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63-439: The flaw with electronic tickets is that they only document one very simple type of transaction: a passenger boards a plane at point A and gets off at point B, and the airline charges (1) airfare and (2) taxes. At the time e-tickets were first implemented in the 1990s, this simple data structure was not a major problem because most airlines still practiced product bundling . That is, it was simply expected in most major markets that

126-532: A provider and accessed over the Internet . The process of developing software involves several stages. The stages include software design , programming , testing , release , and maintenance . Software quality assurance and security are critical aspects of software development, as bugs and security vulnerabilities can lead to system failures and security breaches. Additionally, legal issues such as software licenses and intellectual property rights play

189-509: A vulnerability . Software patches are often released to fix identified vulnerabilities, but those that remain unknown ( zero days ) as well as those that have not been patched are still liable for exploitation. Vulnerabilities vary in their ability to be exploited by malicious actors, and the actual risk is dependent on the nature of the vulnerability as well as the value of the surrounding system. Although some vulnerabilities can only be used for denial of service attacks that compromise

252-520: A web application —had become the primary method that companies deliver applications. Software companies aim to deliver a high-quality product on time and under budget. A challenge is that software development effort estimation is often inaccurate. Software development begins by conceiving the project, evaluating its feasibility, analyzing the business requirements, and making a software design . Most software projects speed up their development by reusing or incorporating existing software, either in

315-468: A word processor , spreadsheet , and presentation program into a single office suite . The cable television industry often bundles many TV and movie channels into a single tier or package. The fast food industry combines separate food items into a " combo meal " or "value meal". A bundle of products may be called a package deal ; in recorded music or video games , a compilation or box set ; or in publishing , an anthology . Product bundling

378-410: A centrist candidate by ensuring she/he has centrist social, economic, and law enforcement positions. Advantages: Disadvantages to the consumer: Disadvantages to the seller: In the computer industry, bundled software is distributed with another product such as a piece of computer hardware or other electronic device, or is a group of software packages which are sold together. Software which

441-457: A change request. Frequently, software is released in an incomplete state when the development team runs out of time or funding. Despite testing and quality assurance , virtually all software contains bugs where the system does not work as intended. Post-release software maintenance is necessary to remediate these bugs when they are found and keep the software working as the environment changes over time. New features are often added after

504-486: A code's correct and efficient behavior, its reusability and portability , or the ease of modification. It is usually more cost-effective to build quality into the product from the beginning rather than try to add it later in the development process. Higher quality code will reduce lifetime cost to both suppliers and customers as it is more reliable and easier to maintain . Software failures in safety-critical systems can be very serious including death. By some estimates,

567-411: A consumer, as they do not have to hand-pick each accessory and add-on item (this is the 2nd and 3rd point). Bundling is often thought of mainly as a value pricing strategy, in that product bundles often cost less than if each item were purchased separately. However, bundling can also have other strategic advantages. For example, when a grocery store is making up a gift basket , they can use the design of

630-473: A form of price discrimination . Venkatesh and Mahajan reviewed the research on bundle design and pricing in 2009. A 1997 study by Mercer Management Consulting, in Massachusetts stated that good bundles have five elements: (1) the package is worth more than the "sum of its parts" for the consumer; (2) the bundle brings order and simplicity to a set of confusing or tedious choices; (3) the bundle solves

693-443: A legal regime where liability for software products is significantly curtailed compared to other products. Source code is protected by copyright law that vests the owner with the exclusive right to copy the code. The underlying ideas or algorithms are not protected by copyright law, but are often treated as a trade secret and concealed by such methods as non-disclosure agreements . Software copyright has been recognized since

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756-424: A maximum revenue of only $ 240 by setting a $ 60 price for each product—both consumers will buy both products. Revenue cannot be increased without bundling because as the seller increases the price above $ 60 for one of the goods, one of the consumers will refuse to buy it. With bundling, a seller can generate revenue of $ 320 by bundling the products together and selling the bundle at $ 160. Thus, bundling can be considered

819-400: A package or set of goods or services for a lower price than they would charge if the customer bought all of them separately. Pursuing a bundle pricing strategy allows a business to increase its profit by using a discount to induce customers to buy more than they otherwise would have. Bundling is most successful when: While many well-known examples of bundling are all products or services from

