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87-847: Roger Longtoe Sheehan served as chief since at least 2016. Vermont recognized the Elnu Abenaki Tribe as a state-recognized tribe in 2011. The other state-recognized tribes in Vermont are the Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation , Koasek Abenaki Tribe , and the Mississquoi Abenaki Tribe . In 2020, the group created ' Elnu Abenaki Incorporated , a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization , based in Brattleboro, Vermont. Their registered agent

174-624: A 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization called AHA "Abenaki Helping Abenaki" in 2006. In 2019, the Tides Foundation provided it with a grant of $ 50,000. Lucy Neel, based in Barton and Derby Line, Vermont , is the organization's registered agent. The current officers are: Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Nation Inc. was incorporated as a domestic nonprofit corporation on December 9, 2022, based out of Derby Line, Vermont. Lucy Neel

261-803: A 30-day waiting period between consent and the procedure, and a prohibition on sterilization of anyone younger than 21 or who is mentally incompetent." Physiological reasons, such as genetic disorders or disabilities, can influence whether couples seek sterilization. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, about 1 in 6 children in the U.S. had a developmental disability in 2006–2008. Developmental disabilities are defined as "a diverse group of severe chronic conditions that are due to mental and/or physical impairments." Many disabled children may eventually grow to lead independent lives as adults, but they may require intensive parental care and extensive medical costs as children. Intensive care can lead to

348-516: A childless lifestyle and the ability to focus on other relationships were common motivations underlying the decision to be voluntarily childless. Such personal freedoms included increased autonomy and improved financial positions. The couple could engage in more spontaneous activities because they did not need a babysitter or to consult with someone else. Women had more time to devote to their careers and hobbies. Regarding other relationships, some women chose to forgo children because they wanted to maintain

435-564: A genetic disorder in the child, parents may opt to be sterilized to forgo having more children who may also be affected. Sterilization is the most common form of contraception in the United States when female and male usage is combined. However, usage varies across demographic categories such as gender, age, education, etc. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , 16.7% of women aged 15–44 used female sterilization as

522-545: A hunting license, a free permanent combination hunting and fishing license. Vermont H.556, "An act relating to exempting property owned by Vermont-recognized Native American tribes from property tax," passed on April 20, 2022. As a state-recognized tribe, the Nulhegan Abenaki may legal obtain eagle feathers and other animals parts of endangered animal species for usage but not sale. Sterilization (medicine) Sterilization ( also spelled sterilisation )

609-451: A joint statement on Eliminating forced, coercive and otherwise involuntary sterilization, An interagency statement . The report references the involuntary sterilization of a number of specific population groups. They include: The report recommends a range of guiding principles for medical treatment, including ensuring patient autonomy in decision-making, ensuring non-discrimination, accountability and access to remedies. Some governments in

696-493: A method of contraception in 2006–2008 while 6.1% of their partners used male sterilization. Minority women were more likely to use female sterilization than their white counterparts. The proportion of women using female sterilization was highest for black women (22%), followed by Hispanic women (20%) and white women (15%). Reverse sterilization trends by race occurred for the male partners of the women: 8% of male partners of white women used male sterilization, but it dropped to 3% of

783-419: A parent's "withdrawal from the labor force, worsened economic situation of the household, interruptions in parents' sleep and a greater chance of marital instability." Couples may choose sterilization in order to concentrate on caring for a child with a disability and to avoid withholding any necessary resources from additional children. Alternatively, couples may also desire more children in hopes of experiencing

870-603: A repatriation and reburial of Abenaki remains took place in Vermont after a set of Abenaki remains were discovered at the Putney Historical Society in Putney, Vermont. Blackie Lampman and Richard Phillips asked Beverly Bolding to facilitate the repatriation . In the final determination of the 2005 petition for federal recognition by a related state-recognized tribe, the St. Francis/Sokoki Band Abenakis of Vermont ,

