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119-574: Aronson grew up in extreme poverty in Revere, Massachusetts , during the Great Depression . His was the only Jewish family in the neighborhood, and it was not rare for Aronson to be bullied on the way home from Hebrew school by anti-Semitic gangs. He believes that every life's progress is based on a combination of luck, opportunity, talent, and intuition. Although his high school grades were mediocre, his SAT scores were high enough to earn him

238-459: A Beachmont school teacher, sang "The Sword of Bunker Hill," and George Arthur Sackett recited "The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere." This poem was previously recited when North Chelsea changed her name to Revere and then again, in 1899, at the dedication of the town hall. In the evening from 8.30 to 9, a reception to the Mayor was held, and then followed a grand ball and banquet. The grand march, headed by

357-471: A child. His undergraduate years at Brandeis brought him closer to a number of respected psychologists, but Maslow was his primary mentor and had the biggest impact on his early academic career. Aronson earned his bachelor's degree from Brandeis in 1954. He went on to earn a master's degree from Wesleyan University in 1956, where he worked with David McClelland , and a Ph.D. in psychology from Stanford University in 1959, where his doctoral advisor and mentor

476-452: A concept devised by Mark Shriver and Tony Frudakis , is not an objective measure of the biological aspects of race as Shriver and Frudakis claim it is. She argues that it is actually just a "local category shaped by the U.S. context of its production, especially the forensic aim of being able to predict the race or ethnicity of an unknown suspect based on DNA found at the crime scene". Recent studies of human genetic clustering have included

595-602: A concept often translated as "race" was associated with supposed common descent from the Yellow Emperor , and used to stress the unity of ethnic groups in China. Brutal conflicts between ethnic groups have existed throughout history and across the world. The first post- Graeco-Roman published classification of humans into distinct races seems to be François Bernier 's Nouvelle division de la terre par les différents espèces ou races qui l'habitent ("New division of Earth by

714-487: A crisis of violence between ethnic groups. Aronson, then at the University of Texas, was called in as a consultant by a school administrator who was also a former student. Aronson noticed that the schools' highly competitive atmosphere was exacerbating the already tense ethnic rivalry. Together with his graduate students, he developed a model of teaching practice to encourage a culture of shared goals and mutual support. In

833-748: A day, until we were almost as smart as our dogs." Aronson has written more than twenty books, including textbooks, popularizations and one book of children's fiction with his granddaughter Ruth Aronson. In 2010, Psychology Press published a book of essays and scholarly articles by his friends, colleagues, and former students celebrating his influence on their work: The Scientist and the Humanist: A Festschrift in Honor of Elliot Aronson. Revere, Massachusetts Juan Pablo Jaramillo Michelle Kelley Marc Silvestri Anthony Zambuto Joanne McKenna Ira Novoselsky Anthony Cogliandro Paul Argenzio Revere

952-404: A debate over how genetic variation is organized, with clusters and clines as the main possible orderings. Serre & Pääbo (2004) argued for smooth, clinal genetic variation in ancestral populations even in regions previously considered racially homogeneous, with the apparent gaps turning out to be artifacts of sampling techniques. Rosenberg et al. (2005) disputed this and offered an analysis of

1071-514: A female householder with no husband present, 6.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36.6% were non-families. 28.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.78 and the average family size was 3.41. The age distribution of the population had 20.1% under the age of 18, 7.2% from 18 to 24, 31.6% from 25 to 44, 26.7% from 45 to 64, and 14.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age

1190-583: A given society . The term came into common usage during the 16th century, when it was used to refer to groups of various kinds, including those characterized by close kinship relations. By the 17th century, the term began to refer to physical ( phenotypical ) traits, and then later to national affiliations. Modern science regards race as a social construct , an identity which is assigned based on rules made by society. While partly based on physical similarities within groups, race does not have an inherent physical or biological meaning. The concept of race

1309-405: A great deal more diversity than elsewhere and that diversity should decrease the further from Africa a population is sampled. Hence, the 85% average figure is misleading: Long and Kittles find that rather than 85% of human genetic diversity existing in all human populations, about 100% of human diversity exists in a single African population, whereas only about 60% of human genetic diversity exists in

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1428-460: A high Italian American population where they make up 22.7% of the population. The population density was 9,420 inhabitants per square mile (3,640/km ). There were 20,181 housing units at an average density of 3,372 units per square mile (1,302 units/km ). There were 19,223 households and 12,196 families living in the city. Of the households, 43.8% had children under the age of 18, 42.0% were headed by married couples living together, 14.6% had

1547-517: A host of other similarities and differences (for example, blood type) that do not correlate highly with the markers for race. Thus, anthropologist Frank Livingstone's conclusion was that, since clines cross racial boundaries, "there are no races, only clines". In a response to Livingstone, Theodore Dobzhansky argued that when talking about race one must be attentive to how the term is being used: "I agree with Dr. Livingstone that if races have to be 'discrete units', then there are no races, and if 'race'

1666-723: A large multiethnic population in the United States, and "detected only modest genetic differentiation between different current geographic locales within each race/ethnicity group. Thus, ancient geographic ancestry, which is highly correlated with self-identified race/ethnicity – as opposed to current residence – is the major determinant of genetic structure in the U.S. population." Witherspoon et al. (2007) have argued that even when individuals can be reliably assigned to specific population groups, it may still be possible for two randomly chosen individuals from different populations/clusters to be more similar to each other than to

