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69-542: Eldfell is a volcanic cone just over 200 metres (660 ft) high on the Icelandic island of Heimaey . It formed in a volcanic eruption which began without warning on the eastern side of Heimaey , in the Westman Islands , on 23 January 1973. The name means Hill of Fire in Icelandic . The eruption caused a major crisis for the island and led to its temporary evacuation . Volcanic ash fell over most of

138-471: A mugearitic chemical composition but within a few weeks the volcano was erupting less fractionated lavas which had a hawaiitic composition. By early May, the lava flow was between 9.1 and 21.0 m (10 and 23 yd) in height. It averaged more than 37 m (40 yd) and in some places was as much as 100 m (110 yd) thick. The flow carried off large blocks from the main cone that had broken off, as well as volcanic bombs. "The viscosity of

207-588: A capacity of up to 1000 litres per second (265 US gallons per second), were brought in from the United States . After these pumps began to cool the flow advancing towards the town, its movement slowed dramatically and soon stopped. Failure of pump shafts became a problem after a few weeks, probably because they were designed for pumping oil rather than water, and new and improved shafts had to be manufactured in Reykjavík and brought in. One notable feature of

276-416: A cylindrical vent. Unlike shield volcanoes , they are characterized by a steep profile and periodic, often alternating, explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions . Some have collapsed craters called calderas . The central core of a stratocone is commonly dominated by a central core of intrusive rocks that range from around 500 meters (1,600 ft) to over several kilometers in diameter. This central core

345-430: A few days to a few years. Of observed cinder cone eruptions, 50% have lasted for less than 30 days, and 95% stopped within one year. In case of Parícutin, its eruption lasted for nine years from 1943 to 1952. Rarely do they erupt either two, three, or more times. Later eruptions typically produce new cones within a volcanic field at separation distances of a few kilometers and separate by periods of 100 to 1,000 years. Within

414-483: A length of 2 kilometres (1.2 mi), crossing the island from one shore to the other. Submarine activity also occurred just offshore at the northern and southern ends of the fissure. Spectacular lava fountaining 50 to 150 metres high occurred along the whole fissure, which reached a maximum length of about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) during the first few hours of the eruption, but activity soon became concentrated on one vent, about 0.8-kilometre (0.50 mi) north of

483-417: A major eruption. The onset of the eruption was therefore almost entirely unexpected. At about 01:55 on 23 January, a fissure opened up on the eastern side of the island, barely a kilometre away from the centre of the town of Heimaey, approximately 200 metres (650 ft) east of Kirkjubær ( Church farm ), where the island's church had once been located. The fissure rapidly extended from 300 metres to

552-434: A man who had broken into a chemist's store to acquire drugs was suffocated by toxic fumes. Carbon dioxide, with small amounts of poisonous gases, became concentrated in many buildings partially buried by tephra, and several other people were affected when entering these buildings. Efforts to mitigate the hazards presented by the accumulation of poisonous gas included the building of a large tephra wall to divert gases away from

621-464: A reduced rate until 11:00 that day, after which they stopped until 23:00 that evening. From 23:00 until 01:34 on 23 January, seven tremors were detected that grew shallower and more intense, while the epicenter moved closer to the town of Vestmannaeyjar. The largest tremor measured 2.7 on the Richter scale . Small tremors are very common at plate boundaries, and nothing here indicated that they heralded

690-1026: A single, typically cylindrical, vent. As the gas-charged lava is blown violently into the air, it breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as either cinders, clinkers, or scoria around the vent to form a cone that often is noticeably symmetrical; with slopes between 30 and 40°; and a nearly circular ground plan. Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit. The basal diameters of cinder cones average about 800 meters (2,600 ft) and range from 250 to 2,500 meters (820 to 8,200 ft). The diameter of their craters ranges between 50 and 600 meters (160 and 1,970 ft). Cinder cones rarely rise more than 50–350 meters (160–1,150 ft) or so above their surroundings. Cinder cones most commonly occur as isolated cones in large basaltic volcanic fields. They also occur in nested clusters in association with complex tuff ring and maar complexes. Finally, they are also common as parasitic and monogenetic cones on complex shield and stratovolcanoes. Globally, cinder cones are