882-437: A problem for the consumer; (4) the bundle is focused and lean in an effort to avoid carrying or including options, goods or services the consumer has no use for; and (5) the bundle generates interest or even controversy. Number 1 can be read as simply that a bundle should cost less than buying each item separately; however, even if the bundle were to cost the same in dollars, a bundle may still be an appealing value proposition for

945-437: A programming language is run through a compiler or interpreter to execute on the architecture's hardware. Over time, software has become complex, owing to developments in networking , operating systems , and databases . Software can generally be categorized into two main types: The rise of cloud computing has introduced the new software delivery model Software as a Service (SaaS). In SaaS, applications are hosted by

1008-521: A serious home theatre enthusiast may wish to have a powered subwoofer with a user-adjustable crossover, a "subsonic" filter and other higher-cost advanced features. In oligopolistic and monopolistic industries, product bundling can be seen as an unfair use of market power because it limits the choices available to the consumer. In these cases it is typically called product tying . Some forms of product bundling have been subject to litigation regarding abuses of market share . United States v. Microsoft

1071-495: A significant role in the distribution of software products. The first use of the word software is credited to mathematician John Wilder Tukey in 1958. The first programmable computers, which appeared at the end of the 1940s, were programmed in machine language . Machine language is difficult to debug and not portable across different computers. Initially, hardware resources were more expensive than human resources . As programs became complex, programmer productivity became

1134-468: A similar value proposition for the buyer: the HTIB package ensures that all of the speakers are of the correct impedance and power handling capabilities, the cables are of the correct type, and the crossover points and other technical details have been set up by the manufacturer. The most serious home theatre enthusiasts do not typically buy HTIB bundles, as they are a more sophisticated target market. As such,

1197-514: A specific version of the software, downloaded, and run on hardware belonging to the purchaser. The rise of the Internet and cloud computing enabled a new model, software as a service (SaaS), in which the provider hosts the software (usually built on top of rented infrastructure or platforms ) and provides the use of the software to customers, often in exchange for a subscription fee . By 2023, SaaS products—which are usually delivered via

1260-415: A system's availability, others allow the attacker to inject and run their own code (called malware ), without the user being aware of it. To thwart cyberattacks, all software in the system must be designed to withstand and recover from external attack. Despite efforts to ensure security, a significant fraction of computers are infected with malware. Programming languages are the format in which software

1323-432: A very high budget may find a $ 10,000 home theatre package attractive, even if it costs a bit more than buying each item separately, because this is an impressive total cost. Bundling in political economy is a type of product bundling in which the "product" is a candidate in an election who markets his or her bundle of attributes and political positions to the voters. For example, a political candidate may market herself as

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1386-454: Is pre-installed on a new computer is an example of bundled software. For example, as of 2017, most desktop, laptop and mobile computers are bought pre-loaded with various software and software applications ("apps"). A pack-in game is a form of bundled software. Early microcomputer companies varied in their decision to bundle software. BYTE in 1984 observed that " Kaypro apparently has tremendous buying and bargaining power", noting that

1449-524: Is enabling the fulfillment, payment and tracking of usage of the services booked through travel agencies (using global distribution systems) or through the airline's direct distribution channels (via airline's CRS) in a seamless process. The IATA EMD standard is documented in IATA Passenger Service Conference Resolution Manual in resolutions 725F, 725G, 725H. Two types of EMD exist: EMD implementation

1512-449: Is most suitable for high volume and high margin (i.e., low marginal cost) products. Research by Yannis Bakos and Erik Brynjolfsson found that bundling was particularly effective for digital information goods with close to zero marginal cost, and could enable a bundler with an inferior collection of products to drive even superior quality goods out of the market place. Most firms are multi-product or multi-service companies faced with

1575-552: Is part of an IATA Simplifying the Business program called e-services, endorsed by IATA Board of Governors. Since 2009, IATA Board of Governors endorsed the replacement in IATA BSP (for GDS agents sales) of current Virtual Miscellaneous Charge Orders (VMCO) and Virtual Miscellaneous Multi-purpose Documents (VMPD) at the end of 2013 by 100% EMD. This mean that starting 2014, VMCO and VMPD should not be processed anymore by IATA BSP. At

1638-453: Is written. Since the 1950s, thousands of different programming languages have been invented; some have been in use for decades, while others have fallen into disuse. Some definitions classify machine code —the exact instructions directly implemented by the hardware—and assembly language —a more human-readable alternative to machine code whose statements can be translated one-to-one into machine code—as programming languages. Programs written in

