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124-582: The city uses the double-headed eagle as its coat-of-arms, a motif that has been a common symbol throughout Anatolia since the Bronze Age . Erzurum has winter sports facilities, hosted the 2011 Winter Universiade , and the 2023 Winter Deaflympics (in March 2024). The city was originally known in Armenian as Karno K'aghak' ( Armenian : Կարնոյ քաղաք ), meaning city of Karin , to distinguish it from

248-596: A supporter , on the modern and historical arms and flags of Austria-Hungary , the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , Austria (1934–1938), Albania, Armenia , Montenegro, Russia and Serbia. It was also used as a charge on the Greek coat of arms for a brief period in 1925–1926. It is also used in the municipal arms of a number of cities in Germany, Netherlands and Serbia, the arms and flag of the city and province of Toledo , Spain ,

372-728: A Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains in roughly 1120. The Almohads succeeded in overthrowing the Almoravid dynasty in governing Morocco by 1147, when Abd al-Mu'min (r. 1130–1163) conquered Marrakech and declared himself caliph. They then extended their power over all of the Maghreb by 1159. Al-Andalus followed the fate of Africa, and all Islamic Iberia was under Almohad rule by 1172. The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when Muhammad al-Nasir (1199–1214)

496-590: A Masonic rite of twenty-five degrees, set the foundation for what would evolve into the present masonic system Scottish Rite. The successors of the "Council of Emperors of the East and West" are today the various Supreme Councils of the Thirty Third Degree in more than 60 countries. The Double Headed Eagle was formally adopted from the personal emblem of King Frederick the Great , of Prussia, who in 1786 became

620-451: A Persian slave called Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz . His successor, Uthman, was elected by a council of electors ( majlis ). Uthman was killed by members of a disaffected group. Ali then took control but was not universally accepted as caliph by the governors of Egypt and later by some of his own guard. He faced two major rebellions and was assassinated by Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam , a Khawarij . Ali's tumultuous rule lasted only five years. This period

744-771: A bishopric, which the Annuario Pontificio lists as suffragan of the Archdiocese of Comachus , but in Notitiae Episcopatuum from the seventh and early tenth centuries, its (later?) Metropolitan is the Archdiocese of Caesarea in Cappadocia . In either case, it was in the sway of the Patriarchate of Constantinople . Its historically recorded Suffragan Bishops were : After the long Byzantine-Sasanian War of 572-591 , Byzantine rule

868-541: A center of knowledge, culture and trade. This period of cultural fruition ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan . The Abbasid Caliphate had, however, lost its effective power outside Iraq already by c. 920. By 945, the loss of power became official when the Buyids conquered Baghdad and all of Iraq. The empire fell apart and its parts were ruled for the next century by local dynasties. In

992-471: A curling hall were built in Erzurum. In May 1894, American bicyclist Frank Lenz disappeared outside the city on the final leg of his quest to circumnavigate the globe on a bike. Erzurum has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification : Dfb, Trewartha climate classification : Dcbc ) with very cold, snowy winters and warm, dry summers. The average maximum daily temperature during August

1116-472: A double-headed Imperial Eagle, improved from the single-headed Imperial Eagle used in the high medieval period, became current in the 15th to 16th centuries. The double-headed Reichsadler was in the coats of arms of many German cities and aristocratic families in the early modern period. A distinguishing feature of the Holy Roman eagle was that it was often depicted with haloes . In the 16th century,

1240-867: A double-headed eagle in Serbia is the one found in the donor portrait of Miroslav of Hum in the Church of St. Peter and Paul in Bijelo Polje , dating to 1190. The double-headed eagle in the Serbian royal coat of arms is well attested in the 13th and 14th centuries. An exceptional medieval depiction of a double-headed eagle in the West, attributed to Otto IV , is found in a copy of the Chronica Majora of Matthew of Paris ( Corpus Christi College, Cambridge , Parker MS 16 fol. 18, 13th century). In Serbia ,

1364-655: A double-headed eagle grasping two hares is found at the eastern pier of the Sphinx Gate at Alaca Hüyük . For more examples of double-headed eagles in the Hittite context see Jesse David Chariton, "The Function of the Double-Headed Eagle at Yazılıkaya." In Mycenaean Greece , erroneous evidence for the double-eagle motif was found in Grave Circle A , an elite Mycenaean cemetery; the motif was part of