759-456: A square 100 metres (330 ft) on each side, by percolating water down into the hot parts and collecting the resulting steam. Up to 40 megawatts (MW) of power could be generated by the plants, which also then supplied hot water to nearly every house on the island. The tephra produced by the eruption was used to extend the runways at the island's small airport, and also as landfill on which 200 new homes were built. By mid-1974, about half

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828-631: A total of US$ 1,447,742 at the time. The eruption made headlines around the world when it began, and was covered constantly by Icelandic news crews throughout. In Europe, the eruption was one of the biggest news items while it continued, competing for front-page space with breakthroughs then being made in the Vietnam War peace talks in Paris . The efforts of the islanders to halt the lava flows received particular attention, with coverage in publications such as National Geographic . The attention focused on

897-399: A tuff cone have commonly been altered, palagonitized , by either its interaction with groundwater or when it was deposited warm and wet. The pyroclastic deposits of tuff cones differ from the pyroclastic deposits of spatter cones by their lack or paucity of lava spatter, smaller grain-size, and excellent bedding. Typically, but not always, tuff cones lack associated lava flows. A tuff ring

966-525: A volcanic field, eruptions can occur over a period of a million years. Once eruptions cease, being unconsolidated, cinder cones tend to erode rapidly unless further eruptions occur. Rootless cones , also called pseudocraters , are volcanic cones that are not directly associated with a conduit that brought magma to the surface from a deep-seated magma reservoir. Generally, three types of rootless cones, littoral cones , explosion craters , and hornitos are recognized. Littoral cones and explosion craters are

1035-478: A water pipeline which supplied electrical power and water from the Icelandic mainland, and lava began to flow towards the harbour , a situation which caused serious concerns - if the harbour was blocked, the island's fishing industry would be devastated. By early May, about 300 buildings had been engulfed by lava flows or gutted by fire and 60-70 homes had been buried by tephra.(Richard & James, 1983) As Heimaey

1104-637: Is a low, steep-sided hill or mound that consists of welded lava fragments, called spatter, which has formed around a lava fountain issuing from a central vent. Typically, spatter cones are about 3–5 meters (9.8–16.4 ft) high. In case of a linear fissure, lava fountaining will create broad embankments of spatter, called spatter ramparts, along both sides of the fissure. Spatter cones are more circular and cone shaped, while spatter ramparts are linear wall-like features. Spatter cones and spatter ramparts are typically formed by lava fountaining associated with mafic , highly fluid lavas, such as those erupted in

1173-408: Is a related type of small monogenetic volcano that is also produced by phreatic (hydrovolcanic) explosions directly associated with magma brought to the surface through a conduit from a deep-seated magma reservoir. They are characterized by rims that have a low, broad topographic profiles and gentle topographic slopes that are 25 degrees or less. The maximum thickness of the pyroclastic debris comprising

1242-666: Is a small monogenetic volcanic cone produced by phreatic (hydrovolcanic) explosions directly associated with magma brought to the surface through a conduit from a deep-seated magma reservoir. They are characterized by high rims that have a maximum relief of 100–800 meters (330–2,620 ft) above the crater floor and steep slopes that are greater than 25 degrees. They typically have a rim to rim diameter of 300–5,000 meters (980–16,400 ft). A tuff cone consists typically of thick-bedded pyroclastic flow and surge deposits created by eruption-fed density currents and bomb-scoria beds derived from fallout from its eruption column. The tuffs composing