1785-635: A locus-by-locus analysis of variation to derive taxonomy, it is possible to construct a human classification system based on characteristic genetic patterns, or clusters inferred from multilocus genetic data . Geographically based human studies since have shown that such genetic clusters can be derived from analyzing of a large number of loci which can assort individuals sampled into groups analogous to traditional continental racial groups. Joanna Mountain and Neil Risch cautioned that while genetic clusters may one day be shown to correspond to phenotypic variations between groups, such assumptions were premature as

1904-602: A population of 62,186 inhabitants. Revere borders the towns of Winthrop and Chelsea , and the Boston neighborhood of East Boston to the south, Everett and Malden to the west, Saugus and Lynn to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 10 square miles (26 km ), of which 5.9 square miles (15 km )

2023-454: A product of the colonial enterprises of European powers from the 16th to 18th centuries which identified race in terms of skin color and physical differences. Author Rebecca F. Kennedy argues that the Greeks and Romans would have found such concepts confusing in relation to their own systems of classification. According to Bancel et al., the epistemological moment where the modern concept of race

2142-413: A race for political reasons. When people define and talk about a particular conception of race, they create a social reality through which social categorization is achieved. In this sense, races are said to be social constructs. These constructs develop within various legal, economic, and sociopolitical contexts, and may be the effect, rather than the cause, of major social situations. While race

2261-449: A randomly chosen member of their own cluster. They found that many thousands of genetic markers had to be used in order for the answer to the question "How often is a pair of individuals from one population genetically more dissimilar than two individuals chosen from two different populations?" to be "never". This assumed three population groups separated by large geographic ranges (European, African and East Asian). The entire world population

2380-458: A social construct, differences in genetic ancestry that happen to correlate to many of today's racial constructs are real". In response to Reich, a group of 67 scientists from a broad range of disciplines wrote that his concept of race was "flawed" as "the meaning and significance of the groups is produced through social interventions". Although commonalities in physical traits such as facial features, skin color, and hair texture comprise part of

2499-423: A work-study scholarship at Brandeis University. Influenced by his father, he began his college career majoring in economics. However, he promptly changed his major to psychology after accidentally wandering into an Introductory Psychology lecture taught by Abraham Maslow . After attending this lecture, he realized that there was an entire science devoted to exploring the kinds of questions that had intrigued him as

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2618-405: Is a broad scientific agreement that essentialist and typological conceptions of race are untenable, scientists around the world continue to conceptualize race in widely differing ways. While some researchers continue to use the concept of race to make distinctions among fuzzy sets of traits or observable differences in behavior, others in the scientific community suggest that the idea of race

2737-514: Is a city in Suffolk County, Massachusetts , located approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) from downtown Boston . Founded as North Chelsea in 1846, it was renamed in 1871 after Revolutionary War patriot Paul Revere . In 1914, the Town of Revere voted to become a city and was incorporated as a city with the inauguration of its first mayor on January 4, 1915. At the 2020 census , the city had

2856-447: Is a natural taxonomy of the human species, because multiple other genetic patterns can be found in human populations that crosscut racial distinctions. Moreover, the genomic data underdetermines whether one wishes to see subdivisions (i.e., splitters) or a continuum (i.e., lumpers) . Under Kaplan and Winther's view, racial groupings are objective social constructions (see Mills 1998 ) that have conventional biological reality only insofar as

2975-408: Is also observed for many alleles that vary from one human group to another. Another observation is that traits or alleles that vary from one group to another do not vary at the same rate. This pattern is referred to as nonconcordant variation. Because the variation of physical traits is clinal and nonconcordant, anthropologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries discovered that the more traits and

3094-406: Is compatible with the observation that most human genetic variation is found within populations, not between them. It is also compatible with our finding that, even when the most distinct populations are considered and hundreds of loci are used, individuals are frequently more similar to members of other populations than to members of their own population." Anthropologists such as C. Loring Brace ,

3213-486: Is considered muggy, oppressive, or miserable at least 10% of the time. July sees the most muggy days, with around 10.2 days fitting this description. "In 1637 the Massachusetts General Court adopted an order that no person or town should receive or entertain a newcomer for more than three weeks without permission. In addition to the desire to keep their colony Puritan, they were also concerned with

3332-499: Is foundational to racism , the belief that humans can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. Social conceptions and groupings of races have varied over time, often involving folk taxonomies that define essential types of individuals based on perceived traits. Modern scientists consider such biological essentialism obsolete, and generally discourage racial explanations for collective differentiation in both physical and behavioral traits. Even though there

3451-487: Is frequently criticized for perpetuating an outmoded understanding of human biological variation, and promoting stereotypes. Because in some societies racial groupings correspond closely with patterns of social stratification , for social scientists studying social inequality, race can be a significant variable . As sociological factors, racial categories may in part reflect subjective attributions, self-identities , and social institutions. Scholars continue to debate

3570-498: Is himself a social psychologist. In 2000, Aronson was diagnosed with macular degeneration and, by 2003, had lost all of his central vision. To cope with his blindness, Aronson decided to get a guide dog, and applied at Guide Dogs for the Blind in 2010. In January 2011 he began a three-week training session with his new guide dog, Desilu, nicknamed Desi. He graduated from the program on February 12, 2011. He said, "They worked us 14 hours

3689-497: Is home to a variety of small businesses, residences, and public buildings like Revere City Hall . It is accessible from all sides of the city and is a popular route for those traveling to neighboring municipalities like Saugus , Lynn , and Chelsea . Oak Island is located near the Point of Pines and the end of Revere Beach. It is primarily home to single and multi-family homes and neighbors Revere's marsh and wetlands. Point of Pines