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1488-718: A faction of approximately 4,000 people, who would come to be known as the Kharijites , to abandon the fight. After defeating the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan , Ali was later assassinated by the Kharijite Ibn Muljam. Ali's son Hasan was elected as the next caliph, but abdicated in favour of Mu'awiyah a few months later to avoid any conflict within the Muslims. Mu'awiyah became the sixth caliph, establishing

1612-484: A leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue among themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men. Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of caliph) as a result of Saqifah , though he did face contention as

1736-524: A new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca ), though this has later become the subject of debate. Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar , both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned of a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with

1860-601: A person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim world ( ummah ). Historically, the caliphates were polities based on Islam which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires. During the medieval period, three major caliphates succeeded each other: the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), and

1984-550: A portion of the province's revenues. The city is a popular destination in Turkey for winter sports at the nearby Palandöken Mountain . Erzurum is notable for the small-scale production of objects crafted from Oltu stone : most are sold as souvenirs and include prayer beads, bracelets, necklaces, brooches, earrings and hairclips. For now, Erzurum is the ending point of the South Caucasus Pipeline , also called

2108-530: A relative of Uthman and governor ( wali ) of Syria , succeeded Ali as caliph. Muāwiyah transformed the caliphate into a hereditary office, thus founding the Umayyad dynasty . In areas which were previously under Sasanian Empire or Byzantine rule, the caliphs lowered taxes, provided greater local autonomy (to their delegated governors), greater religious freedom for Jews and some indigenous Christians, and brought peace to peoples demoralised and disaffected by

2232-512: A result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being Ali ibn Abi Talib , initially refused to acknowledge his authority. Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad. The theologian Ibrahim al-Nakha'i stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for

2356-408: A series of gold jewelry, possibly a necklace with a repeating design of two birds sitting chest facing each other with their heads and faces turned in the opposite directions. Some found the motif to bear resemblance to the double-headed god symbol of Sumeria and BMAC culture of south central Asia. After the Bronze Age collapse , there is a gap of more than two millennia before the re-appearance of

2480-577: A shield protecting their thrones against the attacks of rebels". A summit was convened at Cairo in 1926 to discuss the revival of the caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate, and no action was taken to implement the summit's resolutions. Though the title Ameer al-Mumineen was adopted by the King of Morocco and by Mohammed Omar , former head of the Taliban of Afghanistan , neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside

2604-455: A single-headed eagle after the end of the monarchy, briefly used a double-headed eagle – with haloes – once again when it was a one-party state 1934–1938 ; this, too, was ended by the Nazi government . Since then, Germany and Austria, and their respective states, have not used double-headed eagles. The Gandaberunda is a bicephalous bird, not necessarily an eagle but very similar in design to

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2728-510: A warning that an attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh , would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah , by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose

2852-454: A while around the 1310s. Then became part of the Çoban beylik, Black Sheep Turkmen , empire of Timur Lenk and White Sheep Turkmen . It subsequently passed to Safavid Persia , until the Ottomans under Selim I in 1514 conquered it through the Battle of Chaldiran . During Ottoman imperial rule, the city served as the main base of military power in the region. It served as the capital of

2976-489: Is an exquisite dessert made with walnut. Other regional foodstuffs include Su böreği (wet pastry), ekşili dolma (sour stuffed vegetables), kesme çorbası (soup), ayran aşı yayla çorbası (nomads soup), çiriş , şalgam dolması (stuffed turnip), yumurta pilavı (egg pilaf), and kadayıf dolması . The Erzurum Technical University and the Atatürk University are located in Erzurum. Sanasarian College

3100-727: Is an iconographic symbol originating in the Bronze Age . A heraldic charge , it is used with the concept of an empire . Most modern uses of the emblem are directly or indirectly associated with its use by the late Byzantine Empire , originally a dynastic emblem of the Palaiologoi . It was adopted during the Late Medieval to Early Modern period in the Holy Roman Empire , Albania and in Orthodox principalities ( Serbia and Russia ), representing an augmentation of

3224-476: Is around 28 °C (82 °F). The highest recorded temperature is 36.5 °C (97.7 °F), on 31 July 2000. ; January is the coldest month, with an average minimum daily temperature around −16 °C (3 °F). The coldest recorded temperature is −37.2 °C (−35.0 °F) on 28 December 2002. Snow cover is frequent in winter, but the dry nature of the climate usually prevents large accumulation. Double-headed eagle The double-headed eagle

