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116-408: Its predecessor business, Harrisons & Crosfield , was formed in 1844 as a tea merchant and traded under that name for 150 years. It became one of the leading British firms in the south-east Asia plantations industry before it gradually divested its interests in the post-colonial era. Diversification initially concentrated on chemicals, timber and builders’ merchants and animal foodstuffs. Eventually,

232-711: A monocle . As a result of his injuries he was invalided out of the army with the Queen's South Africa Medal and three clasps. During the First World War, he enlisted in the Royal Horse Artillery and served in France in 1917–18, attaining the rank of lieutenant. In World War Two he served in the 21st Battalion of the Home Guard and achieved the rank of captain. After graduating from Oxford with

348-481: A stimulating effect in humans, primarily due to its caffeine content. An early credible record of tea drinking dates to the third century AD, in a medical text written by Chinese physician Hua Tuo . It was popularised as a recreational drink during the Chinese Tang dynasty , and tea drinking subsequently spread to other East Asian countries. Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to Europe during

464-539: A Persian ending yi . The Chinese word for tea itself was likely ultimately derived from the non-Sinitic languages of the botanical homeland of the tea plant in southwest China (or Burma ), possibly from an archaic Austro-Asiatic root word * la , meaning "leaf". Tea plants are native to East Asia and the probable center of origin of tea is near the source of the Irrawaddy River from where it spread out fan-wise into southeast China, Indo-China and Assam . Thus,

580-437: A bag within a sealed opaque canister may keep for two years. Green tea deteriorates more rapidly, usually in less than a year. Tightly rolled gunpowder tea leaves keep longer than the more open-leafed Chun Mee tea . Storage life for all teas can be extended by using desiccant or oxygen-absorbing packets, vacuum sealing, or refrigeration in air-tight containers (except green tea, where discrete use of refrigeration or freezing

696-531: A better flavour. Two principal varieties are used: Camellia sinensis var. sinensis, which is used for most Chinese, Formosan and Japanese teas, and C. sinensis var. assamica, used in Pu-erh and most Indian teas (but not Darjeeling). Within these botanical varieties, many strains and modern clonal varieties are known. Leaf size is the chief criterion for the classification of tea plants, with three primary classifications being: Assam type, characterised by

812-461: A canister, paper bag, or other container such as a tea chest . Some whole teas, such as rolled gunpowder tea leaves, which resist crumbling, are vacuum-packed for freshness in aluminised packaging for storage and retail. The loose tea is individually measured for use, allowing for flexibility and flavour control at the expense of convenience. Strainers, tea balls , tea presses, filtered teapots, and infusion bags prevent loose leaves from floating in

928-594: A different variety of tea was endemic to Assam and the northeast region of India, which was then hybridized with Chinese small-leaf-type tea. Using Chinese planting and cultivation techniques, the British colonial government established a tea industry by offering land in Assam to any European who agreed to cultivate it for export. Tea was originally consumed only by Anglo-Indians ; however, it became widely popular in India in

1044-505: A good tea cannot be fully appreciated. By adding the milk afterwards, it is easier to dissolve sugar in the tea and to ensure the desired amount of milk is added, as the colour of the tea can be observed. Historically, the order of steps was taken as an indication of class: only those wealthy enough to afford good-quality porcelain would be confident of its being able to cope with being exposed to boiling water unadulterated with milk. Higher temperature difference means faster heat transfer , so

1160-633: A letter written by Richard Wickham, who ran an East India Company office in Japan, writing to a merchant in Macao requesting "the best sort of chaw" in 1615. Peter Mundy , a traveller and merchant who came across tea in Fujian in 1637, wrote, " chaa – only water with a kind of herb boyled in it". Tea was sold in a coffee house in London in 1657, Samuel Pepys tasted tea in 1660, and Catherine of Braganza took

1276-723: A medical text by the Chinese physician Hua Tuo , who stated, "to drink bitter t'u constantly makes one think better." However, before the Tang dynasty , tea-drinking was primarily a southern Chinese practice centered in Jiankang . Tea was disdained by the Northern dynasties aristocrats, who describe it as inferior to yogurt. It became widely popular during the Tang dynasty, when it spread to Korea, Japan , and Vietnam. The Classic of Tea ,

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1392-593: A new venture in Papua New Guinea , New Britain Palm Oil. In India, Harrisons had 32 estates, mainly tea but some rubber, by 1960. From then there were further acquisitions but a focus on amalgamations created the larger entity of Malayalam Plantations. Despite the disruption caused by the Malayan Emergency , Harrisons' agency companies continued to acquire additional estates. As with India, there

1508-731: A place on the local stamps. Darby was also chairman of the China Borneo Timber Company and instrumental in founding the British Borneo Timber Company (later Sabah Timber) in 1920 with Harrisons owning a third of the shares. Harrisons was now in the timber business and British Borneo was given a monopoly on timber production for not less than 25 years. The second new plantation activity was palm oil. In 1926 Harrisons bought Rambong Sialing estate in Sumatra followed by several more small estates, then

1624-413: A plant to bear seed and about three years before a new plant is ready for harvesting. In addition to a zone 8 climate or warmer, tea plants require at least 127 cm (50 in) of rainfall per year and prefer acidic soils . Many high-quality tea plants are cultivated at elevations of up to 1,500 m (4,900 ft) above sea level. Though at these heights the plants grow more slowly, they acquire

1740-524: A refined setting. One form of Chinese tea ceremony is the Gongfu tea ceremony , which typically uses small Yixing clay teapots and oolong tea. In the United Kingdom , 63% of people drink tea daily. It is customary for a host to offer tea to guests soon after their arrival. Tea is consumed both at home and outside the home, often in cafés or tea rooms . Afternoon tea with cakes on fine porcelain