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3808-634: Is inherently naive or simplistic. Still others argue that, among humans, race has no taxonomic significance because all living humans belong to the same subspecies , Homo sapiens sapiens . Since the second half of the 20th century, race has been associated with discredited theories of scientific racism , and has become increasingly seen as a largely pseudoscientific system of classification. Although still used in general contexts, race has often been replaced by less ambiguous and/or loaded terms: populations , people (s) , ethnic groups , or communities , depending on context. Its use in genetics

3927-454: Is land and 4.1 square miles (11 km ) (40.98%) is water. Revere is home to several distinct neighborhoods and districts: Beachmont is Revere's most easterly neighborhood, situated between Revere Beach Boulevard and East Boston 's Orient Heights . It is home to a diverse ethnic population and a mixture of single and multi-family homes, apartments, and local businesses. Broadway is Revere's central civic, commercial, and travel artery. It

4046-455: Is located at the end of Revere Beach and is primarily home to single and multi-family homes. Residents of the Point of Pines neighborhood have access to their own private portion of Revere Beach . Revere Beach Boulevard runs directly along Revere Beach . It is home to a mixture of apartment complexes, restaurants, and single-family homes. New development along the beach has also brought the rise of luxury apartments and fine-dining restaurants to

4165-416: Is much more complex and studying an increasing number of groups would require an increasing number of markers for the same answer. The authors conclude that "caution should be used when using geographic or genetic ancestry to make inferences about individual phenotypes". Witherspoon, et al. concluded: "The fact that, given enough genetic data, individuals can be correctly assigned to their populations of origin

4284-653: Is not necessarily any evolutionary significance to these observed differences, so this form of classification has become less acceptable to evolutionary biologists. Likewise this typological approach to race is generally regarded as discredited by biologists and anthropologists. In 2000, philosopher Robin Andreasen proposed that cladistics might be used to categorize human races biologically, and that races can be both biologically real and socially constructed. Andreasen cited tree diagrams of relative genetic distances among populations published by Luigi Cavalli-Sforza as

4403-518: Is now called scientific racism . After the Nazi eugenics program, along with the rise of anti-colonial movements, racial essentialism lost widespread popularity. New studies of culture and the fledgling field of population genetics undermined the scientific standing of racial essentialism, leading race anthropologists to revise their conclusions about the sources of phenotypic variation. A significant number of modern anthropologists and biologists in

4522-502: Is the most ethnically diverse part of the city and is home to various ethnic grocery stores, restaurants, and community services. West Revere primarily consists of single and multi-family homes. Aside from residential development, West Revere is also home to the Squire Road business district which contains a mixture of large shopping plazas, restaurants, and hotels. Revere's first inhabitants were Native Americans who belonged to

4641-615: Is thought to have sometimes lived near the Rumney Marsh. One branch of his family took "Rumney Marsh" as their surname. In 1616, an epidemic, probably smallpox , swept the region, killing thousands in its wake. Nanepashemet retired to the Mystic River, in what is now Medford , but was found murdered in 1619 at his fort on the brow of Rock Hill overlooking the river. Three sons succeeded him in his reign. One of them, Wonohaquaham , also called "Sagamore John," had jurisdiction over

4760-411: Is to say, found in diverse groups of people at different frequencies; (3) what was not cultural or polymorphic was principally clinal – that is to say, gradually variable over geography; and (4) what was left – the component of human diversity that was not cultural, polymorphic, or clinal – was very small. A consensus consequently developed among anthropologists and geneticists that race as

4879-422: Is understood to be a social construct by many, most scholars agree that race has real material effects in the lives of people through institutionalized practices of preference and discrimination . Socioeconomic factors, in combination with early but enduring views of race, have led to considerable suffering within disadvantaged racial groups. Racial discrimination often coincides with racist mindsets, whereby

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4998-715: Is used as an 'explanation' of the human variability, rather than vice versa, then the explanation is invalid." He further argued that one could use the term race if one distinguished between "race differences" and "the race concept". The former refers to any distinction in gene frequencies between populations; the latter is "a matter of judgment". He further observed that even when there is clinal variation: "Race differences are objectively ascertainable biological phenomena ... but it does not follow that racially distinct populations must be given racial (or subspecific) labels." In short, Livingstone and Dobzhansky agree that there are genetic differences among human beings; they also agree that

5117-458: The Out of Africa and Multiregional models). In the early 20th century, many anthropologists taught that race was an entirely biological phenomenon and that this was core to a person's behavior and identity, a position commonly called racial essentialism . This, coupled with a belief that linguistic , cultural, and social groups fundamentally existed along racial lines, formed the basis of what

5236-756: The Pawtucket tribe and were known to colonists as the Rumney Marsh Indians. The Rumney Marsh marshlands within the present day city of Revere was originally named as such by the English after Romney Marsh in Kent , England . Nanepashemet , known to colonists as "Sagamore George," was the leader, or Great Sachem of the Pawtucket Confederation of Abenaki People of Lynn (which at that time included present day Revere). Nanepashemet

5355-539: The jigsaw classroom approach, pupils are divided into small groups, mixed by race and by ability, to work co-operatively on a task. The classroom material—for example a biography of a historical figure—is broken into sections, and one member of each group is responsible for reading each section. Members with the same role from each group gather in "expert groups" to discuss their sections. They then return to their own groups and take turns to present what they have learned. They are then assessed individually on all sections of