957-529: A right state of mind or receiving all of the necessary information. Under the Japanese leprosy policies, citizens with leprosy were not forced into being sterilized; however, they had been placed involuntarily into segregated and quarantined communities. In America, some women were sterilized without their consent, later resulting in lawsuits against the doctors who performed those surgeries. There are also many examples of women being asked for their consent to

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1044-486: A sense of ownership over their body, as well as to an improved relationship in the household. In the United States, where there are no governmental incentives for being sterilized (see below), the decision is often made for personal and familial reasons. A woman, sometimes along with her husband or partner, can decide that she does not want any more children or she does not want children at all. Many women report feeling more sexually liberated after being sterilized, as there

1131-409: A specified educational level and that their combined income should not exceed $ 750 per month. This program, among other birth control incentives and education programs, greatly reduced Singapore's birth rate, female mortality rate, and infant mortality rate, while increasing family income, female participation in the labor force, and rise in educational attainment among other social benefits. These are

1218-467: A suitable partner at an appropriate time in life" was another deciding factor, particularly for ambivalent women. Economic incentives and career reasons also motivate women to choose sterilization. With regard to women who are voluntarily childless, studies show that there are higher "opportunity costs" for women of higher socioeconomic status because women are more likely than men to forfeit labor force participation once they have children. Some women stated

1305-560: A tributary to the Connecticut River and Nulhegan Basin near Brighton, Vermont . Its name means "the place of log traps." The band is also named for the Cowasuck people and Abenaki people , one of the tribes that inhabited a large portion of eastern Vermont and western New Hampshire. The Nulhegan Abenaki government is made up of a Chief (Sogomo), who is nominated by the councils and decided by election. The current chief of

1392-488: A way to educate men that sterilization was the most effective way of contraception and that vasectomies did not affect sexual performance. The incentives were only available to low income men. Men were the target of sterilization because of the ease and quickness of the procedure, as compared to sterilization of women. However, mass sterilization efforts resulted in lack of cleanliness and careful technique, potentially resulting in botched surgeries and other complications. As

1479-476: Is Japan's Race Eugenic Protection Law, which required citizens with mental disorders to be sterilized. This policy was active from 1940 until 1996, when it and all other eugenic policies in Japan were abolished. In many cases, sterilization policies were not explicitly compulsory in that they required consent . However, this meant that men and women were often coerced into agreeing to the procedure without being of

1566-541: Is Rich Holshuh. St. Mary's University associate professor Darryl Leroux's genealogical and historical research found that the members of this and the other three state-recognized tribes in Vermont were composed primarily of "French descendants who have used long-ago ancestry in New France to shift into an 'Abenaki' identity." The State of Vermont reported in 2002 that the Abenaki people migrated north to Quebec at

1653-658: Is a state-recognized tribe and nonprofit organization , called AHA "Abenaki Helping Abenaki" , whose headquarters and land are based in Vermont . They are often referred to as the Nulhegan Abenaki Tribe or simply, Nulhegan. The Nulhegan Band has approximately 1,400 members, most of whom reside in the Northeast Kingdom region of Vermont. Vermont recognized the Nulhegan Band of

1740-541: Is any of a number of medical methods of permanent birth control that intentionally leaves a person unable to reproduce . Sterilization methods include both surgical and non-surgical options for both males and females. Sterilization procedures are intended to be permanent; reversal is generally difficult. There are multiple ways of having sterilization done, but the two that are used most frequently are tubal ligation for women and vasectomy for men. There are many different ways tubal sterilization can be accomplished. It

1827-526: Is at the Winter Solstice in late December. The second is the annual Snow Snake Games held at the end of February or early March. The last and biggest gathering is the annual Nulheganaki gathering held every year at the end of August or beginning of September. Vermont, unofficially in 2016 and officially in 2020, celebrated Indigenous Peoples Day instead of Columbus Day . The state did not want to celebrate Christopher Columbus , due to his role in