1856-833: A role in historical events – the Tea Act of 1773 provoked the Boston Tea Party that escalated into the American Revolution . The need to address the issue of British trade deficit because of the trade in tea resulted in the Opium Wars . The Qing Kangxi Emperor had banned foreign products from being sold in China, decreeing in 1685 that all goods bought from China must be paid for in silver coin or bullion. Traders from other nations then sought to find another product, in this case opium, to sell to China to earn back

1972-511: A second in Greats , and the award of an MA degree , Macfadyen entered the Malayan civil service and served for three years from 1902 to 1905. Macfadyen then went into a partnership obtaining public tenders for road construction to open up new land for agriculture. From there he went into planting and developed significant interests in plantations and the rubber industry which he expanded over

2088-469: A treatise on tea and its preparations, was written by the 8th century Chinese writer, Lu Yu . He was known to have influenced tea drinking on a large part in China. Through the centuries, a variety of techniques for processing tea, and a number of different forms of tea, were developed. During the Tang dynasty, tea was steamed, then pounded and shaped into cake form, while in the Song dynasty , loose-leaf tea

2204-431: A tree of up to 16 m (52 ft) if left undisturbed, but cultivated plants are generally pruned to waist height for ease of plucking. The short plants bear more new shoots which provide new and tender leaves and increase the quality of the tea. Only the top 2.5–5 centimetres (1–2 in) of the mature plant are picked. These buds and leaves are called 'flushes'. A plant will grow a new flush every 7 to 15 days during

2320-467: A year later. The Harrisons & Crosfield name was changed to Elementis and the policy was to concentrate on specialty chemicals. The purchase of American Rheox in 1998 for $ 465m was one of the largest chemical acquisitions. Elementis now stood as the world's largest producer of chromium chemicals; Elementis Pigments the world's second largest producer of synthetic iron oxide pigments and the Rheox business

2436-649: A £929.3 million cash and stock offer from U.S. chemicals firm Innospec (IOSP). It dismissed the approaches as significantly undervaluing the company. In 2022 the Chromium business was sold to the Yildirim Group. The business is organised into two divisions: Performance Specialties and Personal Care. Tea Tea is an aromatic beverage prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured or fresh leaves of Camellia sinensis , an evergreen shrub native to East Asia which probably originated in

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2552-510: Is a cultural stereotype. In southwest England, many cafés serve a cream tea , consisting of scones, clotted cream , and jam alongside a pot of tea. Eric Macfadyen Sir Eric Macfadyen (9 February 1879 – 13 July 1966) was an English colonial administrator , rubber planter , businessman and developer of tropical agriculture . He was also Liberal Member of Parliament for Devizes in Wiltshire from 1923 to 1924. Eric Macfadyen

2668-899: Is an evergreen plant that grows mainly in tropical and subtropical climates. Some varieties can tolerate oceanic climates and are cultivated as far north as Cornwall in England, Perthshire in Scotland, Washington in the United States , and Vancouver Island in Canada. In the Southern Hemisphere, tea is grown as far south as Hobart in Tasmania and Waikato in New Zealand. Tea plants are propagated from seed and cuttings; about 4 to 12 years are needed for

2784-468: Is chewed. Tea drinking may have begun in the region of Yunnan , where it was used for medicinal purposes. It is believed that in Sichuan , "people began to boil tea leaves for consumption into a concentrated liquid without the addition of other leaves or herbs, thereby using tea as a bitter yet stimulating drink, rather than as a medicinal concoction." Chinese legends attribute the invention of tea to

2900-480: Is estimated to have diverged from Assam tea around 22,000 years ago, while Chinese Assam tea and Indian Assam tea diverged 2,800 years ago. The divergence of Chinese small-leaf tea and Assam tea would correspond to the last glacial maximum . People in ancient East Asia ate tea for centuries, perhaps even millennia , before ever consuming it as a beverage. They would nibble on the leaves raw, add them to soups or greens , or ferment them and chew them as areca nut

3016-448: Is often consumed with additions to the basic tea leaf and water added during preparation or drinking. Examples of additional processing steps that occur before tea is sold are blending, flavouring, scenting, and decaffeination of teas. Examples of additions added at the point of consumption include milk, sugar and lemon. Tea blending is the combination of different teas together to achieve the final product. Such teas may combine others from

3132-479: Is recommended and temperature variation kept to a minimum). Tea is divided into categories based on how it is processed. At least six different types are produced: After picking, the leaves of C. sinensis soon begin to wilt and oxidize unless immediately dried. An enzymatic oxidation process triggered by the plant's intracellular enzymes causes the leaves to turn progressively darker as their chlorophyll breaks down and tannins are released. This darkening

3248-426: Is still a good-tasting cup of tea, if you like your tea strong and sweet. But let it cool enough to be quaffed and enjoyed, and your lips will be coated with a sticky scum that forms across the surface, which if left undisturbed will become a leathery membrane that can be wound around your finger and flipped away... Canned tea is sold prepared and ready to drink. It was introduced in 1981 in Japan. The first bottled tea

3364-448: Is stopped at a predetermined stage by heating, which deactivates the enzymes responsible. In the production of black teas, halting by heating is carried out simultaneously with drying. Without careful moisture and temperature control during manufacture and packaging, growth of undesired molds and bacteria may make tea unfit for consumption. After basic processing, teas may be altered through additional processing steps before being sold and