5474-431: The one-drop rule used in the 19th-century United States to exclude those with any amount of African ancestry from the dominant racial grouping, defined as " white ". Such racial identities reflect the cultural attitudes of imperial powers dominant during the age of European colonial expansion . This view rejects the notion that race is biologically defined. According to geneticist David Reich , "while race may be

5593-512: The world , they speculated about the physical, social, and cultural differences among various human groups. The rise of the Atlantic slave trade , which gradually displaced an earlier trade in slaves from throughout the world, created a further incentive to categorize human groups in order to justify the subordination of African slaves . Drawing on sources from classical antiquity and upon their own internal interactions – for example,

5712-493: The 2019 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates , there were 53,692 people living in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 78.1% White , 5.5% Black , 4.9% Asian , 0.3% Native American , 0% Pacific Islander , 6.0% some other race , and 5.3% multiracial . Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 33.6% of the population (9.4% Salvadoran , 8.3% Colombian , 3.8% Puerto Rican , 2.3% Guatemalan , 2.0% Dominican , 1.9% Honduran , and 1.3% Mexican ). Revere also has

5831-800: The Human Genetic Diversity Panel showing that there were small discontinuities in the smooth genetic variation for ancestral populations at the location of geographic barriers such as the Sahara , the Oceans, and the Himalayas . Nonetheless, Rosenberg et al. (2005) stated that their findings "should not be taken as evidence of our support of any particular concept of biological race ... Genetic differences among human populations derive mainly from gradations in allele frequencies rather than from distinctive 'diagnostic' genotypes." Using

5950-580: The Mayor, started at nine o'clock; and it was long toward two on Tuesday morning before the party broke up." On the morning of July 28, 2014, an EF2 tornado touched down in nearby Chelsea and intensified as it entered the city of Revere, causing major damage to many buildings, including the Revere City Hall. It was the first tornado to hit Suffolk County since the National Weather Service began keeping records in 1950. As of

6069-594: The Mediterranean and up the Nile into Africa. From one end of this range to the other, there is no hint of a skin color boundary, and yet the spectrum runs from the lightest in the world at the northern edge to as dark as it is possible for humans to be at the equator. In part, this is due to isolation by distance . This point called attention to a problem common to phenotype-based descriptions of races (for example, those based on hair texture and skin color): they ignore

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6188-614: The Native Americans at Winnisemmit (later Chelsea ) and Rumney Marsh. In 1624, Samuel Maverick became the first colonist to settle in the area. He built his house at the site of the former Chelsea Naval Hospital (or Admiral's Hill). On June 17, 1630, John Winthrop , the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Company in New England joined him there for dinner. On September 25, 1634, Rumney Marsh

6307-583: The Town of Chelsea. The largest of the three settlements, Rumney Marsh (later to become North Chelsea) was selected as the Town Center. In 1775, the area played a small role in the American Revolution during the Battle of Chelsea Creek , one of the first naval battles of the revolution. In 1846, the town of North Chelsea was established. In 1852, Pullen Point seceded from North Chelsea and

6426-687: The Town of Revere held its final town meeting, as voters had chosen to become the City of Revere. Revere became a city with the inauguration of its first mayor, Arthur B. Curtis, on January 4, 1915. A detailed account of the occasion is given in The History of the Town of Revere as Compiled by Benjamin Shurtleff, 1937 : "Selections were rendered by the Shubert Male Quartet. Mr. Theodore W. Gillette read an historical essay. Miss Anna George,

6545-489: The West came to view race as an invalid genetic or biological designation. The first to challenge the concept of race on empirical grounds were the anthropologists Franz Boas , who provided evidence of phenotypic plasticity due to environmental factors, and Ashley Montagu , who relied on evidence from genetics. E. O. Wilson then challenged the concept from the perspective of general animal systematics, and further rejected

6664-518: The Winnisemmet Ferry to Olde Salem in 1641. During King Philip's War (also known as Metacomet 's War), which lasted from 1675 to 1678, the local Native Americans were forcibly removed to what is now Deer Island , where half of those imprisoned died of starvation or exposure. Some were enlisted to help the colonists defeat other native tribes. In 1739, Rumney Marsh, Winnisemmet and Pullen Point were set off from Boston and established as

6783-505: The anthropologist Stephen Molnar has suggested that the discordance of clines inevitably results in a multiplication of races that renders the concept itself useless. The Human Genome Project states "People who have lived in the same geographic region for many generations may have some alleles in common, but no allele will be found in all members of one population and in no members of any other." Massimo Pigliucci and Jonathan Kaplan argue that human races do exist, and that they correspond to

6902-449: The assumption that man is a rational animal; rather, it suggests that man is a rationalizing animal – that he attempts to appear rational, both to others and to himself." Aronson led the development of a classroom technique for defusing inter-group tension and promoting self-esteem. It was discovered that it is rare for classrooms of students to cooperate towards a common goal. In 1971 the newly desegregated schools of Austin, Texas faced

7021-437: The basis for a phylogenetic tree of human races (p. 661). Biological anthropologist Jonathan Marks (2008) responded by arguing that Andreasen had misinterpreted the genetic literature: "These trees are phenetic (based on similarity), rather than cladistic (based on monophyletic descent, that is from a series of unique ancestors)." Evolutionary biologist Alan Templeton (2013) argued that multiple lines of evidence falsify