1311-414: Is surrounded by multiple generations of lava flows, many of which are brecciated , and a wide range of pyroclastic rocks and reworked volcanic debris. The typical stratocone is an andesitic to dacitic volcano that is associated with subduction zones . They are also known as either stratified volcano, composite cone, bedded volcano, cone of mixed type or Vesuvian-type volcano. A spatter cone

1380-593: The Pleistocene era. The most prominent feature on Heimaey before 1973 was Helgafell , a 200 meters (650 ft) high volcanic cone formed in an eruption about 5,000 years ago. The Vestmannaeyjar archipelago was settled in about 874 AD, originally by escaped Insular slaves belonging to Norse settlers on the mainland. These settlers gave the islands their name, Britain and Ireland being west of mainland Scandinavia . Although plagued by poor water supplies and piracy during much of its history, Heimaey became

1449-579: The Hawaiian Islands. As blobs of molten lava, spatter, are erupted into the air by a lava fountain, they can lack the time needed to cool completely before hitting the ground. Consequently, the spatter are not fully solid, like taffy , as they land and they bind to the underlying spatter as both often slowly ooze down the side of the cone. As a result, the spatter builds up a cone that is composed of spatter either agglutinated or welded to each other. A tuff cone , sometimes called an ash cone ,

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1518-465: The advancing flow, and a network of pipes was laid on top of the lava to distribute the seawater over as wide an area as possible. Wooden supports for the pipes caught fire where the lava was hottest, and even aluminium supports melted, but the pipes themselves were prevented from melting by the cold seawater flowing through them. Up to 12,000 square metres (3 acres ) of lava flow could be cooled at one time, with internal barriers then being created within

1587-399: The air fall "occasionally rose to 9,000 metres (30,000 ft), or nearly to the tropopause ". Lava flows from the cone traveled north and east to produce a "continuously expanding lava delta " along the east coast of the island and into the harbor, where small explosions built up a diminutive island that was soon overtaken by the advancing delta. The first lavas erupted by Eldfell had

1656-426: The calderas and volcanic cones of Ulysses Patera , Ulysses Colles and Hydraotes Chaos are argued to be cinder cones. Cinder cones typically only erupt once like Parícutin. As a result, they are considered to be monogenetic volcanoes and most of them form monogenetic volcanic fields . Cinder cones are typically active for very brief periods of time before becoming inactive. Their eruptions range in duration from

1725-421: The cooling, the lava tongue [into the harbor] could be expected to…extend further along its direction of movement…for a whole month longer than it actually did. It failed by only about 100 meters to block the entrance to the harbor". The cooling operation ended on 10 July 1973, and approximately 7.3 million cubic metres of seawater were pumped. This eruption was a special case where the method used to control

1794-422: The crater of a tuff ring generally has been excavated below the existing ground surface. As a result, water commonly fills a tuff ring's crater to form a lake once eruptions cease. Both tuff cones and their associated tuff rings were created by explosive eruptions from a vent where the magma is interacting with either groundwater or a shallow body of water as found within a lake or sea. The interaction between

1863-420: The days before the eruption, almost the entire fishing fleet was in the harbour, a stroke of luck which greatly assisted the organisation of the rapid evacuation. The population was alerted to the situation by fire engines sounding their sirens, and gathered by the harbour with just the small amount of possessions they were able to carry. The first boats left for Þorlákshöfn at about 02:30, just half an hour after

1932-527: The early hours of the eruption, the Icelandic State Civil Defence Organisation evacuated the entire population of Heimaey, having previously developed evacuation plans for an emergency such as this. The evacuation was necessary because lava flows were already moving slowly into the eastern side of town, and the whole of the small island was threatened by the likelihood of heavy ash fall. Because of severe storms in

2001-413: The end of January, tephra covered most of the island, reaching 5 metres (16 ft) deep in places. Apart from falling ash, some houses were also burned down by fires caused by lava bombs , or overridden by advancing lava flows. By early February, the heavy tephra fall had abated, but lava flows began to cause serious damage. Submarine activity just north of the fissure severed an electric power cable and