3480-491: Is sweetened with either sugar or honey; tea with milk is called a bawarka (" Bavarian style") in Polish and is widely popular. In Australia, tea with milk is known as "white tea". The order of steps in preparing a cup of tea is a much-debated topic and can vary widely between cultures and individuals. Some say it is preferable to add the milk to the cup before the tea, as the high temperature of freshly brewed tea can denature

3596-596: Is that, to take a year at random, there were 79 of them in 1935. Harrisons & Crosfield handled too many agencies to detail separately. The first venture was the purchase of the small Hopton tea estate in Ceylon; Hopton in turn was one of four estates consolidated into the Lunuva Tea Company in 1907. In India , a Calcutta branch was opened in 1900 promoting the export of tea to North America . Extensive purchases of land were made in southern India leading to

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3712-730: The Chronicles of Huayang , it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king. The Qin later conquered the state of Ba and its neighbour Shu , and according to the 17th century scholar Gu Yanwu who wrote in Ri Zhi Lu ( 日知錄 ): "It was after the Qin had taken Shu that they learned how to drink tea." Another possible early reference to tea is found in a letter written by

3828-614: The 1923 general election winning the seat from the sitting Conservative MP, William Cory Heward Bell, albeit by the narrow majority of 628 votes. He defended the seat at the 1924 general election but was swept away by the Conservative revival which was particularly strong in the rural constituencies. At the 1924 election, the Liberal Party lost all its agricultural seats in England and was reduced, overall, to just 40 Parliamentary seats. Macfadyen tried to regain his seat at

3944-641: The Manchus do, and the elite of the Qing Dynasty of the Chinese Empire continued to do so. Hong Kong-style milk tea is based on British habits. Tibetans and other Himalayan peoples traditionally drink tea with milk or yak butter and salt. In Eastern European countries, and in Russia and Italy, tea is commonly served with lemon juice. In Poland, tea is traditionally served with a slice of lemon and

4060-516: The Qin dynasty general Liu Kun who requested that some "real tea" to be sent to him. The earliest known physical evidence of tea was discovered in 2016 in the mausoleum of Emperor Jing of Han in Xi'an , indicating that tea from the genus Camellia was drunk by Han dynasty emperors as early as the second century BC. The Han dynasty work "The Contract for a Youth", written by Wang Bao in 59 BC, contains

4176-623: The Union in 1902. In 1920, Macfadyen married Violet Lucy Stanley, daughter of E. H. S. Champneys, of Sellindge , Kent. They had three sons and three daughters. Macfadyen interrupted his university studies to volunteer as a trooper in the 59th Company, the Imperial Yeomanry to serve in the Second Boer War in 1900–01. He was seriously wounded in an accident which left him with a damaged left eyelid, after which he always wore

4292-552: The 16th century, at which time it was termed chá . The earliest European reference to tea, written as chiai , came from Delle navigationi e viaggi written by Venetian Giambattista Ramusio in 1545. The first recorded shipment of tea by a European nation was in 1607 when the Dutch East India Company moved a cargo of tea from Macao to Java, then two years later, the Dutch bought the first assignment of tea which

4408-565: The 16th century. During the 17th century, drinking tea became fashionable among the English , who started to plant tea on a large scale in British India . The term herbal tea refers to drinks not made from Camellia sinensis . They are the infusions of fruit, leaves, or other plant parts , such as steeps of rosehip , chamomile , or rooibos . These may be called tisanes or herbal infusions to prevent confusion with tea made from

4524-592: The 1930s, with Nestlé introducing the first commercial product in 1946, while Redi-Tea debuted instant iced tea in 1953. Additives such as chai , vanilla, honey or fruit, are popular, as is powdered milk . During the Second World War British and Canadian soldiers were issued an instant tea in their composite ration ("compo") packs. These blocks of instant tea, powdered milk, and sugar were not always well received. As Royal Canadian Artillery Gunner, George C Blackburn observed: But, unquestionably,

4640-663: The 1950s because of a successful advertising campaign by the India Tea Board. The British introduced tea industry to Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) in 1867. Physically speaking, tea has properties of both a solution and a suspension . It is a solution of the water-soluble compounds extracted from the tea leaves, such as the polyphenols and amino acids. Tea infusions are among most consumed beverages globally. Caffeine makes up about 3% of tea's dry weight, which translates to between 30 and 90 milligrams per 250-millilitre ( 8 + 1 ⁄ 2  US fl oz) cup depending on

4756-683: The Association of British Malaya. From the 1920s onwards Macfadyen became more involved in supporting scientific research into tropical agriculture and the modernisation and efficiency of plantation management. Macfadyen was a member of the governing body of the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad , which later became a constituent college of the University of the West Indies , becoming its chairman in 1937. He

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4872-464: The Himalayan countries and Mongolian steppes. In Mongolia, tea bricks were ubiquitous enough to be used as a form of currency. Among Himalayan peoples, compressed tea is consumed by combining it with yak butter and salt to produce butter tea . "Instant tea", similar to freeze-dried instant coffee and an alternative to brewed tea, can be consumed either hot or cold. Instant tea was developed in

4988-735: The Portuguese, who traded in Macao and picked up the Cantonese pronunciation of the word. The more common tea form arrived in the 17th century via the Dutch, who acquired it either indirectly from the Malay teh , or directly from the tê pronunciation in Min Chinese . The third form chai (meaning "spiced tea") originated from a northern Chinese pronunciation of cha , which travelled overland to Central Asia and Persia where it picked up

5104-563: The Rubber Plantations Investment Trust which was also floated. In the midst of all its company flotations, Harrisons & Crosfield had its own reorganization. Retirement and withdrawal of capital by partners was a constraint and the expansion of Harrisons trading required more capital. In 1908 the partnership was converted to a company and was floated on the Stock Exchange. However, the public issue