3348-622: Is known as the Fitna , or the first Islamic civil war. The followers of Ali later became the Shi'a ("shiaat Ali", partisans of Ali. ) minority sect of Islam and reject the legitimacy of the first three caliphs. The followers of all four Rāshidun Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali) became the majority Sunni sect. Under the Rāshidun, each region ( Sultanate , Wilayah , or Emirate ) of the caliphate had its own governor (Sultan, Wāli or Emir ). Muāwiyah ,

3472-641: Is notably found on the pierced-globe handwarmer made for Mamluk amir Badr al-Din Baysari ( c.  1270 ), and in a stone relief on the walls of the Cairo Citadel . Adoption of the double-headed eagle in Serbia, Russia and in the Holy Roman Empire begins still in the medieval period, possibly as early as the 12th century, but widespread use begins after the fall of Constantinople, in the late 15th century. The oldest preserved depiction of

3596-649: Is presented by BB Erzurumspor in association football. It was founded as "Gençler Birliği Gençlik Spor Kulübü" in 1967 and took present name in 2014. It played in the Turkish Super League in 2018-19 and 2020-21 seasons. Erzurum's football venue, the Cemal Gürsel Stadium , has a seating capacity for 21,900 spectators. To be able to carry out the competitions of the Winter Universiade, a ski jumping ramp, an ice hockey arena and

3720-699: Is used as an emblem by the Scottish Rite of Freemasonry which was introduced in France, in the early 1760s, as the emblem of the Kadosh degree . The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry , adopted the 'Double Headed Eagle of Lagash' as its emblem since the 1758 establishment of the Masonic Chivalry Rite (Council of Emperors of the East and West), in Paris, France. That council, with

3844-493: Is used by the Indian club Bengaluru FC in their logo. Caliphate List of forms of government A caliphate ( Arabic : خِلَافَةْ , romanized :  khilāfah [xi'laːfah] ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph ( / ˈ k æ l ɪ f , ˈ k eɪ -/ ; خَلِيفَةْ khalīfa [xæ'liːfæh] , pronunciation ),

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3968-696: The Baku - Tbilisi -Erzurum (BTE) pipeline. Erzurum will also be the starting point of the planned Nabucco pipeline which will carry natural gas from the Caspian Sea basin to the European Union member states. The intergovernmental agreement between Turkey, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Austria to build the Nabucco pipeline was signed by five Prime Ministers on 13 July 2009 in Ankara. The European Union

4092-527: The eyalet of Erzurum . Early in the seventeenth century, the province was threatened by Safavid Persia and a revolt by the province governor Abaza Mehmed Pasha . This revolt was combined with Jelali Revolts (the uprising of the provincial musketeers called the Jelali), backed by Iran and lasted until 1628. In 1733, Iranian ruler Nader Shah took Erzurum during the Ottoman–Persian War (1730–35) , but

4216-833: The Abbasid Caliphate (750–1517). In the fourth major caliphate, the Ottoman Caliphate , the rulers of the Ottoman Empire claimed caliphal authority from 1517 until the Ottoman caliphate was formally abolished as part of the 1924 secularisation of Turkey . An attempt to preserve the title was tried, with the Sharifian Caliphate , but this caliphate fell quickly after its conquest by the Sultanate of Nejd (present-day Saudi Arabia ), leaving

4340-548: The Abbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and not from Ali. In 750, the Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by another family of Meccan origin, the Abbasids. Their time represented a scientific, cultural and religious flowering. Islamic art and music also flourished significantly during their reign. Their major city and capital Baghdad began to flourish as

4464-724: The Ahl al-Bayt (the "Household of the Prophet"). Some caliphates in history have been led by Shia Muslims, like the Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171). From the late 20th century towards the early 21st century, in the wake of the invasion of Afghanistan by the USSR , the war on terror and the Arab Spring , various Islamist groups have claimed the caliphate, although these claims have usually been widely rejected among Muslims. Before

4588-502: The Battle of Manzikert in 1071. In 1048/49, a neighboring commercial city named Artze (Arcn, Arzan; Armenian: Արծն) was heavily sacked by the Seljuks. Its Armenian , Syrian , and other Christian inhabitants moved to Theodosiopolis, which they began calling Artsn Rum (meaning 'Artze of the Rûm ', i.e., Romans ) to distinguish it from their former residence. Some older sources derive