1701-499: The execution of a computer . Software also includes design documents and specifications. The history of software is closely tied to the development of digital computers in the mid-20th century. Early programs were written in the machine language specific to the hardware. The introduction of high-level programming languages in 1958 allowed for more human-readable instructions, making software development easier and more portable across different computer architectures . Software in

1764-438: The high-level programming languages used to create software share a few main characteristics: knowledge of machine code is not necessary to write them, they can be ported to other computer systems, and they are more concise and human-readable than machine code. They must be both human-readable and capable of being translated into unambiguous instructions for computer hardware. The invention of high-level programming languages

1827-545: The IATA EMD standard for airlines direct sales: The following Ticket System Providers have implemented the IATA EMD standard for travel agencies sales: The following System Providers have developed their own EMD management system : More than 180 airlines implemented the IATA EMD standard at the end of 2014. For example, Finnair was an early adopter of the IATA EMD standard "launching the first EMD in Europe". Air China

1890-608: The Kaypro 10 came with both WordStar and Perfect Writer , plus "two spelling checkers, two spreadsheets, two communications programs and three versions of BASIC". Stating that year that a computer that weighs 30 pounds "really isn't very portable", Creative Computing concluded that "the main reason that the Osborne was a success was not that it was transportable, but that it came with a pile of bundled software". Compaq , by contrast, did not bundle software, stating that "You remove

1953-544: The United States, also known as vMVPDs , such as FuboTV , Hulu + Live TV , Philo , Sling TV , and YouTube TV , launched in the 2010s, providing additional options for consumers who want access to linear cable channels but are dissatisfied with local providers. Additionally, reduced-price bundles of streaming service packages, such as The Disney Bundle , are also offered by some providers. Software Software consists of computer programs that instruct

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2016-834: The addition of many premium channels. In the US prices for pay TV have doubled in the last twenty years, averaging 6% per year, while wages have remained the same for nearly 20 years causing dissatisfaction and many cancellations. Costs have risen 53% since 2007 and Comcast and AT&T 's Direct TV went up in January 2018. With the Digital television transition opportunities for competition to pay TV ushered in online video companies and forcing pay TV companies to examine à la carte cable company packages . A 2018 consumer report shows many subscribers are dissatisfied with cable TV, mainly over prices, which has led to many complaints. Google Fiber

2079-512: The basket item list as a way to promote new products or brands that a customer may not know or as a way to liquidate merchandise that is not selling well. Also, even though many bundles are less expensive than all of the items if purchased separately, in some cases the bundle costs more than if each item was purchased separately; this tactic is particularly effective in high-end retailing where conspicuous consumption and prestige pricing elements come into play. A well-off home theatre enthusiast with

2142-421: The beginning of November 2013, IATA confirmed the sunset of vMCO documents in January 2014 and announced a delay to sunset the vMPD until November 2014. vMCO documents have been removed from IATA BSP in January 2014. Since 1 November 2014, vMCO and vMPD documents are not anymore supported in IATA BSP, therefore IATA BSP only supports EMD and e-tickets. The following Computer reservations system have implemented

2205-399: The bottleneck. The introduction of high-level programming languages in 1958 hid the details of the hardware and expressed the underlying algorithms into the code . Early languages include Fortran , Lisp , and COBOL . There are two main types of software: Software can also be categorized by how it is deployed . Traditional applications are purchased with a perpetual license for

2268-421: The case was whether Microsoft was allowed to bundle its flagship Internet Explorer (IE) web browser software with its Microsoft Windows operating system. Bundling them together is alleged to have been responsible for Microsoft's victory in the browser wars as every Windows user had a copy of Internet Explorer. Cable and satellite television (Pay TV) have bundled TV channels since the inception of both. In

2331-404: The correctness of code, while user acceptance testing helps to ensure that the product meets customer expectations. There are a variety of software development methodologies , which vary from completing all steps in order to concurrent and iterative models. Software development is driven by requirements taken from prospective users, as opposed to maintenance, which is driven by events such as

2394-400: The cost of poor quality software can be as high as 20 to 40 percent of sales. Despite developers' goal of delivering a product that works entirely as intended, virtually all software contains bugs. The rise of the Internet also greatly increased the need for computer security as it enabled malicious actors to conduct cyberattacks remotely. If a bug creates a security risk, it is called

2457-419: The cost of products. Unlike copyrights, patents generally only apply in the jurisdiction where they were issued. Engineer Capers Jones writes that "computers and software are making profound changes to every aspect of human life: education, work, warfare, entertainment, medicine, law, and everything else". It has become ubiquitous in everyday life in developed countries . In many cases, software augments