5220-492: The UK. In 1969 Sabah had been told that its logging concession would lapse in 1982. From then on Sabah Timber began a series of small acquisitions of timber merchants in the UK. The third arm of the diversification came in 1985 with the purchase of Pauls, a leading producer of malting and animal feedstuffs. That was augmented by the acquisition of Associated British Maltsters for £14m in 1987. By 1986, chemicals and industrials became

5336-417: The agency would provide all the administration, technical, financial and commercial expertise but the capital would be raised externally. Frequently, the capital came from a London Stock Exchange flotation, with the agency acting as secretary. The agency might subscribe for only a few per cent of the capital but it exercised effective control. An indication of the profusion of these quoted plantation companies

5452-436: The biggest earner for the first time. The stated strategy was to concentrate on the three main areas – chemicals, timber and building supplies and food & agriculture alongside the retained plantations. This strategy was pursued vigorously until 1994, described as “a year of change”. In chemicals, £34m was spent on buying Pfizer 's iron oxide business in 1990. Durham was now the second-largest iron oxide pigment business in

5568-407: The borderlands of southwestern China and northern Myanmar . Tea is also made, but rarely, from the leaves of Camellia taliensis . After plain water, tea is the most widely consumed drink in the world. There are many different types of tea; some have a cooling, slightly bitter, and astringent flavour, while others have profiles that include sweet, nutty, floral, or grassy notes . Tea has

5684-470: The builders’ supplies business in Ireland and the consumer foods business raised £282m. Although the intention then was for investment to concentrate on chemicals and timber & building supplies while retaining malting, the non-chemicals businesses did not remain for long. In 1997 the timber and foods divisions were sold for £458m and £400m was returned to shareholders. The remaining food business were sold

5800-426: The cake using a small knife, and steeping the extracted pieces in water. During the Tang dynasty, as described by Lu Yu, compressed tea was ground into a powder, combined with hot water, and ladled into bowls, resulting in a "frothy" mixture. In the Song dynasty , the tea powder would instead be whisked with hot water in the bowl. Although no longer practiced in China today, the whisking method of preparing powdered tea

5916-659: The company formed in 1903 to acquire the land for the building of Letchworth in Hertfordshire. He was active in the work of the Town and Country Planning Association , holding a number of offices in the Association including Hon. Treasurer (1950) and Chairman of the Council (1951–1956). Macfadyen was described in his obituary in The Times newspaper as a Liberal of the old school. He was Liberal candidate for Devizes at

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6032-403: The connoisseurs' arguments against paper tea bags by way of its three-dimensional tetrahedron shape, which allows more room for tea leaves to expand while steeping. However, some types of pyramid tea bags have been criticised as being environmentally unfriendly, since their synthetic material is not as biodegradable as loose tea leaves and paper tea bags. The tea leaves are packaged loosely in

6148-471: The disposal of the specialty rubber, international pigments and the surfactants businesses. A further change in emphasis to the Elementis business came with the move into personal care with the acquisition of Fancor, one of North America's largest lanolin and lanolin derivatives suppliers. This was a prelude to a more substantial acquisition when in 2017 Elementis nearly trebled its personal care business with

6264-462: The domestic market while Lampard opened offices around the world to handle the export business and to develop local trade. Lampard visited Russia in 1895 to establish a tea trade there and immediately sailed for Ceylon to organize the export of tea to what would prove to be its largest market. He then opened a branch in Columbo under the name of Crosfield Lampard setting Harrisons & Crosfield on

6380-495: The earlier milk is added, the slower the drink cools. A 2007 study published in the European Heart Journal found certain beneficial effects of tea may be lost through the addition of milk. In 1907, American tea merchant Thomas Sullivan began distributing samples of his tea in small bags of silk with a drawstring. Consumers noticed they could simply leave the tea in the bag and reuse it with fresh tea. However,

6496-493: The exception of the dietary mineral manganese , at 0.5 mg per cup or 26% of the Reference Daily Intake (RDI). Fluoride is sometimes present in tea; certain types of "brick tea", made from old leaves and stems, have the highest levels, enough to pose a health risk if much tea is drunk, which has been attributed to high levels of fluoride in soils, acidic soils, and long brewing. Camellia sinensis

6612-462: The feature of Compo rations destined to be remembered beyond all others is Compo tea...Directions say to "sprinkle powder on heated water and bring to the boil, stirring well, three heaped teaspoons to one pint of water." Every possible variation in the preparation of this tea was tried, but...it always ended up the same way. While still too hot to drink, it is a good-looking cup of strong tea. Even when it becomes just cool enough to be sipped gingerly, it

6728-478: The firm concentrated only on chemicals and changed its name to Elementis. The Harrisons & Crosfield partnership was formed in 1844 between Daniel and Smith Harrison and Joseph Crosfield to trade in tea and coffee , which was to be the core of the business until the end of the nineteenth century. Daniel, born in 1795, was the senior having been trading in Liverpool since the 1820s. His brother Smith Harrison

6844-410: The first known reference to boiling tea. Among the tasks listed to be undertaken by the youth, the contract states that "he shall boil tea and fill the utensils" and "he shall buy tea at Wuyang". The first record of tea cultivation is dated to this period, during which tea was cultivated on Meng Mountain ( 蒙山 ) near Chengdu . Another early credible record of tea drinking dates to the 3rd century AD, in