2070-407: The end of the eruption, scientists began to assess the feasibility of extracting geothermal heat from the gradually cooling flows. Experimental heating systems were soon devised, and by 1974 the first house was connected. The scheme was extended to several more houses and the hospital, and in 1979 construction began of four larger plants to extract heat from the flows. Each plant extracted energy from

2139-587: The extensive tephra , fall-out of airborne volcanic material, to extend the runway at the island's small airport and as landfill on which 200 new houses were built. Iceland is a region of frequent volcanic activity, due to its location astride the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , where the North American and Eurasian Plates are moving apart, and also over the Iceland hotspot , which greatly enhances

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2208-434: The five-month eruption was estimated to be about 0.25 km (330,000,000 cu yd). About 2.5 km (1 sq mi) of new land was added to the island, increasing its pre-eruption area by some 20%. In the end, the harbour entrance was narrowed considerably but not closed off, and the new lava flow acted as a breakwater, improving the shelter afforded by the harbour. Flakkarinn rafted several hundred metres towards

2277-425: The flow of the lava was blocky, covered with volcanic bombs and was a reddish oxidised colour. After cooling, the surface became more jagged and was much more difficult to walk on, and the flow surface turned from black to grey. (Richard & James, 1983) Water cooling of the lava was slow but efficient, with almost all the water converted to steam . Once the viability of lava cooling had been proven, efforts to halt

2346-400: The flow, which thickened and piled up upon itself. The work involved in laying pipes over an active lava flow was highly dangerous, with low visibility due to the extensive emission of steam. Rough tracks were made onto the flow by bulldozing tephra, but these tracks quickly became very uneven and moved several metres a day. The pipelayers used bulldozers and walkie-talkies to advance through

2415-493: The flows were increased. The pumping capacity was increased in early March, when a large chunk of the crater wall broke away from the summit of Eldfell and began to be carried along the top of the lava flow towards the harbour. The chunk, dubbed Flakkarinn ( The Wanderer ), would have seriously threatened the viability of the harbour if it had reached it, and the dredging boat Sandey was brought in on 1 March to prevent its advance. Professor Þorbjörn Sigurgeirsson provided advice to

2484-412: The ground to average depths of about 40 metre (130 ft), reaching 100 metre (330 ft) thick in places. Later on in the eruption, a surge of lava destroyed one fish processing plant and damaged two others, and also demolished the town's power generating plant. Despite the eruption's close proximity to the town and the extensive property damage, only one fatality could be attributed to the eruption -

2553-535: The harbour along the top of the lava flow, but came to a halt well away from the water's edge. By the end of 1975, the population of the Westman Islands had returned to roughly 85% of its pre-eruption level. 42% among those with destroyed houses did not return before the end of 1975, while the rate was only 27% among those whose houses were not destroyed. By 1974, fishing companies in the Westman Islands were back to normal production levels. Counter-intuitively,

2622-454: The harbour improved by the new lava breakwater, the fishing industry regained its former vigour and the island today remains the most important fishing centre in the nation, as over a third of Iceland's total fish catch is from this harbour. By the end of the eruption, Eldfell stood about 220 metres (720 ft) above sea level. Since then, its height has dropped by 18 to 20 metres (60 to 65 feet), due to slumping and compacting of

2691-410: The island as a result of the eruption led to a later upsurge in tourism once the eruption was over. The volume of lava being emitted during the eruption fell steadily after the first few days. From its initial rate of 100 cubic metres per second (3,500 cu ft/s), the emission rate fell to about 60 m/s (2,100 cu ft/s) by 8 February, and just 10 m/s (350 cu ft/s) by

2760-450: The island, destroying around 400 homes, and a lava flow threatened to close off the harbour, the island's main income source via its fishing fleet. An operation was mounted to cool the advancing lava flow by pumping sea water onto it, which was successful in preventing the loss of the harbour. After the eruption, the islanders used heat from the cooling lava flows to provide hot water and to generate electricity . They also used some of