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1914-414: Is extremely effective and in the United States surgical complications are low. With that being said, tubal sterilization is still a method that involves surgery, so there is still a danger. Women that chose a tubal sterilization may have a higher risk of serious side effects, more than a man has with a vasectomy. Pregnancies after a tubal sterilization can still occur, even many years after the procedure. It

2001-431: Is no concern of a pregnancy risk. By eliminating the risk of having more children, a woman can commit to a long-term job without a disruption of a maternity leave in the future. A woman will feel more empowered since she could make a decision about her body and her life. Sterilization eliminates the need for potential abortions , which can be a very stressful decision overall. In countries that are more entrenched in

2088-443: Is not very likely, but if it does happen there is a high risk of ectopic gestation . Statistics confirm that a handful of tubal sterilization surgeries are performed shortly after a vaginal delivery mostly by minilaparotomy. In some cases, sterilization can be reversed but not all. It can vary by the type of sterilization performed. Surgical sterilization methods include: Transluminal procedures are performed by entry through

2175-978: Is the organization's registered agent as well. In 2012, the Nulhegan Abenaki Tribe acquired some of the first tribal-owned and controlled land in Vermont for nearly 200 years. The 65 acres located in Barton, VT, where the tribal headquarters are, "will be an economic, educational and cultural resource for the tribe, which worked with the Vermont Land Trust and the Sierra Club to acquire the forestland." The unreliability of family stories, or misinterpreted records from this era, also resulted in non-Abenaki believing they have Abenaki heritage when they do not. The Abenaki, along with French Canadians and other victims deemed "undesirable" were subject to eugenics practices occurring in Vermont during

2262-458: The female reproductive tract . These generally use a catheter to place a substance into the fallopian tubes that eventually causes blockage of the tract in this segment. Such procedures are generally called non-surgical as they use natural orifices and thereby do not necessitate any surgical incision . In April 2018, the FDA restricted the sale and use of Essure . On July 20, 2018, Bayer announced

2349-628: The genocide of Indigenous peoples of the Americas . Celebrations of Indigenous heritage and culture are now held across the state. The Nulhegan Abenaki host "Indigenous People's Day Rock". In 2020, Nulhegan Band launched the Abenaki Trails Project, which provides educational material about Abenaki historic sites beginning in West Hopkinton, New Hampshire . The Nulhegan Band has spoken with Middlebury College regarding

2436-516: The vas deferens , the part of the male anatomy that transports sperm, may grow back together, which could result in unintended pregnancy. It can be difficult to measure the psychological effects of sterilization, as certain psychological phenomenon may be more prevalent in those who eventually decide to partake in sterilization. The relationships between psychological problems and sterilization may be due more to correlation rather than causation . That being said, there are several trends surrounding

2523-427: The "type of intimacy that they found fulfilling" with their partners. Although voluntary childlessness was a joint decision for many couples, "studies have found that women were more often the primary decision makers. There is also some evidence that when one partner (either male or female) was ambivalent, a strong desire not to have children on the side of the other partner was often the deciding factor." 'Not finding

2610-481: The 1920s and 1930s. Due to this, some Abenaki families hid their heritage. Chief Don Stevens of the Nulhegan said, "My grandmother was listed in the eugenics survey, which caused her to deny her heritage, and she wasn't able to be proud of that." The Abenaki who chose to remain in the United States did not fare as well as their Canadian counterparts. Tribal connections were lost as those Abenaki who were tolerated by

2697-529: The Abenaki protections as a disadvantaged race of people. However, since there were no recognized Abenaki Indian Tribes in Vermont, there were "legally" no Abenaki people under the law. On March 16, 2008, the Vermont Indigenous Alliance is formed by Elnu Abenaki Tribe , Koasek Abenaki Tribe , Missisquoi Abenaki Tribe with the purpose of unifying the tribes and pursuing official state-recognition from Vermont. Finally, on April 22, 2011,