6960-423: The formation of Allied Sumatra Plantations in 1926. The purchase of some large estates in 1928 meant that palm oil became a major activity for Harrisons. In a move which took Harrisons further into industrial processes, Wilkinson Process Rubber was formed in 1926 to develop the process patented in 1923 by Bernard Wilkinson. The low temperature vulcanization process allowed the fresh liquid rubber to be compounded on

7076-894: The formation of the East India Tea and Produce Company, the Malayalam Rubber and Produce Company and the Meppadi Wynaad Tea Company. The turn of the century saw the development of the rubber plantation, natural rubber previously being tapped in the wild in South America. The Straits Plantations Ltd (operating in the then Straits Settlements ) transferred to the Harrisons & Crosfield agency in 1902 but later companies were formed by Harrisons to buy smaller estates and group them into larger company structures. The Pataling Rubber Estates Syndicate

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7192-413: The greatest challenges came from the post-war decolonization and the gradual desire of the newly independent countries to control their own raw materials. This was exacerbated by insurgency in both Malaysia and Indonesia . Despite this, and the earlier determination not to be too reliant on one region, Harrisons continued to find opportunities for growth in south east Asia. One of the undoubted successes

7308-643: The growing season. Leaves that are slow in development tend to produce better-flavoured teas. Several teas are available from specified flushes; for example, Darjeeling tea is available as first flush (at a premium price), second flush, monsoon and autumn. Assam second flush or "tippy" tea is considered superior to first flush, because of the gold tips that appear on the leaves. Pests that can afflict tea plants include mosquito bugs, genus Helopeltis , which are true bugs and not to be confused with dipterous insects of family Culicidae ('mosquitos'). Mosquito bugs can damage leaves both by sucking plant materials, and by

7424-499: The history of Camellia sinensis 's consumption, there is no high-quality evidence showing that tea consumption gives significant benefits other than possibly increasing alertness, an effect caused by caffeine in the tea leaves. In clinical research conducted in the early 21st century, it was found there is no scientific evidence to indicate that consuming tea affects any disease or improves health. Black and green teas contain no essential nutrients in significant amounts, with

7540-477: The largest leaves; China type, characterised by the smallest leaves; and Cambodian type, characterised by leaves of intermediate size. The Cambodian-type tea ( C. assamica subsp. lasiocaly ) was originally considered a type of Assam tea. However, later genetic work showed that it is a hybrid between Chinese small-leaf tea and Assam-type tea. Darjeeling tea appears to be a hybrid between Chinese small-leaf tea and Assam-type large-leaf tea. A tea plant will grow into

7656-452: The latter two prongs were sold leaving the specialty chemicals company that is now Elementis. The corporate building block that became the chemical division was Durham Chemicals and in 1947 Harrisons formed a joint venture with Durham in Canada to build a zinc oxide manufacturing facility. Zinc oxide has extensive uses but an important one was in the vulcanization of rubber, which was the initial attraction for Harrisons. Another joint company

7772-586: The laying of eggs (oviposition) within the plant. Spraying with synthetic insecticides may be deemed appropriate. Other pests are Lepidopteran leaf feeders and various tea diseases . Tea is mainly grown in Asia and Africa, with smaller areas in South America and around the Black and Caspian Seas. The four biggest tea-producing countries are China, India, Kenya and Sri Lanka, together representing 81% of world tea production. Smaller hubs of production include such places as São Miguel Island, Azores , in Portugal, and Guria , in Georgia. In 2022, global production of tea

7888-399: The loss of the Russian market in 1917 caused a collapse in Ceylon tea exports. There was a recognition that Harrisons had over expanded before the War. In 1921 it acted as agents for as many as 52 plantation companies in Malaya, Sumatra, Ceylon, southern India, Java and Borneo ; a period of consolidation followed. The 1930 recession proved even more severe and the rubber estates lost money in

8004-494: The mythical Shennong (in central and northern China) in 2737 BC, although evidence suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China (Sichuan/Yunnan area). The earliest written records of tea come from China. The word tú 荼 appears in the Shijing and other ancient texts to signify a kind of "bitter vegetable" ( 苦菜 ), and it is possible that it referred to many different plants such as sow thistle , chicory , or smartweed , as well as tea. In

8120-500: The natural home of the tea plant is considered to be within the comparatively small fan-shaped area between Nagaland , Manipur and Mizoram along the Burma frontier in the west, through China as far as the Zhejiang Province in the east, and from this line generally south through the hills to Burma and Thailand to Vietnam . The west–east axis indicated above is about 2,400 km long extending from longitude 95°-120°E. The north–south axis covers about 1,920 km, starting from

8236-616: The northern part of Burma, latitude 29°N passing through Yunnan , Tongkin , Thailand, Laos and on to Annan, reaching latitude 11°N. Chinese (small-leaf) type tea ( C. sinensis var. sinensis ) may have originated in southern China possibly with hybridization of unknown wild tea relatives. However, since there are no known wild populations of this tea, its origin is speculative. Given their genetic differences forming distinct clades , Chinese Assam-type tea ( C. sinensis var. assamica ) may have two different parentages – one being found in southern Yunnan ( Xishuangbanna , Pu'er City ) and

8352-408: The other in western Yunnan ( Lincang , Baoshan ). Many types of Southern Yunnan Assam tea have been hybridized with the closely related species Camellia taliensis . Unlike Southern Yunnan Assam tea, Western Yunnan Assam tea shares many genetic similarities with Indian Assam-type tea (also C. sinensis var. assamica ). Thus, Western Yunnan Assam tea and Indian Assam tea both may have originated from