4712-708: The Crimean war Russian forces approached Erzurum, but did not attack it because of insufficient forces and the continuing Russian siege of Kars . The city was unsuccessfully attacked ( Battle of Erzurum (1877) ) by a Russian army in the Russo-Ottoman War of 1877–78. However, in February 1878, the Russians took Erzurum without resistance, but it was again returned to the Ottoman Empire , this time under

4836-410: The Dukagjini family and the Arianiti family also used double-headed eagles, and a coalition of Albanian states in the 15th century, later called the League of Lezhë , also used the Kastrioti eagle as its flag. The current flag of Albania features a black two-headed eagle with a crimson background. During John Hunyadi's campaign in Niš in 1443, Skanderbeg and a few hundred Albanians defected from

4960-432: The High Middle Ages , being adopted by the Palaiologos dynasty of the Byzantine Empire . 11th or 12th century representations have also been found originating from Islamic Spain , France , the Bulgarian Empire and the Serbian principality of Raška . From the 13th century onward it appeared within the Islamic world in the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and the Mamluk Sultanate , and within the Christian world in Albania ,

5084-399: The Holy Roman Empire , Russia , and Serbia . Many-headed mythological beasts and bird creatures frequently appear in the Bronze Age and Iron Age pictorial legacy of the Ancient Near East , especially in Mesopotamia. They were later adopted by the Hittites . Use of the double-headed eagle in Hittite imagery has been interpreted as "royal insignia". A monumental Hittite relief of

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5208-482: The Khwaja Salimullah were popularly given the term khalifa . The Bornu Caliphate, which was headed by the Bornu emperors, began in 1472. A rump state of the larger Kanem-Bornu Empire , its rulers held the title of caliph until 1893, when it was absorbed into the British Colony of Nigeria and Northern Cameroons Protectorate . The British recognised them as the 'sultans of Bornu', one step down in Muslim royal titles. After Nigeria became independent, its rulers became

5332-404: The Maharaja of Mysore into the modern period, and was adopted as the state symbol of the State of Mysore (now Karnataka ) after Indian independence . Albania, Serbia, Montenegro and Russia have a double-headed eagle in their coat of arms. In 1912, Ismail Qemali raised a similar version of that flag. The flag has gone through many alterations, until 1992 when the current flag of Albania

5456-405: The Mughal Empire , who were the only Sunni rulers whose territory and wealth could compete with that of the Ottomans, started assuming the title of caliph and calling their capital as the Dar-ul-khilafat ("abode of the caliphate") since the time of the third emperor Akbar like their Timurid ancestors. A gold coin struck under Akbar called him the "great sultan , the exalted khalifah ". Although

5580-411: The Municipal Borough of Wimbledon in London, the supporters in the coat of arms of the city and burgh of Perth , and hence in that of the district of Perth and Kinross (1975). The motif is also found in a number of British family coats of arms. In Turkey, General Directorate of Security and the municipality of Diyarbakır have a double-headed eagle in their coat of arms. The Double-Headed Eagle

5704-403: The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations, such as Crimea , were lost to the Russian Empire. However, the Ottomans under Abdul Hamid I claimed a diplomatic victory by being allowed to remain the religious leaders of Muslims in the now-independent Crimea as part of the peace treaty; in return Russia became

5828-435: The Serbian Orthodox Nemanjić dynasty adopted a double-headed eagle by the 11th century by Serbian great prince Miroslav (later recorded by Angelino Dulcert 1339 during Serbian Empire ). The double-headed eagle was used in several coats of arms found in the Illyrian Armorials , compiled in the early modern period. The white double-headed eagle on a red shield was used for the Serbian Kingdom Nemanjić dynasty, and

5952-409: The Tabula Peutingeriana it is called Autisparate . After the Arab conquest of Armenia in the seventh century, the city was known to the Arabs as Kālīkalā (adopted from the original Armenian name Karno K'aghak' ( Armenian : Կարնոյ քաղաք ), meaning 'Karin City', to distinguish it from the district of Karin ( Կարին ). It received its present name after its conquest by the Seljuk Turks following