2829-452: The lava cooling operation was the deposit of large amounts of salt where seawater was sprayed onto the lava. Large expanses of flow became encrusted with extensive white deposits, and it was estimated that up to 220,000 tonnes (240,000 short tons ) of salt was deposited in total. Sigurgeirsson called these protective measures "undoubtedly the most extensive that have ever been used in a volcanic eruption" and said that "had it not been for

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2898-412: The lava could be impeded by prematurely solidifying the advancing lava-flow front. The first attempt to slow the lava flow by spraying the leading edge with sea water began on 6 February, and although the volume of water being pumped on was rather small at 100 litres per second (26 US (liquid) gallons per second), the flow was noticeably affected. The lava changed as water poured on it. Before cooling,

2967-465: The lava fragments ejected by the blasts was, for basalt, relatively high. Very little spatter was produced and scoria bombs sometimes broke up explosively in flight (presumably due to rapid vesiculation ), and by rapid impact on landing." The high viscosity led to a "massive, blocky ʻaʻā lava flow which moved slowly but relentlessly toward the north, northeast, and east." Volcanic gases were collected from several locations. Gases collected at sea along

3036-442: The lava was suited to local conditions. Firstly, the initial eruption was only 1,000 m (1,100 yd) from the centre of town and harbour. Next, the flow of lava was slow and allowing time to plan and carry out control. Thirdly, sea water was available in its nearby harbour and lastly, it was easy to move pipes and pump equipment as the transport system by sea and road was good. (Richard & James, 1983) The entire operation cost

3105-638: The magma, expanding steam, and volcanic gases resulted in the production and ejection of fine-grained pyroclastic debris called ash with the consistency of flour . The volcanic ash comprising a tuff cone accumulated either as fallout from eruption columns, from low-density volcanic surges and pyroclastic flows, or combination of these. Tuff cones are typically associated with volcanic eruptions within shallow bodies of water and tuff rings are associated with eruptions within either water saturated sediments and bedrock or permafrost . Next to spatter (scoria) cones, tuff cones and their associated tuff rings are among

3174-436: The mainland. Houses close to the rift were soon destroyed by lava flows and tephra fall. A few days after the eruption began, the prevailing wind direction moved to the west, resulting in extensive tephra falls over the rest of the island, causing extensive property damage. Many houses were destroyed by the weight of the ash fall, but crews of volunteers working to clear the ash from roofs and board up windows saved many more. By

3243-438: The middle of March. The decline was slower after that, but by the middle of April the flow rate had fallen to about 5 m/s (180 cu ft/s). Short-lived submarine activity was discovered by a fishing vessel on 26 May, about four kilometres (two nautical miles) northeast of Heimaey and 1 km ( 1 ⁄ 2  nmi) off the coast of the mainland. The eruption finally came to an end in early July, when flowing lava

3312-756: The most common types of volcanoes on Earth. An example of a tuff cone is Diamond Head at Waikīkī in Hawaiʻi . Clusters of pitted cones observed in the Nephentes/Amenthes region of Mars at the southern margin of the ancient Utopia impact basin are currently interpreted as being tuff cones and rings. Cinder cones , also known as scoria cones and less commonly scoria mounds , are small, steep-sided volcanic cones built of loose pyroclastic fragments, such as either volcanic clinkers, cinders, volcanic ash, or scoria . They consist of loose pyroclastic debris formed by explosive eruptions or lava fountains from

3381-559: The most important center of the Icelandic fishing industry, having one of the few good harbors on the southern side of the country, and being situated in very rich fishing grounds. At about 20:00 on 21 January 1973, a series of small tremors began to occur around Heimaey. They were too weak to be felt by the residents of the island, but a seismic station 60 kilometres (37 mi) away, near the mainland, recorded over 100 large tremors between 01:00 and 03:00 on 22 January that appeared to be emanating from south of Heimaey. The tremors continued at