8468-424: The path to what would be its dominant activity for nearly a century: tropical plantations of tea, followed by rubber , timber and palm oil . Harrison & Crosfield was one of a number of British firms that controlled plantations across south-east Asia through the agency system. The development of a plantation required committing substantial capital for a period of years before the first crops matured. Typically,

8584-433: The potential of this distribution and packaging method would not be fully realised until later. During World War II, tea was rationed in the United Kingdom. In 1953, after rationing in the UK ended, Yorkshire -based tea manufacturer Tetley launched the tea bag in the UK, and it was an immediate success. The "pyramid tea bag" (or sachet), introduced by Lipton and PG Tips/Scottish Blend in 1996, attempts to address one of

8700-507: The presence of polyphenols . These are the most abundant compounds in tea leaves, making up 30–40% of their composition. Polyphenols in tea include flavonoids , epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and other catechins . Although there has been preliminary clinical research on whether green or black teas may protect against various human diseases, there is no evidence that tea polyphenols have any effect on health or lowering disease risk. Although health benefits have been assumed throughout

8816-406: The proteins found in fresh milk, similar to the change in taste of UHT milk, resulting in an inferior-tasting beverage. Others insist it is better to add the milk to the cup after the tea, as black tea is often brewed as close to boiling as possible. The addition of milk chills the beverage during the crucial brewing phase, if brewing in a cup rather than using a pot, meaning the delicate flavour of

8932-588: The purchase of SummitReheis for $ 362m; based in the US and Germany it specialized in anti-perspirant additives. This was followed in 2018 by the creation of a new division by the $ 600m acquisition of Mondo Minerals, described as the “second largest producer of premium talc based additives in the world”. Following this acquisition, the group's main divisions were then described as personal care; coatings; talc; chromium; and energy. During 2020 and 2021 Elementis rejected three offers from U.S. rival Minerals Technologies (MTX), and

9048-577: The purchase of the Dillons Chemical Company of Canada in 1938. The traditional estates were not neglected and a significant purchase was made in 1925 - the Prang Besar rubber estate near Kuala Lumpur. This estate led the research into improved planting and breeding and its techniques were applied to other Harrisons estates. The challenges were partly economic as natural rubber faced increasing competition from synthetics. However,

9164-431: The purchases of Wodburys timber business in the US in 1988, followed in the UK by Southern-Evans for £85m in 1988 and Crossley Builders Merchants for £113m in 1990. This gave 255 Harcros branches in the UK and 315 worldwide. Pauls was expanded in 1992 with the £67m acquisition of Unilever's animal food business, British Oil and Cake Mills, creating BOCM Pauls . 1994 was deemed a year of change. The sale of London Sumatra,

9280-707: The same cultivation area or several different ones. The aim is to obtain consistency, better taste, higher price, or some combination of the three. Flavoured and scented teas are enhancements of the base tea. This can be accomplished through directly adding flavouring agents, such as ginger , cloves , mint leaves , cardamom , bergamot (found in Earl Grey ), vanilla , and spearmint . Alternatively, because tea easily retains odours, it can be placed in proximity to an aromatic ingredient to absorb its aroma, as in traditional jasmine tea . The addition of milk to tea in Europe

9396-468: The same parent plant in the area where southwestern China, Indo-Burma, and Tibet meet. However, as the Indian Assam tea shares no haplotypes with Western Yunnan Assam tea, Indian Assam tea is likely to have originated from an independent domestication. Some Indian Assam tea appears to have hybridized with the species Camellia pubicosta . Assuming a generation of 12 years, Chinese small-leaf tea

9512-471: The same time Malayalam Plantations merged with Harrison & Crossfield's other interests to form Harrisons Malayalam . London Sumatra was sold in 1994 and the Papua New Guinea company followed in 1996. The post-war diversification started with chemicals and went on to include timber and builders’ merchants; and malting and animal foodstuffs to make a three-pronged industrial company. Eventually,

9628-633: The silver they were required to pay for tea and other commodities. The subsequent attempts by the Chinese Government to curtail the trade in opium led to war. Chinese small-leaf-type tea was introduced into India in 1836 by the British in an attempt to break the Chinese monopoly on tea. In 1841, Archibald Campbell brought seeds of Chinese tea from the Kumaun region and experimented with planting tea in Darjeeling . The Alubari tea garden

9744-529: The spot and it was marketed under the name of Linatex. A factory was built in Selangor , partly owned by Harrisons, which also acted as Secretary and sole European agent. From the late 1920s the provision of industrial supplies to the plantations widened the agency business and in particular took Harrisons into chemicals in North America. There were a series of acquisitions in the late 1930s culminating in

9860-471: The tax on tea, thereby eliminating the smuggling trade, by 1785. In Britain and Ireland, tea was initially consumed as a luxury item on special occasions, such as religious festivals, wakes, and domestic work gatherings. The price of tea in Europe fell steadily during the 19th century, especially after Indian tea began to arrive in large quantities; by the late 19th century tea had become an everyday beverage for all levels of society. The popularity of tea played

9976-400: The tea and over-brewing. A traditional method uses a three-piece lidded teacup called a gaiwan , the lid of which is tilted to decant the tea into a different cup for consumption. Tea bricks or compressed tea are produced for convenience in transport, storage, and ageing. It can usually be stored longer without spoilage than loose leaf tea. Compressed tea is prepared by loosening leaves from

10092-467: The tea plant. The etymology of the various words for tea reflects the history of transmission of tea drinking culture and trade from China to countries around the world. Nearly all of the words for tea worldwide fall into three broad groups: te , cha and chai , present in English as tea , cha or char , and chai . The earliest of the three to enter English is cha , which came in the 1590s via