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2784-542: The Anglo population were assimilated into colonial society. What familial groups remained were often eradicated, in the early 20th century, through forced sterilization and pregnancy termination policies in Vermont. Official records list 253 recorded cases of sterilization, but some estimate there were over 3,400 cases of sterilization of Abenaki having been performed, many of which involved termination of an unborn fetus. No documentation of informed consent for these procedures

2871-520: The BIA states: "The details of this claimed process of living 'underground,' however, are not explained by the petitioner. Some of the available documentation indicates that some of the group's ancestors moved from various locations in Quebec, Canada, to the United States over the course of the 19th century, but the available evidence does not demonstrate that the petitioner or its claimed ancestors descended from

2958-446: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2006–2008. Among men aged 15–44 years, vasectomy prevalence was highest in older men and those with two or more biological children. Men with less education were more likely to report female sterilization in their partner. In contrast to female sterilization trends, vasectomy was associated with white males and those who had ever visited a family planning clinic. Several factors can explain

3045-547: The Coosuk Abenaki Nation in 2011. The Nulhegan are one of four state-recognized tribes in Vermont. They participate at the state level in many ways, including in the Vermont Commission of Native American Affairs. They are not federally recognized as a Native American tribe . Vermont has no federally recognized tribes. The Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation draws its name the Nulhegan River ,

3132-768: The Defective Germ-Plasm in the Human Population." In 2021, the State of Vermont and the University of Vermont both formally apologized and recognized its role in the eugenics surveys in a formal resolution. During this time, many groups consisting of small families said they were now returning to their Abenaki heritage after having denied it for the first half of the 20th century. Other claimants to Abenaki heritage also emerged, including those who had never before claimed Abenaki ancestry. This included

3219-566: The Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation as a state-recognized tribe through Vermont Statutes Title 1, Section 854 in 2011. The other three state-recognized tribes in Vermont are the Missisquoi Abenaki Tribe , Elnu Abenaki Tribe , and the Koasek Abenaki Tribe . In 2006, The Vermont Legislature recognized the Abenaki as a "Minority Population" within the State of Vermont under Statute 853. This entitled

3306-699: The Nulhegan and Ko'asek. In 2019, the leadership of the Odanak Abenaki Band Council , the governing body of the Odanak band of the Abenaki First Nation, denounced any groups claiming to be Abenaki in the United States. The legitimacy of groups such as the Nulhegan Band have been questioned due to claims that the root ancestors they claim were Abenaki were actually Europeans. Other root ancestors, though Native, have been claimed to not be Abenaki. The State of Vermont designated

3393-486: The Nulhegan is Chief Don Stevens. The legislative branch includes an elected Tribal Council of 11 members, all from within the tribe. The judicial branch is represented by an Elders Council of seven. Among the members of the Elder Council is Joseph Bruchac . The government manages the tribe's land, activities, and gatherings and interacts with the state of Vermont in official matters. The Nulhegan Band founded

3480-584: The Nulhegan was officially recognized by the State of Vermont as an Abenaki Indian Tribe. In 2013, Wabanaagig TV from the Aboriginal Peoples Television Network in Canada produces the movie, The Vermont Abenaki: A struggle for recognition, which documents the struggle for Vermont State recognition and culminates with the celebration of state recognition. From August 19 to 22, 2015, the annual Wabanaki Confederacy Conference

3567-608: The Nulhegan, who began as a nonprofit organization . This caused tension between the European Americans claiming Abenaki status and the extant Abenaki First Nations in Canada, such as the Odanak First Nation who see the Vermont Abenaki as illegitimate due to their lack of Abenaki ancestry, and their lack of cultural continuity from any historic tribe. On November 15, 1980, the first record of

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3654-710: The Public Health Service Act, Title XIX of the Social Security (Medicaid), and two block-grant programs, Maternal and Child Health (MCH) and Social Services." The Temporary Assistance for Needy Families was another federal block granted created in 1996 and is the main federal source of financial "welfare" aid. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services administers Title X, which is the sole federal program dedicated to family planning. Under Title X, public and nonprofit private agencies receive grants to operate clinics that provide care largely to