3450-712: The most typical volcanic landform found within continental intraplate volcanic fields and also occur in some subduction zone settings as well. Parícutin , the Mexican cinder cone which was born in a cornfield on February 20, 1943, and Sunset Crater in Northern Arizona in the US Southwest are classic examples of cinder cones, as are ancient volcanic cones found in New Mexico's Petroglyph National Monument . Cone-shaped hills observed in satellite imagery of

3519-419: The new lava field actually improved the harbour in Westman Islands. Also counter-intuitive, the forced displacement had a large positive causal effect on both the earnings and education for those who were younger than 25 years old at the time of the eruption. The insides of lava flows can remain at temperatures of several hundred degrees for many years due to the very low thermal conductivity of rock. Following

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3588-412: The old volcanic cone of Helgafell and just outside the eastern edge of the town. During the early days of the eruption, the rate of lava and tephra emission from the fissure was estimated to be 100 cubic metres per second (3,500 cubic feet per second), and within two days, the lava fountains had built a cinder cone over 100 metres (330 ft) high. The name initially given to the new volcano

3657-425: The onset of the eruption, almost all of the 5,300 people of the island were safely on the mainland. A few people remained to carry out essential functions and to salvage belongings from threatened houses. Cattle, horses and sheep on the island were slaughtered. On the mainland, friends, relatives and strangers offered shelter and housing. By the end of the day, all 5,300 people were spread around cities and towns on

3726-466: The pre-eruption population had returned to the island, and by March 1975, about 80% had returned. The recovery and reconstruction of Heimaey was paid for by all Icelanders via a hypothecated sales tax , as well as through international aid totalling US$ 2.1 million primarily from Denmark but with substantial contributions from the United States and several international organisations. With

3795-459: The pumping crews on where to direct their efforts to most efficiently slow the flows. Eventually the Wanderer broke up into two pieces which both stopped approximately 100 metres (330 ft) from the harbour mouth. The ensuing lava-cooling operations were the most ambitious that had ever been undertaken. Sandey was able to spray up to 400 litres per second (105 US gallons per second) onto

3864-494: The result of mild explosions that were generated locally by the interaction of either hot lava or pyroclastic flows with water. Littoral cones typically form on the surface of a basaltic lava flow where it has entered into a body of water, usually a sea or ocean. Explosion craters form where either hot lava or pyroclastic flows have covered either marshy ground or water-saturated ground of some sort. Hornitos are rootless cones that are composed of welded lava fragments and were formed on

3933-421: The rim of a typical tuff ring is generally thin, less than 50 meters (160 ft) to 100 meters (330 ft) thick. The pyroclastic materials that comprise their rim consist primarily of relatively fresh and unaltered, distinctly and thin-bedded volcanic surge and air fall deposits. Their rims also can contain variable amounts of local country rock (bedrock) blasted out of their crater. In contrast to tuff cones,

4002-432: The south of Helgafell in what is now southern Heimaey formed about 6000 years ago. Helgafell formed a thousand years later in a monogenetic volcanic eruption, which created much of the present island over a period of between 11 and 12 months, at 3950 BCE ± 300 years. This erupted 0.65 km (0.16 cu mi) of lava and scoria with a DRE of 0.59 km (0.14 cu mi). Immediately north of Helgafell

4071-419: The start of the eruption. Most of the population left the island by boat. Fortunately, the lava flows and tephra fall did not at first affect the island's airstrip ( Vestmannaeyjar Airport ), and a few people who were unable to travel by boat were evacuated by air—primarily the elderly and patients from the hospital. Planes were sent from Reykjavík and Keflavik to help speed the process. Within six hours of