10208-546: The tea-drinking habit to the English court when she married Charles II in 1662. Tea, however, was not widely consumed in the British Isles until the 18th century and remained expensive until the latter part of that period. English drinkers preferred to add sugar and milk to black tea, and black tea overtook green tea in popularity in the 1720s. Tea smuggling during the 18th century led to the general public being able to afford and consume tea. The British government removed

10324-574: The tree years 1930 to 1932. Despite the difficult trading conditions, opportunities were pursued, taking the Group into timber, palm oil and chemicals. One of the strategic purchases took place at the end of the War when Harrisons bought Darby & Co, a trading business in North Borneo with a blue-chip list of international agencies. Walter Darby, the founder, was a man whose local prominence earned him

10440-427: The type, brand, and brewing method. A study found that the caffeine content of one gram of black tea ranged from 22 to 28 mg, while the caffeine content of one gram of green tea ranged from 11 to 20 mg, reflecting a significant difference. Tea contains small amounts of theobromine and theophylline , which are xanthines and stimulants , similar to caffeine. The astringency in tea can be attributed to

10556-473: The world's largest plantation companies. By 1983 Harrisons had acquired complete control. Harrisons gradually faced increased demands from its host governments, variously in the form of higher royalties, increased taxation, and a desire to see greater local ownership. The plantations in Sri Lanka were the first to go, being nationalized in 1975. In 1982, the local entity Harrisons Malaysian Plantations Berhad

10672-454: The world; the UK leader for zinc oxide and only producer of aluminum chloride. British and American Chrome were world leaders in chromium chemicals. Durham Chemicals also had a substantial market position in polymer additives and the original Linatex remained an important specialty. The timber and builders’ merchants division, now trading under the Harcros name, was substantially increased by

10788-972: The years becoming chairman and director of numerous related companies. He helped establish the United Planters Association and was sometime Chairman of the Planters Association of Malaya. He was Chairman of the Rubber Growers' Association in 1927 and sometime President of the Institution of the Rubber Industry. He was a member of the First Federal Council of the Federated Malay States between 1911–1916 and again from 1919 to 1920. In 1931 and 1941 he served as President of

10904-429: Was Eric Macfadyen who had been active in rubber estates before the War. He joined Harrisons & Crosfield in 1918 to become the leading force for 40 years; with H. J. Welch and Eric Miller, the three men ran the Group during the inter-war years. The challenges were similar to those of any international trading company. There was a sharp recession in 1921 and the rubber price fell from 2s-1d in 1919 to 9d in 1922 For tea,

11020-525: Was knighted in 1943 for services to tropical agriculture. He also served as Chairman of the Ross Institute and Hospital for Tropical diseases , Putney Heath from 1946 to 1958 and was particularly connected to its work to combat malaria . Macfadyen also took an interest in the building of Garden Cities and other aspects of the creation of open, landscaped town planning . He was sometime vice-chairman and later Chairman of First Garden City Ltd,

11136-433: Was 23 years younger while Joseph Crosfield had previously been an employee of Daniel. 80% of the business was in tea, imported from China , and 20% coffee from South America . The firm moved to London in 1854 and by the 1860s it was the third largest tea trader. Control passed to the next generation in the second half of the century, with two Harrison and three Crosfield partners. Until the 1890s, Harrisons & Crosfield

11252-539: Was 29.8 million tonnes , led by China with 49% and India with 20% of the world total. Kenya , Sri Lanka , and Turkey were secondary producers. Storage conditions determine the shelf life of tea; that of black teas is greater than that of green teas. Some, such as flower teas, may last only a month or so. Others, such as pu-erh, improve with age. To remain fresh and prevent mold, tea needs to be stored away from heat, light, air, and moisture. Tea must be kept at room temperature in an air-tight container. Black tea in

11368-630: Was Durham Raw Materials, which was to be the sole selling agency for Durham products, including the Neoprene agency in the UK Although the Canadian venture failed, the relationship with Durham developed and by 1962 Harrisons had acquired a majority holding; the business was then concentrating on zinc salts and metal soaps. In 1973, Albright & Wilson's chrome business was bought and renamed British Chrome & Chemicals and substantial investment

11484-485: Was North Borneo Timber, later Sabah Timber. Despite losing its monopoly in 1950, improved mechanical logging took timber production from around 2m cubic feet to 19m in 1969. By the time that logging ended in 1982, Sabah had established a thriving timber business in the U.K. Another growth market developed after the war was oil palms, often planted on old rubber estates but Harrisons also acquired virgin land in Sabah and formed

11600-550: Was a consolidation of estates into what became known as "the three sisters": Golden Hope, Pataling and London Asiatic. After a fierce takeover battle with outsiders, these three companies were merged in 1977 into Harrisons Malaysian Estates. In Indonesia, Harrisons struggled with changing nationalist demands, losing control of its agencies at times. Around 1960 the London Sumatra Group was established to merge its 16 agency companies; others were added and it became one of

11716-662: Was born in Whalley Range , Manchester, the son of the Reverend John Macfadyen, a Congregationalist minister, and his wife Elizabeth (née Anderson) who came from Greenock . Macfadyen attended Lynams Preparatory School , also called the Dragon School , in Oxford , from where he won a scholarship to go to Clifton College , Bristol. He later attended Wadham College, Oxford , where he was president of

11832-435: Was confined to preference shares; the ordinary shares remained with the partners and senior employees. The Company continues to this day as Elementis (Holdings). The inter-war years were difficult for the plantation companies, yet Harrisons managed to secure new areas for growth. Arthur Lampard died in 1916 and Heath Clark retired in 1924 but new people were ready to cope with the challenges and opportunities. One in particular