7140-403: The behavior or the attitude so that consonance is restored. In a classic experiment, Aronson demonstrated that people who undergo an embarrassing initiation to gain admission to a group develop more favorable evaluations of the group than people who are admitted after a mild or easy initiation. In Aronson's Theories of Cognitive Consistency (1973), he states: "Dissonance theory does not rest upon

7259-416: The categories are chosen and constructed for pragmatic scientific reasons. In earlier work, Winther had identified "diversity partitioning" and "clustering analysis" as two separate methodologies, with distinct questions, assumptions, and protocols. Each is also associated with opposing ontological consequences vis-a-vis the metaphysics of race. Philosopher Lisa Gannett has argued that biogeographical ancestry,

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7378-428: The claim that "races" were equivalent to "subspecies". Human genetic variation is predominantly within races, continuous, and complex in structure, which is inconsistent with the concept of genetic human races. According to the biological anthropologist Jonathan Marks , By the 1970s, it had become clear that (1) most human differences were cultural; (2) what was not cultural was principally polymorphic – that

7497-543: The clustering would be different. Weiss and Fullerton have noted that if one sampled only Icelanders, Mayans and Maoris, three distinct clusters would form and all other populations could be described as being clinally composed of admixtures of Maori, Icelandic and Mayan genetic materials. Kaplan and Winther therefore argue that, seen in this way, both Lewontin and Edwards are right in their arguments. They conclude that while racial groups are characterized by different allele frequencies, this does not mean that racial classification

7616-450: The consequence that the number and geographic location of any described races is highly dependent on the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered. A skin-lightening mutation, estimated to have occurred 20,000 to 50,000 years ago, partially accounts for the appearance of light skin in people who migrated out of Africa northward into what is now Europe. East Asians owe their relatively light skin to different mutations. On

7735-434: The degrees to which racial categories are biologically warranted and socially constructed. For example, in 2008, John Hartigan Jr. argued for a view of race that focused primarily on culture, but which does not ignore the potential relevance of biology or genetics. Accordingly, the racial paradigms employed in different disciplines vary in their emphasis on biological reduction as contrasted with societal construction. In

7854-459: The different species or races which inhabit it"), published in 1684. In the 18th century the differences among human groups became a focus of scientific investigation. But the scientific classification of phenotypic variation was frequently coupled with racist ideas about innate predispositions of different groups, always attributing the most desirable features to the White, European race and arranging

7973-522: The difficulty of defining a population, the clinal nature of variation, and heterogeneity across the genome (Long and Kittles 2003). In general, however, an average of 85% of statistical genetic variation exists within local populations, ≈7% is between local populations within the same continent, and ≈8% of variation occurs between large groups living on different continents. The recent African origin theory for humans would predict that in Africa there exists

8092-526: The district. Connecting Broadway to Revere Beach, Revere Street is a main travel artery for those commuting across both sides of the city. It is home to a number of local businesses restaurants, barbershops, and convenience stores. The Shirley Avenue neighborhood has a long history of welcoming Revere's immigrant populations. Over time, it has been home to the has been home to the city's Jewish, European, Latin American, African, and Cambodian communities. It

8211-483: The effects of a simple blunder on perceived attraction. The so-called pratfall effect is the tendency for attractiveness to increase or decrease after an individual makes a mistake, depending on the individual's perceived competence, or ability to perform well in a general sense. Elliot is married to Vera Aronson, whom he met while they were both undergraduate research assistants under Abraham Maslow . Together they have had four children: Hal, Neal, Julie and Joshua, who

8330-676: The former, and a more liberal view on race by the latter. Today, all humans are classified as belonging to the species Homo sapiens . However, this is not the first species of homininae : the first species of genus Homo , Homo habilis , evolved in East Africa at least 2 million years ago, and members of this species populated different parts of Africa in a relatively short time. Homo erectus evolved more than 1.8 million years ago, and by 1.5 million years ago had spread throughout Europe and Asia. Virtually all physical anthropologists agree that Archaic Homo sapiens (A group including

8449-406: The frequency of one or more of the genes it possesses. It is an arbitrary matter which, and how many, gene loci we choose to consider as a significant 'constellation'". Leonard Lieberman and Rodney Kirk have pointed out that "the paramount weakness of this statement is that if one gene can distinguish races then the number of races is as numerous as the number of human couples reproducing". Moreover,

8568-815: The genetic classification of ecotypes , but that real human races do not correspond very much, if at all, to folk racial categories. In contrast, Walsh & Yun reviewed the literature in 2011 and reported: "Genetic studies using very few chromosomal loci find that genetic polymorphisms divide human populations into clusters with almost 100 percent accuracy and that they correspond to the traditional anthropological categories." Some biologists argue that racial categories correlate with biological traits (e.g. phenotype ), and that certain genetic markers have varying frequencies among human populations, some of which correspond more or less to traditional racial groupings. The distribution of genetic variants within and among human populations are impossible to describe succinctly because of

8687-469: The graves of 16 formerly enslaved Black people; a plaque there lists their names, dates of death, and approximate ages. Between 1837 and 1840, the population nearly doubled due to the second major wave of immigration into the area. "During this period of time more than 750,000 Irish, British and German immigrants arrived in America; and another 4.3 million immigrants came from these countries during

8806-437: The haplotype for beta-S hemoglobin , on the other hand, radiate out of specific geographical points in Africa. As the anthropologists Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda Jackson observed, "Discordant patterns of heterogeneity falsify any description of a population as if it were genotypically or even phenotypically homogeneous". Patterns such as those seen in human physical and genetic variation as described above, have led to