4140-422: The steam to lay more pipes. The workers dubbed themselves 'The Suicide Squad', and managed to lay pipes up to 130 metres (430 ft) inward from the flow front, directly over the advance. Although several men sustained minor burns, no serious injuries were received. By the end of March, a fifth of the town had been covered by lava flows, and increased pumping capacity was required. Thirty-two pumps, each with

4209-473: The submerged part of active eruptive fissure were dominantly carbon dioxide and gases from cooling submerged lava flows were about 70 percent hydrogen. (Richard & James, 1983) Poisonous gas was found at low areas on the eastern part of Vestmannaeyjar. A wall was constructed between the vent and town to divert the gas, and a long trench was excavated for the steam to escape. However, none of these measures were completely effective. (Richard & James, 1983) In

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4278-526: The surface of basaltic lava flows by the escape of gas and clots of molten lava through cracks or other openings in the crust of a lava flow. Helgafell (volcano) Helgafell ( Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈhɛlkaˌfɛtl̥] , "Helgi's mountain" ) is an inactive 227 m (745 ft) volcanic cone located on the island of Heimaey in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago in Iceland . The Stórhöfði peninsula immediately to

4347-497: The town, and the digging of a trench to channel away the CO 2 (carbon dioxide) . These defences were only partially effective, as they relied on the assumption that the gases were produced at the vent, and flowed into the town from there. It is believed that as least some of the CO 2 originated deep within the volcanic conduit and percolated through older volcanic rocks, rising directly into

4416-699: The town. The possibility of lava flows cutting off the harbour was the most significant threat facing the town. One contingency plan devised, should the harbour be closed off, was to cut through a low sand spit on the north side of the island to provide a new channel into the harbour, but it was hoped that if the lava flow could be slowed, this would not be necessary. Lava flows had been sprayed with water in attempts to slow them in Hawaii and on Mount Etna , but these had been rather small-scale operations with limited success. However, Professor Þorbjörn Sigurgeirsson carried out an experiment that proved that further advances of

4485-502: The unconsolidated gravelly tephra as well as wind erosion . The islanders have planted grass around the lower slopes of the otherwise bare hill, to stabilise it against further erosion, and eventually it is expected that most of the volcano will be covered by grass, as neighbouring Helgafell is. Volcanic cone Stratocones are large cone-shaped volcanoes made up of lava flows , explosively erupted pyroclastic rocks, and igneous intrusives that are typically centered around

4554-500: The volcanic activity. It is estimated that a third of all the basaltic lava erupted in the world in recorded history has been produced by Icelandic eruptions. The Vestmannaeyjar (Westman Islands) archipelago lies off the south coast of Iceland, and consists of several small islands, all formed by eruptions in the Holocene epoch. Heimaey , the largest island in the group and the only inhabited one, also contains some material from

4623-452: Was Kirkjufell ( Church Mountain ), owing to its proximity to Kirkjubær. This name was not adopted by the official Icelandic place-naming committee, who chose Eldfell ( Fire Mountain ) instead, despite local opposition. The fountains' Strombolian eruptions continued until 19 February, depositing thick tephra over the northern half of the island and adding to the cone until it was 200 metres (660 ft) high. The eruption column that caused

4692-443: Was no longer visible, although subsurface flows may have continued for a few days longer. Shortly before the end of the eruption, a tiltmeter 1,150 m (3,770 ft) from the crater which had been measuring ground deformation throughout the eruption detected subsidence towards the crater, implying that the shallow magma chamber which had fed the eruption was emptying out. In total, the volume of lava and tephra emitted during

4761-517: Was responsible for some 3% of Iceland's GNP, the effect on the whole country's economy would be significant. Efforts to prevent the loss of the harbour are described further below. Lava flows also moved into the sea east of the island, creating new land that would eventually add over two square kilometres ( 3 ⁄ 4  sq mi) to the island, and into the eastern parts of town, destroying several hundred houses. The flows were thick and blocky ʻaʻā lava (Icelandic: apalhraun ) flows, and covered

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