2520-420: The decision whether to sell products or services separately at individual prices or whether combinations of products should be marketed in the form of "bundles" for which a "bundle price" is asked. Price bundling plays an increasingly important role in many industries (e.g. banking, insurance, software, automotive) and some companies even build their business strategies on bundling. In bundle pricing, companies sell

2583-501: The early years of the cable industry this was necessary due to the technological constraints associated with allowing and blocking channels transmitted via analog methods. The progress towards complete cable, internet, and telephone packages gave subscribers many more options as well as offering hundreds of channels. The "package" price depends on the level of service a customer prefers within each bundle. The services range from low speed internet and minimum channels to high speed internet and

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2646-524: The electronic ticket, the electronic miscellaneous document also supports interline standards. Product bundling In marketing , product bundling is offering several products or services for sale as one combined product or service package. It is a common feature in many imperfectly competitive product and service markets. Industries engaged in the practice include telecommunications services, financial services, health care , information, and consumer electronics . A software bundle might include

2709-438: The form of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) or open-source software . Software quality assurance is typically a combination of manual code review by other engineers and automated software testing . Due to time constraints, testing cannot cover all aspects of the software's intended functionality, so developers often focus on the most critical functionality. Formal methods are used in some safety-critical systems to prove

2772-733: The form of unbundling every possible component of airfare and adding it back on through optional fees. However, because e-tickets are not designed to carry such additional information, many airlines are not able to actually charge those additional fees until the passenger makes their first direct contact with the airline through its Website or at an airport check-in kiosk or counter. This slows down check-in and frustrates consumers. To facilitate these new business processes, airlines either have implemented nonstandard proprietary mechanisms (such as when selling tickets through their own direct-to-consumer Websites) or are tracking such transactions on paper forms, coupons or vouchers. The IATA EMD standard document

2835-544: The freedom from the dealers to really merchandise when you bundle in software ... Why should you be constrained to use the software that comes with a piece of hardware? I think it can tend to inhibit sales over the long run." MacWrite 's inclusion with early Macintosh computers discouraged developers from creating other word processing software for the computer. Many companies sold multimedia upgrade kits—a CD-ROM drive , sound card , speakers, and what Computer Gaming World described as "a boatload of bundled software"—during

2898-439: The functionality of existing technologies such as household appliances and elevators . Software also spawned entirely new technologies such as the Internet , video games , mobile phones , and GPS . New methods of communication, including email , forums , blogs , microblogging , wikis , and social media , were enabled by the Internet. Massive amounts of knowledge exceeding any paper-based library are now available with

2961-437: The lowest price point; mid-tier bundles, the most common type; and higher-cost HTIB bundles made by BOSE and other higher-end manufacturers. At the economy grade HTIB package, the customer is provided with a basic home theatre set-up, with modest sound quality and relatively few options for adjusting the sound. The mid-tier and upper-tier packages offer better performance and more set-up options. All three HTIB tiers, though, have

3024-597: The mid-1970s and is vested in the company that makes the software, not the employees or contractors who wrote it. The use of most software is governed by an agreement ( software license ) between the copyright holder and the user. Proprietary software is usually sold under a restrictive license that limits copying and reuse (often enforced with tools such as digital rights management (DRM)). Open-source licenses , in contrast, allow free use and redistribution of software with few conditions. Most open-source licenses used for software require that modifications be released under

3087-477: The mid-1990s. In the 1990s and in the 2000s (decade) and 2010s, many consumer electronics companies designed home theatre equipment bundles, known as Home Theatre in a Box (HTIB). For a customer who already owned a TV, and in some cases a DVD player or other source for playing back movies, a HTIB package provides all of the electronics hardware, speakers and cables needed to set up a home cinema. There are three grades of HTIB bundles: economy bundles, aimed at

3150-471: The most serious home cinema-philes typically purchase each component (power amplifiers, speakers, subwoofer cabinet, speaker cables) separately, so that they can choose which items meet their specific movie-watching goals. For example, a serious home theatre enthusiast may wish to have a large cabinet subwoofer enclosure with heavy bracing, a type and size of subwoofer cabinet that would not be found in any HTIB bundle due to its large size and high cost. As well,