3741-517: The St. Francis Indians of Quebec, another Indian group in Canada, a Missisquoi Abenaki entity in Vermont, or any other Western Abenaki group or Indian entity from New England in existence before or after 1800. The available evidence indicates that no external observers from 1800 to 1975 described the petitioner or its claimed ancestors, or any group of Indians, as an Indian entity or a distinct Indian community in northwestern Vermont," referring to groups such as

3828-614: The United Kingdom, those of Western Europe, and the United States, the fertility rate has declined below or near the population replacement rate of two children per woman. Women are having children at a later age, and most notably, an increasing number of women are choosing not to bear children at all. According to the U.S. Census Bureau's American Community Survey, 46% of women aged 15 to 44 were childless in June 2008 compared to 35% of childless women in 1976. The personal freedoms of

3915-522: The United States who are sterilized maintain the same level of psychological health as they did prior to the procedure. Because sterilization is a largely irreversible procedure, post-sterilization regret is a major psychological effect. The most common reason for post-sterilization regret is the desire to have more children. Some people believe that sterilization gives women, in particular, more control over their sexuality and their reproduction . This can lead to empowering women, to giving them more of

4002-470: The abdomen, infection, damage to other organs inside the abdomen, side effects from anesthesia, ectopic pregnancy (an egg that becomes fertilized outside the uterus), [and] incomplete closing of a fallopian tube that results in pregnancy." Potential risks of vasectomies include "pain continuing long after surgery, bleeding and bruising, a (usually mild) inflammatory reaction to sperm that spill during surgery called sperm granuloma, [and] infection." Additionally,

4089-469: The authors speculate about future possible oral sterilants for humans. In 2015, DNA editing using gene drives to sterilize mosquitos was demonstrated. There have been hoaxes involving fictitious drugs that would purportedly have such effects, notably progesterex . See also Norplant , Depo-Provera and oral contraceptive . Chemical, e.g. drug-based methods are available, e.g. orally-administered Lonidamine for temporary, or permanent (depending on

4176-444: The city's average yearly income in "social maintenance fees". In the past decade, the restrictions on family size and reproduction have lessened. The Chinese government has found that by giving incentives and disincentives that are more far-reaching than a one-time incentive to be sterilized, families are more willing to practice better family planning. These policies seem to be less coercive as well, as families are better able to see

4263-536: The college's land acknowledgment, which highlights the Western Abenaki . In State v. Elliott , a 1992) the Vermont Supreme Court ruled that all aboriginal title in Vermont was extinguished "by the increasing weight of history." The Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department granted members of state-recognized Vermont tribes a free permanent fishing license, or if the applicant qualifies for

4350-459: The different findings between female and male sterilization trends in the United States. Women are more likely to receive reproductive health services. "Additionally, overall use of contraception is associated with higher socioeconomic status, but for women, use of contraceptive tubal sterilization has been found to be related to lower socioeconomic status and lack of health insurance." This finding could be related to Medicaid -funded sterilizations in

4437-434: The dose) fertility management. Boris provides a method for chemically inducing either temporary or non-reversible sterility, depending on the dose, "Permanent sterility in human males can be obtained by a single oral dosage containing from about 18 mg/kg to about 25 mg/kg". Motivations for voluntary sterilizations include: Because of the emphasis placed on childbearing as the most important role of women, not having children

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4524-717: The end of the 18th century. They participate in Abenaki Heritage Weekend, held at the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum in Vergennes, Vermont . Vermont H.556, "An act relating to exempting property owned by Vermont-recognized Native American tribes from property tax," passed on April 20, 2022. Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation The Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation

4611-455: The fertility rate began to decrease (but not quickly enough), more incentives were offered, such as land and fertilizer. In 1976, compulsory sterilization policies were put in place and some disincentive programs were created to encourage more people to become sterilized. However, these disincentive policies, along with "sterilization camps" (where large amounts of sterilizations were performed quickly and often unsafely), were not received well by

4698-463: The halt of sales in the US by the end of 2018. Fahim et al. found that heat exposure, especially high-intensity ultrasound, was effective either for temporary or permanent contraception depending on the dose, e.g. selective destruction of germ cells and Sertoli cells without affecting Leydig cells or testosterone levels. In the 1977 textbook Ecoscience: Population, Resources, Environment , on page 787,

4785-420: The household and within society. Understanding the physical effects of sterilization is important because it is a common method of contraception. Among women who had interval tubal sterilization, studies have shown a null or positive effect on female sexual interest and pleasure. Similar results were discovered for men who had vasectomies. Vasectomies did not negatively influence the satisfaction of men and there

4872-468: The intended results of most incentivizing programs, although questions of their ethicality remain. Another country with an overpopulation problem is India . Medical advances in the past fifty years have lowered the death rate, resulting in large population density and overcrowding. This overcrowding is also due to the fact that poor families do not have access to birth control . Despite this lack of access, sterilization incentives have been in place since

4959-402: The labor of their children to survive, sterilization could have more of a negative effect. If a child dies, a family loses a worker. During China's controversial one-child policy reign, policymakers allowed families to have another child if an existing child in the same family died or became disabled. However, if either parent is sterilized, this is impossible. The loss of a child could impact

5046-399: The lack of financial resources as a reason why they remained childfree . Combined with the costliness of raising children, having children was viewed as a negative impact on financial resources. Thus, childlessness is generally correlated with working full-time. "Many women expressed the view that women ultimately have to make a choice between motherhood and career." In contrast, childlessness

5133-436: The long-term effects of their sterilization rather than being tempted with a one-time sum. In Poland, reproductive sterilisation of men or women has been defined as a criminal act since 1997 and remains so as of 5 September 2019 , under Article 156 §1, which also covers making someone blind, deaf or mute , of the 1997 law. The original 1997 law punished contraventions with a prison sentence of one to ten years and

5220-452: The marriage. There are many negative consequences associated with women who hold very little personal power. However, in more progressive cultures and in stable relationships, there are few changes observed in spousal relationships after sterilization. In these cultures, women hold more agency and men are less likely to dictate women's personal choices. Sexual activity remains fairly constant and marital relationships do not suffer, as long as

5307-448: The members of this and the other three state-recognized tribes in Vermont were primarily French descendants who have used long-ago ancestry in New France to shift into an 'Abenaki' identity. In 2002, the State of Vermont reported that the Abenaki people had migrated north to Quebec by the end of the 18th century. The Nulhegan Abenaki Tribe host multiple gatherings every year, including drumming events and an annual pow wow . The first

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5394-463: The mid-1900s. In the 1960s, the governments of three Indian states and one large private company offered free vasectomies to some employees, occasionally accompanied by a bonus. In 1959, the second Five-Year Plan offered medical practitioners who performed vasectomies on low-income men monetary compensation. Additionally, those who motivated men to receive vasectomies, and those men who did, received compensation. These incentives partially served as

5481-415: The normal parental activities of their peers. A child without a disability may be more likely to provide the couple with grandchildren and support in their old age. For couples without children, technological advancements have enabled the use of carrier screening and prenatal testing for the detection of genetic disorders in prospective parents or in their unborn offspring. If prenatal testing has detected

5568-856: The partners of Hispanic women and only 1% of the partners of black women. White women were more likely to rely on male sterilization and the pill . While use of the pill declined with age, the report found that female sterilization increased with age. Correspondingly, female sterilization was the leading method among currently and formerly married women; the pill was the leading method among cohabiting and never married women. 59% of women with three or more children used female sterilization. Thus, women who do not intend to have more children primarily rely on this method of contraception in contrast with women who only aim to space or delay their next birth. Regarding education, "[l]ess-educated women aged 22–44 years were much more likely to rely on female sterilization than those with more education." For example, female sterilization