11948-452: Was developed and became popular. During the Yuan and Ming dynasties, unoxidized tea leaves were first stirred in a hot dry pan, then rolled and air-dried, a process that stops the oxidation process that would have turned the leaves dark, thereby allowing tea to remain green. In the 15th century, oolong tea, in which the leaves are allowed to partially oxidize before being heated in the pan,

12064-459: Was developed. Western tastes, however, favoured the fully oxidized black tea , and the leaves were allowed to oxidize further. Yellow tea was an accidental discovery in the production of green tea during the Ming dynasty, when apparently careless practices allowed the leaves to turn yellow, which yielded a different flavour. Tea was first introduced to Western priests and merchants in China during

12180-546: Was first mentioned in 1680 by the epistolist Madame de Sévigné . Many teas are traditionally drunk with milk in cultures where dairy products are consumed. These include Indian masala chai and British tea blends. These teas tend to be very hearty varieties of black tea which can be tasted through the milk, such as Assams, or the East Friesian blend. Milk is thought to neutralise remaining tannins and reduce acidity. The Han Chinese do not usually drink milk with tea but

12296-475: Was formed in 1903; Golden Hope Rubber Estate and Anglo-Malay Rubber in 1905; and London Asiatic Rubber and Produce in 1907. In that same year Lampard visited Sumatra and repeated the consolidation process that had taken place in Malaya . Tandjong Rubber Company and United Serdang (Sumatra) Rubber Plantations were both formed and floated. In 1909 holdings in many of the tea and rubber companies were transferred to

12412-551: Was formed to acquire HME; Harrisons retained 30% and received £130m cash. After some poor plantation results, and pressure from outside shareholders, Harrisons decided to reduce further its dependence on plantations by divesting its minority holdings in Harrisons Malayalam and Harrisons Malaysian Plantations Berhad but retaining London Sumatra Plantations and Papua New Guinea. In 1983, 34% of Malayalam Plantations were sold to Indian nationals, leaving Harrisons with 40%. At

12528-726: Was from Hirado in Japan to be shipped to Europe. Tea became a fashionable drink in The Hague in the Netherlands, and the Dutch introduced the drink to Germany , France , and across the Atlantic to New Amsterdam (New York). In 1567, Russian people came in contact with tea when the Cossack Atamans Petrov and Yalyshev visited China. The Mongolian Khan donated to Tsar Michael I four poods (65–70 kg) of tea in 1638. According to Jeremiah Curtin , it

12644-591: Was introduced by an Indonesian tea company, PT. Sinar Sosro in 1969 with the brand name Teh Botol Sosro (or Sosro bottled tea). In 1983, Swiss-based Bischofszell Food Ltd. was the first company to bottle iced tea on an industrial scale. In many cultures, tea is consumed at elevated social events, such as the tea party . Tea ceremonies have arisen in different cultures, such as the Chinese and Japanese traditions, each of which employs certain techniques and ritualised protocol of brewing and serving tea for enjoyment in

12760-476: Was just a respected London merchant. By then the two men who were to revolutionize the business had joined: Arthur Lampard in 1881 and Heath Clark in 1885. The first change was that rather than just merchanting, the firm began blending its own tea under the brand “Nectar” and a large export business was developed from Ceylon Wharf on the South Bank . (The Nectar brand was later sold to Twinings ). Clark handled

12876-439: Was made in the production of chromic oxide . A complementary business was bought in the US in 1979 and renamed American Chrome & Chemicals, making Durham a world leader in chrome and iron oxide pigments. In the early 1980s Durham Chemicals built a plant for aluminum chloride and by 1984 had over 60% of the UK market. The timber and building materials division was a natural extension of Sabah Timber's business downstream into

12992-716: Was opened in 1856, and Darjeeling tea began to be produced. In 1848, Robert Fortune was sent by the East India Company on a mission to China to bring the tea plant back to Great Britain. He began his journey in high secrecy as his mission occurred in the lull between the First Opium War and the Second Opium War . The Chinese tea plants he brought back were introduced to the Himalayas , though most did not survive. The British had discovered that

13108-585: Was possibly in 1636 that Vassili Starkov was sent as envoy to the Altyn Khan . He was given 250 pounds of tea as a gift to the tsar. Starkov at first refused, seeing no use for a load of dead leaves, but the Khan insisted. Thus was tea introduced to Russia. In 1679, Russia concluded a treaty on regular tea supplies from China via camel caravan in exchange for furs. It is today considered the de facto national beverage. The first record of tea in English came from

13224-470: Was the unprofitability of the UK chromium business and the plant was controversially closed in 2009. Further small acquisitions to enlarge the coatings business were made in 2012 and 2013: Watercryl Quimica Ltda of Brazil provided an entry to Latin America and in the U.S., Hi-Mar was a leading supplier of defoamers to the coatings, construction and oilfield drilling industries. Increased specialization led to

13340-491: Was the world's largest producer of rheological additives for coatings. Chromium was further enlarged with the acquisition of the chromium chemicals business of OxyChem in the US in 2002, making it the country's largest producer. This was followed by the construction of a chromium plant in China in 2004. In that same year, Elementis acquired the Dutch Sasol Servo, a supplier of coatings additives, for €48m. One negative

13456-457: Was transmitted to Japan by Zen Buddhist monks, and is still used to prepare matcha in the Japanese tea ceremony . Chinese pu-erh is often distributed in the form, as other teas may sometimes be. Compressed tea was the most popular form of tea in China during the Tang dynasty. By the beginning of the Ming dynasty, it had been displaced by loose-leaf tea. It remains popular, however, in

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