8925-439: The historical process of exploration and conquest which brought Europeans into contact with groups from different continents, and of the ideology of classification and typology found in the natural sciences. The term race was often used in a general biological taxonomic sense , starting from the 19th century, to denote genetically differentiated human populations defined by phenotype. The modern concept of race emerged as

9044-635: The hostility between the English and Irish powerfully influenced early European thinking about the differences between people  – Europeans began to sort themselves and others into groups based on physical appearance, and to attribute to individuals belonging to these groups behaviors and capacities which were claimed to be deeply ingrained. A set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual , behavioral , and moral qualities. Similar ideas can be found in other cultures, for example in China , where

9163-524: The idea of a phylogenetic tree structure to human genetic diversity, and confirm the presence of gene flow among populations. Marks, Templeton, and Cavalli-Sforza all conclude that genetics does not provide evidence of human races. Previously, anthropologists Lieberman and Jackson (1995) had also critiqued the use of cladistics to support concepts of race. They argued that "the molecular and biochemical proponents of this model explicitly use racial categories in their initial grouping of samples ". For example,

9282-493: The immigration of paupers. In subsequent years a law was passed that restricted the immigration of 'lame, impotent, or infirmed persons.' Hardly any immigrants came to Massachusetts during the second half of the 17th century." English immigration came to a near-complete stop in 1642 as a result of the English Civil War, but was replaced with immigration from other European countries. In 1687, only 31 people lived in

9401-521: The individuals and ideologies of one group come to perceive the members of an outgroup as both racially defined and morally inferior. As a result, racial groups possessing relatively little power often find themselves excluded or oppressed, while hegemonic individuals and institutions are charged with holding racist attitudes. Racism has led to many instances of tragedy, including slavery and genocide . In some countries, law enforcement uses race to profile suspects. This use of racial categories

9520-422: The large and highly diverse macroethnic groups of East Indians, North Africans, and Europeans are presumptively grouped as Caucasians prior to the analysis of their DNA variation. They argued that this a priori grouping limits and skews interpretations, obscures other lineage relationships, deemphasizes the impact of more immediate clinal environmental factors on genomic diversity, and can cloud our understanding of

9639-443: The largest groups of social relevance, and these definitions can change over time. Historical race concepts have included a wide variety of schemes to divide local or worldwide populations into races and sub-races. Across the world, different organizations and societies choose to disambiguate race to different extents: The establishment of racial boundaries often involves the subjugation of groups defined as racially inferior, as in

9758-672: The last two decades of the 18th century, the theory of polygenism , the belief that different races had evolved separately in each continent and shared no common ancestor, was advocated in England by historian Edward Long and anatomist Charles White , in Germany by ethnographers Christoph Meiners and Georg Forster , and in France by Julien-Joseph Virey . In the US, Samuel George Morton , Josiah Nott and Louis Agassiz promoted this theory in

9877-565: The least diverse population they analyzed (the Surui, a population derived from New Guinea). Statistical analysis that takes this difference into account confirms previous findings that "Western-based racial classifications have no taxonomic significance". A 2002 study of random biallelic genetic loci found little to no evidence that humans were divided into distinct biological groups. In his 2003 paper, " Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy ", A. W. F. Edwards argued that rather than using

9996-419: The level of alleles and allele frequencies. Nature has not created four or five distinct, nonoverlapping genetic groups of people. Another way to look at differences between populations is to measure genetic differences rather than physical differences between groups. The mid-20th-century anthropologist William C. Boyd defined race as: "A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard to

10115-678: The material. This division of responsibilities means that students are motivated to listen to each other and each of them experiences a role in which they are valuable to others. Comparisons with traditional classroom environments showed that the jigsaw classroom has positive effects on academic performance, self-esteem and attitudes towards other ethnic groups. The technique has since been applied in hundreds of schools across North America. From its initial application at third- to fifth-grade school level, it has been expanded to other educational levels. This success encouraged Aronson to apply his research to other policy issues including energy conservation and

10234-623: The mid-19th century. Polygenism was popular and most widespread in the 19th century, culminating in the founding of the Anthropological Society of London (1863), which, during the period of the American Civil War, broke away from the Ethnological Society of London and its monogenic stance , their underlined difference lying, relevantly, in the so-called "Negro question": a substantial racist view by

10353-420: The more human groups they measured, the fewer discrete differences they observed among races and the more categories they had to create to classify human beings. The number of races observed expanded to the 1930s and 1950s, and eventually anthropologists concluded that there were no discrete races. Twentieth and 21st century biomedical researchers have discovered this same feature when evaluating human variation at

10472-528: The next 20 years. Of the total number of immigrants to America during the second wave, 40 percent were from Ireland, escaping poverty and famine in their native country." "By 1905 the Italian population in Revere had grown large enough that the first Italian Catholic Parish of Saint Anthony of Padua was founded in a three-family dwelling on Revere Street. It was clear in 1905 that the Italian population of Revere

10591-514: The other hand, the greater the number of traits (or alleles ) considered, the more subdivisions of humanity are detected, since traits and gene frequencies do not always correspond to the same geographical location. Or as Ossorio & Duster (2005) put it: Anthropologists long ago discovered that humans' physical traits vary gradually, with groups that are close geographic neighbors being more similar than groups that are geographically separated. This pattern of variation, known as clinal variation,

10710-418: The other person—has more effect on liking than the absolute level of feedback. An example is how compliments are more meaningful when they come from someone who is usually critical, rather than from a reliable supporter. Another example is that a couple may feel more dedicated to their relationship if they initially disliked each other. Aronson published a paper in 1966, where he described an experiment testing