5655-421: The population and gave people less incentive to participate in sterilization. The compulsory laws were removed. Further problems arose and by 1981, there was a noticeable problem in the preference for sons. Since families were encouraged to keep the number of children to a minimum, son preference meant that female fetuses or young girls were killed at a rapid rate. The focus of population policies has changed in

5742-399: The postpartum period that are not available to men. Compulsory sterilization refers to governmental policies put in place as part of human population planning or as a form of eugenics (changing hereditary qualities of a race or breed by controlling mating) to prevent certain groups of people from reproducing. An example of forced sterilization that was ended within the last two decades

5829-489: The procedure during times of high stress and physical pain. Some examples include women who have just given birth and are still being affected by the drugs, women in the middle of labor, or people who do not understand English. Many of the women affected by this were poor, minority women. In May 2014, the World Health Organization , OHCHR , UN Women , UNAIDS , UNDP , UNFPA and UNICEF issued

5916-564: The procedure, taught about alternative methods of contraception, and are able to make voluntary, informed consent, then incentive programs are providing a good service that is available for people to take advantage of. Singapore is an example of a country with a sterilization incentive program. In the 1980s, Singapore offered US$ 5000 to women who elected to be sterilized. The conditions associated with receiving this grant were fairly obvious in their aim at targeting low income and less educated parents. It specified that both parents should be below

6003-446: The psychological health of those who have received sterilizations. A 1996 Chinese study found that "risk for depression was 2.34 times greater after tubal ligation, and 3.97 times greater after vasectomy." If an individual goes into the procedure after being coerced or with a lack of understanding of the procedure and its consequences, they are more likely to develop negative psychological consequences afterwards. However, most people in

6090-466: The question of the degree of a government's involvement in personal decisions. For instance, some have posited that by offering incentives to receive sterilization, the government may change the decision of the families, rather than just supporting a decision they had already made. Many people agree that incentive programs are inherently coercive, making them unethical. Others argue that as long as potential users of these programs are well-educated about

6177-463: The root ancestors they claim were Abenaki were actually Europeans. Other root ancestors, though Native, have been claimed to not be Abenaki. The Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation identify as being Abenaki and Cowasuck . Current professor at the University of Ottawa and former St. Mary's University associate professor Darryl Leroux's genealogical and historical research found that

6264-562: The sterilization decision was made collaboratively between the two partners. As the Chinese government tried to communicate to their people after the population boom between 1953 and 1971, having fewer children allows more of a family's total resources to be dedicated to each child. Especially in countries that give parents incentives for family planning and for having fewer children, it is advantageous to existing children to be in smaller families. In more rural areas where families depend on

6351-407: The survival of an entire family. In countries with high population rates, such as China and India, compulsory sterilization policies or incentivizes to sterilization may be implemented in order to lower birth rates. While both countries are experiencing a decline in birth rate, there is worry that the rate was lowered too much and that there will not be enough people to fill the labor force. There

6438-536: The time was around 540 million. Therefore, abortion and sterilization were restricted. With these policies and the social and economic improvements associated with the new regime, a rapid population growth ensued. By the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1971 and with a population of 850 million, population control became a top priority of the government. Within six years, more than thirty million sterilizations were performed on men and women. Soon

6525-505: The traditional patriarchal system , female sterilizations can inspire abusive behavior from husbands for various reasons. Sterilization can lead to distrust in a marriage if the husband then suspects his wife of infidelity. Furthermore, the husband may become angry and aggressive if the decision to be sterilized was made by the wife without consulting him. If a woman marries again after sterilization, her new husband might be displeased with her inability to bear him children, causing tumult in