3213-472: The operating system) can take this saved file and execute it as a process on the computer hardware. Some programming languages use an interpreter instead of a compiler. An interpreter converts the program into machine code at run time , which makes them 10 to 100 times slower than compiled programming languages. Software is often released with the knowledge that it is incomplete or contains bugs. Purchasers knowingly buy it in this state, which has led to

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3276-555: The physical world may also be part of the requirements for a software patent to be held valid. Software patents have been historically controversial . Before the 1998 case State Street Bank & Trust Co. v. Signature Financial Group, Inc. , software patents were generally not recognized in the United States. In that case, the Supreme Court decided that business processes could be patented. Patent applications are complex and costly, and lawsuits involving patents can drive up

3339-549: The price of a ticket included many other ancillary services like (1) checking up to two regular-sized bags and (2) one or two in-flight meals. During the 1990s and 2000s, many airlines became financially distressed due to numerous factors: deregulation , competition from low-cost carriers , rising fuel prices, and economic shocks in the form of the dot-com bubble and later, the Great Recession . Low-cost pioneer Ryanair became notorious for raising ancillary revenue in

3402-408: The release. Over time, the level of maintenance becomes increasingly restricted before being cut off entirely when the product is withdrawn from the market. As software ages , it becomes known as legacy software and can remain in use for decades, even if there is no one left who knows how to fix it. Over the lifetime of the product, software maintenance is estimated to comprise 75 percent or more of

3465-424: The same license, which can create complications when open-source software is reused in proprietary projects. Patents give an inventor an exclusive, time-limited license for a novel product or process. Ideas about what software could accomplish are not protected by law and concrete implementations are instead covered by copyright law . In some countries, a requirement for the claimed invention to have an effect on

3528-427: The same store or provider, such as the sports package for a car or a grocery store's gift basket , in some cases, cross-industry bundles are assembled and sold. For example, some travel agencies have vacation tour bundles that may include air tickets, rail tickets, a rental car, hotels, restaurants, museum and sightseeing attraction tickets and live music event tickets. These bundles include products and services from

3591-568: The smaller companies only Armstrong received top ratings and RCN , Hawaiian Telcom (bought by Cincinnati Bell in 2018), and Grande Communications received slightly higher ratings. The high price of current complete bundling, upwards of $ 180–200, along with poor customer service, surprise bills, and technical difficulties, resulted in Angie's List reporting that these things were the number two most complained about category. Alternative streaming -based providers of cable TV channel bundles in

3654-431: The total development cost. Completing a software project involves various forms of expertise, not just in software programmers but also testing, documentation writing, project management , graphic design , user experience , user support, marketing , and fundraising. Software quality is defined as meeting the stated requirements as well as customer expectations. Quality is an overarching term that can refer to

3717-411: The transportation, accommodation, tourism, food service and entertainment industries. Consumers have heterogeneous demands and such demands for different parts of the bundle product are inversely correlated. For example, assume consumer A values a word processor software at $ 100 and a spreadsheet processor at $ 60, while consumer B values a word processor at $ 60 and spreadsheet at $ 100. Seller can generate

3780-585: Was a set of civil actions filed against Microsoft Corporation pursuant to the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 Sections 1 and 2 on May 18, 1998, by the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) and 20 states. Joel I. Klein was the lead prosecutor. The plaintiffs alleged that Microsoft abused monopoly power on Intel-based personal computers in its handling of operating system sales and web browser sales. The issue central to

3843-439: Was an exception to widespread consumer dissatisfaction. Verizon and the two satellite-TV companies —AT&T's DirecTV and Dish Network rated better than Cox Communications , Comcast , Spectrum , Optimum , CenturyLink , SuddenLink Communications , Atlantic Broadband , Frontier Communications , and Mediacom was rated at the bottom. Internet providers EPB (Fiber Optics) and Google Fiber received top ratings for value. Of

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3906-401: Was simultaneous with the compilers needed to translate them automatically into machine code. Most programs do not contain all the resources needed to run them and rely on external libraries . Part of the compiler's function is to link these files in such a way that the program can be executed by the hardware. Once compiled, the program can be saved as an object file and the loader (part of

3969-410: Was the first Chinese airline to adopt the IATA EMD standard in 2010. The list of airlines having implemented the IATA EMD standard is disclosed by IATA on IATA e-services project page. At the end of 2014, the IATA EMD standard document had been issued and processed in 82 IATA BSP by more than 130 airlines. More than 52 million EMD were issued in 2014, representing more than 2 billion USD. Just like

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