officials of every involved ministry. Just two months after

4662-434: The war resulted in a great deal of cultural exchange between the French occupiers and German population. German nationalism emerged as a strong force after 1807, as Napoleon conquered much of Germany and brought in the new ideals of the French Revolution. The French mass conscription for the Revolutionary Wars and the beginning formation of nation states in Europe made war increasingly a conflict between peoples rather than

4736-421: The war. By the war's end, the French army occupied south-west Germany and a part of Austria. Marshal Petain, who ruled France under German supervision, 1940–44, adopted the ideology of National Revolution which was originally based on ideas which had been discussed for years. When the Franco-German reconciliation committee "Comité France-Allemagne" ("French-German Friendship Committee") founded in 1935 in Paris it

4810-474: The western structures to receive full rights for the still occupied West German state as well as protection against the Soviet threat. The issue of dependency on the USA remained a sore spot at least for as long as DeGaulle remained in office (e.g. the West German parliament included a pro-NATO preamble into the Élysée Treaty , which caused considerable consternation with the French government). However, their shared interest in increased cooperation still existed and

4884-421: Was a free trade area as opposed to a customs union with common external tariffs and a political agenda, competing with the EEC as it was remarkably successful. With the threat of the Soviet Union during the Cold War , West Germany sought its national security in the re-integration into Western Europe , while France sought after a reestablishment as a Grande Nation . The post-war Franco-West German cooperation

4958-418: Was a mere strip of a mostly blurring, yet culturally rich language-border-area, roughly between the rivers Meuse and Rhine – and soon partitioned again. After the 880 Treaty of Ribemont , the border between the western and eastern kingdoms remained almost unchanged for some 600 years. Germany went on with a centuries-long attachment with Italy, while France grew into deeper relations with England. Despite

5032-433: Was also driven by strong support in the respective civil society, as it was seen as the best solution to prevent further bloodshed between the two nations. As a sequence, Jean Monnet , who has been described as the founder father and the chief architect of European Unity, announced the French Schuman plan of 9 May 1950, which led to the founding a year later of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The plan brought

5106-423: Was an important element for Germany to get closer to France. It adopted Pro-European, Pro-German, anti British, anti liberal political and economic views. Key members of the Committee became the key leaders of the French collaborators with Nazis after 1940. When Marshal Petain officially proclaimed the collaboration policy with Nazi Germany in June 1941, he justified it to the French people as an essential need for

5180-431: Was explicitly called French–German hereditary enmity . Napoleon directly incorporated German-speaking areas such as the Rhineland and Hamburg into his First French Empire and treated the monarchs of the remaining German states as vassals. Modern German nationalism was born in opposition to French domination, under Napoleon. In the recasting of the map of Europe after Napoleon's defeat, the German-speaking territories in

5254-459: Was high in symbolism, as the palace had been the site of humiliation for each country, in 1871 and 1919 . New forms of bilateral coordination between the two countries were created in the course of the 40th anniversary celebration, such as the Franco-German Ministerial Council , which meets twice a year. The celebration also led to the creation for the first time of a common Franco-German History Coursebook to be used in both countries and foster

5328-517: Was justified through its role as guarantor of the Peace of Westphalia , and it was in fact fighting on the side of the majority of German states. Frederick the Great led the defense of Prussia for 7 years, and though heavily outnumbered, defeated his French and Austrian invaders. Prussia and France clashed multiple times, and many more times than the other countries. This started years of hatred between

5402-482: Was talk of war and France strengthened its ties with Great Britain and Russia. The French public had very little interest in foreign affairs and elite French opinion was strongly opposed to war with its more powerful neighbor. French foreign policy was based on a fear that Germany was larger and steadily growing more powerful. In 1914 the chief pressure group was the Parti colonial , a coalition of 50 organizations with

5476-506: Was to make France a pariah nation, encouraging royalty to ridicule its new republican status, and building complex alliances with the other major powers – Austria, Russia and Great Britain – to keep France isolated, diplomatically. The short-term French reaction to defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 was Revanchism : a deep sense of bitterness, hatred and demand for revenge against Germany, especially because of

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