6612-459: The twenty-first century. The government is more concerned with empowering women, protecting them from violence, and providing basic necessities to families. Sterilization efforts are still in existence and still target poor families. When the People's Republic of China came to power in 1949, the Chinese government viewed population growth as a growth in development and progress. The population at

6699-436: The ultimate goal is to promote greater social well-being for the whole community. One of the theories supporting incentivizing or subsidy programs in the United States is that it offers contraception to citizens who may not be able to afford it. This can help families prevent unwanted pregnancies and avoid the financial, familial, and personal stresses of having children if they so desire. Sterilization becomes controversial in

6786-524: The uninsured and the underinsured. Unlike Title X, Medicaid is an entitlement program that is jointly funded by federal and state governments to "provide medical care to various low-income populations". Medicaid provided the majority of publicly funded sterilizations. In 1979, regulations were implemented on sterilizations funded by the Department of Health and Human Services. The regulations included "a complex procedure to ensure women's informed consent,

6873-427: The updated law as of 5 September 2019 sets a prison sentence of at least 3 years. The prison sentence is a maximum of three years if the sterilisation is involuntary, under Art. 156 §2. The effects of sterilization vary greatly according to gender, age, location, and other factors. When discussing female sterilization, one of the most important factors to consider is the degree of power that women hold in

6960-497: The well-known one-child policy was enforced, which came along with many incentives for parents to maintain a one-child family. This included free books, materials, and food for the child through primary school if both parents agreed to sterilization. The policy also came along with harsh consequences for not adhering to the one-child limit. For example, in Shanghai, parents with "extra children" must pay between three and six times

7047-489: The world have offered and continue to offer economic incentives to using birth control , including sterilization. For countries with high population growth and not enough resources to sustain a large population, these incentives become more enticing. Many of these policies are aimed at certain target groups, often disadvantaged and young women (especially in the United States). While these policies are controversial,

7134-460: Was also found among adults who were not overly committed to careers. In these finding, the importance of leisure time and the potential to retire early was emphasized over career ambitions. Sterilization is also an option for low-income families. Public funding for contraceptive services come from a variety of federal and state sources in the United States. Until the mid-1990s, "[f]ederal funds for contraceptive services [were] provided under Title X of

7221-896: Was found. At the time, many of the children who were sterilized were not even aware of what the physicians had done to them. This was performed under the auspices of the Brandon School of the Feeble-Minded, and the Vermont Reform School. It was documented in the 1911 "Preliminary Report of the Committee of the Eugenic Section of the American Breeder's Association to Study and to Report on the Best Practical Means for Cutting Off

7308-533: Was held in Shelburne, Vermont . This was the first and only time the Wabanaki Confederacy was hosted in Vermont. In 2019, the leadership of the Odanak Abenaki Band Council , the governing body of the Odanak band of the Abenaki First Nation, denounced any groups claiming to be Abenaki in the United States. The legitimacy of groups such as the Nulhegan Band have been questioned due to claims that

7395-415: Was no significant change in communication and marital satisfaction among couples as a result. According to Johns Hopkins Medicine , tubal sterilizations result in serious problems in less than 1 out of 1000 women. Tubal sterilization is an effective procedure, but pregnancy can still occur in about 1 out of 200 women. Some potential risks of tubal sterilization include "bleeding from a skin incision or inside

7482-639: Was traditionally seen as a deficiency or due to fertility problems. However, better access to contraception , new economic and educational opportunities, and changing ideas about motherhood have led to new reproductive experiences for women in the United States, particularly for women who choose to be childless . Scholars define "voluntarily childless" women as "women of childbearing age who are fertile and state that they do not intend to have children, women of childbearing age who have chosen sterilization, or women past childbearing age who were fertile but chose not to have children". In industrialized countries such as

7569-409: Was used among 55% of women who had not completed high school compared with 16% of women who had graduated from college. Because national surveys of contraceptive methods have generally relied on the input of women, information about male sterilization is not as widespread. A survey using data from the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth found similar trends to those reported for female sterilization by

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