10829-416: The other races along a continuum of progressively undesirable attributes. The 1735 classification of Carl Linnaeus , inventor of zoological taxonomy, divided the human species Homo sapiens into continental varieties of europaeus , asiaticus , americanus , and afer , each associated with a different humour : sanguine , melancholic , choleric , and phlegmatic , respectively. Homo sapiens europaeus

10948-400: The philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther, and the geneticist Joseph Graves , have argued that the cluster structure of genetic data is dependent on the initial hypotheses of the researcher and the influence of these hypotheses on the choice of populations to sample. When one samples continental groups, the clusters become continental, but if one had chosen other sampling patterns,

11067-408: The policing and disproportionate incarceration of certain groups. Groups of humans have always identified themselves as distinct from neighboring groups, but such differences have not always been understood to be natural, immutable and global. These features are the distinguishing features of how the concept of race is used today. In this way the idea of race as we understand it today came about during

11186-686: The possible species H. heidelbergensis , H. rhodesiensis , and H. neanderthalensis ) evolved out of African H. erectus ( sensu lato ) or H. ergaster . Anthropologists support the idea that anatomically modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) evolved in North or East Africa from an archaic human species such as H. heidelbergensis and then migrated out of Africa, mixing with and replacing H. heidelbergensis and H. neanderthalensis populations throughout Europe and Asia, and H. rhodesiensis populations in Sub-Saharan Africa (a combination of

11305-481: The poverty line, including 17.9% of those under age 18 and 13.3% of those age 65 or over. Following the 2020 United States Census , Revere became the fastest growing city in Massachusetts. Throughout the year in Revere, temperatures generally range from 23 °F to 82 °F, rarely dipping below 9 °F or exceeding 91 °F. Rainfall is consistent year-round in Revere, with October typically being

11424-878: The previous generation had known it – as largely discrete, geographically distinct, gene pools – did not exist. The term race in biology is used with caution because it can be ambiguous. Generally, when it is used it is effectively a synonym of subspecies . (For animals, the only taxonomic unit below the species level is usually the subspecies; there are narrower infraspecific ranks in botany , and race does not correspond directly with any of them.) Traditionally, subspecies are seen as geographically isolated and genetically differentiated populations. Studies of human genetic variation show that human populations are not geographically isolated. and their genetic differences are far smaller than those among comparable subspecies. In 1978, Sewall Wright suggested that human populations that have long inhabited separated parts of

11543-403: The race concept, this linkage is a social distinction rather than an inherently biological one. Other dimensions of racial groupings include shared history, traditions, and language. For instance, African-American English is a language spoken by many African Americans , especially in areas of the United States where racial segregation exists. Furthermore, people often self-identify as members of

11662-523: The races. Blumenbach also noted the graded transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups and suggested that "one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them". From the 17th through 19th centuries, the merging of folk beliefs about group differences with scientific explanations of those differences produced what Smedley has called an " ideology of race". According to this ideology, races are primordial, natural, enduring and distinct. It

11781-592: The relationship between genes and complex traits remains poorly understood. However, Risch denied such limitations render the analysis useless: "Perhaps just using someone's actual birth year is not a very good way of measuring age. Does that mean we should throw it out? ... Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility." Early human genetic cluster analysis studies were conducted with samples taken from ancestral population groups living at extreme geographic distances from each other. It

11900-553: The settlements of Winnisimmit, Rumney Marsh, and Pullen Point. In 1739, when these settlements were separated from Boston and formed the Town of Chelsea, there were 10 homes in Winnisimmit (Chelsea), 26 in Rumney Marsh (Revere), and 4 homes in Pullen Point (Winthrop), with 267 inhabitants in total. This number quadrupled by 1837, at which time 1,201 people resided on the land. Rumney Marsh Burying Ground in Revere contains

12019-411: The social sciences, theoretical frameworks such as racial formation theory and critical race theory investigate implications of race as social construction by exploring how the images, ideas and assumptions of race are expressed in everyday life. A large body of scholarship has traced the relationships between the historical, social production of race in legal and criminal language, and their effects on

12138-484: The treatment of the elderly. In the aftermath of the Columbine High School massacre , Aronson advocated for jigsaw classrooms as part of an approach to defusing the social divisions underlying school violence. In 1965, Aronson proposed that interpersonal attraction and liking could be understood in terms of the balance of reward and cost. This implied that contrast—a gain or loss of positive feedback from

12257-1092: The true patterns of affinity. In 2015, Keith Hunley, Graciela Cabana, and Jeffrey Long analyzed the Human Genome Diversity Project sample of 1,037 individuals in 52 populations, finding that diversity among non-African populations is the result of a serial founder effect process, with non-African populations as a whole nested among African populations, that "some African populations are equally related to other African populations and to non-African populations", and that "outside of Africa, regional groupings of populations are nested inside one another, and many of them are not monophyletic". Earlier research had also suggested that there has always been considerable gene flow between human populations, meaning that human population groups are not monophyletic. Rachel Caspari has argued that, since no groups currently regarded as races are monophyletic, by definition none of these groups can be clades. One crucial innovation in reconceptualizing genotypic and phenotypic variation

12376-443: The use of the race concept to classify people, and how the race concept is used, is a matter of social convention. They differ on whether the race concept remains a meaningful and useful social convention. In 1964, the biologists Paul Ehrlich and Holm pointed out cases where two or more clines are distributed discordantly – for example, melanin is distributed in a decreasing pattern from the equator north and south; frequencies for

12495-439: The wettest month, averaging 3.9 inches, and January being the driest, with an average of 2.3 inches. Snowfall spans about 5.0 months, from November 12 to April 10, with at least 1.0 inch of snow over a 31-day period. January tends to see the most snow, averaging 8.3 inches. The perceived humidity in Revere varies significantly by season. Muggy conditions persist for about 3.3 months, from June 11 to September 21, where comfort level

12614-571: The world should, in general, be considered different subspecies by the criterion that most individuals of such populations can be allocated correctly by inspection. Wright argued: "It does not require a trained anthropologist to classify an array of Englishmen, West Africans, and Chinese with 100% accuracy by features, skin color, and type of hair despite so much variability within each of these groups that every individual can easily be distinguished from every other." While in practice subspecies are often defined by easily observable physical appearance, there

12733-583: Was annexed to Boston , which had received its name only four years earlier. Winnisemmet (current Chelsea ) and Pullen Point (current Winthrop ) were also annexed to Boston. Rumney Marsh was originally divided and allotted to twenty-one of Boston's most prominent citizens. By 1639, the original allotments had been consolidated into seven great farms. Farming was the principal industry of Winnisemmet, and Rumney Marsh in particular. The first county road in North America stretched across Rumney Marsh from

12852-404: Was 39.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.3 males. For adults 18 and over, for every 100 females there were 95.9 males. The median household income in the city was $ 62,568, and the median family income was $ 72,656. Males had a median income of $ 36,881 versus $ 31,300 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 30,587. About 10.2% of families and 12.7% of the population were below

12971-713: Was described as active, acute, and adventurous, whereas Homo sapiens afer was said to be crafty, lazy, and careless. The 1775 treatise "The Natural Varieties of Mankind", by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach proposed five major divisions: the Caucasoid race , the Mongoloid race , the Ethiopian race (later termed Negroid ), the American Indian race , and the Malayan race , but he did not propose any hierarchy among

13090-1004: Was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and won the William James Award from the Association for Psychological Science for his lifetime achievements. His honors include distinguished research awards from the American Psychological Association , the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the Society of Experimental Social Psychology . He also won the Gordon Allport Prize for his work on reducing prejudice. In 1981 he

13209-530: Was established as the town of Winthrop . That same year, Chelsea became its own city. On March 24, 1871, a petition went into effect, changing the name of North Chelsea to the Town of Revere in honor of Paul Revere (1735–1818), the son of an immigrant who took part in the American Revolutionary War . Revere had gained popularity after the publication of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's 1860 poem " Paul Revere's Ride ". On November 2, 1914,

13328-400: Was formally renounced by the U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine in 2023. Modern scholarship views racial categories as socially constructed, that is, race is not intrinsic to human beings but rather an identity created, often by socially dominant groups, to establish meaning in a social context. Different cultures define different racial groups, often focused on

13447-690: Was further argued that some groups may be the result of mixture between formerly distinct populations, but that careful study could distinguish the ancestral races that had combined to produce admixed groups. Subsequent influential classifications by Georges Buffon , Petrus Camper and Christoph Meiners all classified "Negros" as inferior to Europeans. In the United States the racial theories of Thomas Jefferson were influential. He saw Africans as inferior to Whites especially in regards to their intellect, and imbued with unnatural sexual appetites, but described Native Americans as equals to whites. In

13566-594: Was invented and rationalized lies somewhere between 1730 and 1790. According to Smedley and Marks the European concept of "race", along with many of the ideas now associated with the term, arose at the time of the scientific revolution , which introduced and privileged the study of natural kinds , and the age of European imperialism and colonization which established political relations between Europeans and peoples with distinct cultural and political traditions . As Europeans encountered people from different parts of

13685-541: Was one of five academics awarded "Professor of the Year" by the Council for the Advancement and Support of Education. Aronson's interests and research have paid particular attention to the theory of cognitive dissonance . Aronson refined the theory, which posits that when attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent (dissonant), psychological discomfort results. This discomfort motivates the person experiencing it to either change

13804-500: Was rapidly becoming the fastest growing ethnic group in the town." At this time, "only 19 percent of the immigrants entering the U.S. were from northern Europe, while 81 percent were from southern, eastern, and central Europe," and "nearly 60 percent of the births in the Town of Revere were to foreign born parents." Race (classification of humans) Race is a categorization of humans based on shared physical or social qualities into groups generally viewed as distinct within

13923-457: Was the anthropologist C. Loring Brace 's observation that such variations, insofar as they are affected by natural selection , slow migration, or genetic drift , are distributed along geographic gradations or clines . For example, with respect to skin color in Europe and Africa, Brace writes: To this day, skin color grades by imperceptible means from Europe southward around the eastern end of

14042-535: Was the experimental social psychologist Leon Festinger . Aronson has taught at Harvard University , the University of Minnesota , the University of Texas , and the University of California, Santa Cruz . He also served as distinguished visiting professor at Stanford University. He was included in a list of the 100 most influential psychologists of the 20th century published by the Review of General Psychology . He

14161-535: Was thought that such large geographic distances would maximize the genetic variation between the groups sampled in the analysis, and thus maximize the probability of finding cluster patterns unique to each group. In light of the historically recent acceleration of human migration (and correspondingly, human gene flow) on a global scale, further studies were conducted to judge the degree to which genetic cluster analysis can pattern ancestrally identified groups as well as geographically separated groups. One such study looked at

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