6076-474: The Treaty of San Stefano . There were massacres of the city's Armenian citizens during the Hamidian massacres (1894–1896). The 40,000-strong Armenian population was deported from the city and killed en masse during the 1915 Armenian genocide . Their cultural institutions, including churches, clubs, and schools, were looted, destroyed, or otherwise left derelict. When Russian forces occupied Erzurum in 1916, there were scarcely 200 Armenians left alive. The city

6200-409: The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire and gave Greece a powerful position in Anatolia, to the distress of the Turks. They called for help and the movement was the result. The movement had collapsed by late 1922. On 3 March 1924, the first president of the Turkish Republic , Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , as part of his reforms , constitutionally abolished the institution of the caliphate. Atatürk offered

6324-422: The (single-headed) eagle or Aquila associated with the Roman Empire . In a few places, among them the Holy Roman Empire and Russia, the motif was further augmented to create the less prominent triple-headed eagle . The motif has predecessors in Bronze Age art, found in Mycenaean Greece , and in the Ancient Near East , especially in Mesopotamian and Hittite iconography . It re-appeared prominently during

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6448-449: The American ambassador to Ottoman Turkey , Oscar Straus , to approach Sultan Abdul Hamid II to use his position as caliph to order the Tausūg people of the Sultanate of Sulu in the Philippines to submit to American suzerainty and American military rule; the Sultan obliged them and wrote the letter which was sent to Sulu via Mecca. As a result, the "Sulu Mohammedans ... refused to join the insurrectionists and had placed themselves under

6572-448: The Armenian name of Karin. During the reigns of the Artaxiad and Arsacid kings of Armenia , Karin served as the capital of the eponymous canton of Karin , in the province Bardzr Hayk' (Upper Armenia). After the partition of Armenia between the Eastern Roman Empire and Sassanid Persia in 387 AD, the city passed into the hands of the Romans who fortified the city and renamed it Theodosiopolis, after Emperor Theodosius I . As

6696-421: The Despot Stefan Lazarević . A "Nemanjić eagle" was used at the crest of the Hrebeljanović ( Lazarević dynasty ), while a half-white half-red eagle was used at the crest of the Mrnjavčević . Use of the white eagle was continued by the modern Karađorđević and Obrenović ruling houses. The Kastrioti family in Albania had a double-headed eagle as their emblem in the 14th and 15th centuries. Some members of

6820-481: The First Sovereign Grand Commander of the Supreme Council of the 33 Degree, subsequent to its formation following the adoption of eight additional degrees to the Masonic Rite. Several sports clubs, mainly Greek and Turkish, have the double-headed eagle in their insignia. Some of them are: three football clubs of Turkey; Çorum FK , BB Erzurumspor , Konyaspor , Amed SFK and the Greek sport clubs AEK (Athletic Union of Constantinople) and (since 1929 when it adopted

6944-435: The Foundations of Governance . The argument of this book has been summarised as "Islam does not advocate a specific form of government". He focussed his criticism both at those who use religious law as contemporary political proscription and at the history of rulers claiming legitimacy by the caliphate. Raziq wrote that past rulers spread the notion of religious justification for the caliphate "so that they could use religion as

7068-425: The Hittite motif of the double-headed bird, associated with the Paphlagonian city of Gangra (where it was known as Haga , Χάγκα ), might have been brought to the Byzantine Empire by the Komnenoi . The double-headed eagle motif was adopted in the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm and the Turkic beyliks of medieval Anatolia in the early 13th century. A royal association of the motif is suggested by its appearance on

7192-523: The Mughal Empire is not recognised as a caliphate, its sixth emperor Aurangzeb has often been regarded as one of the few Islamic caliphs to have ruled the Indian peninsula. He received support from the Ottoman sultans such as Suleiman II and Mehmed IV . As a memoriser of Quran, Aurangzeb fully established sharia in South Asia via his Fatawa 'Alamgiri . He re-introduced jizya and banned Islamically unlawful activities. However, Aurangzeb's personal expenses were covered by his own incomes, which included

7316-407: The Mughals did not acknowledge the overlordship of Ottomans, they nevertheless used the title of caliph to honour them in diplomatic exchanges. Akbar's letter to Suleiman the Magnificent addressed the latter as having attained the rank of the caliphate, while calling Akbar's empire as the "Khilafat of realms of Hind and Sind." The fifth emperor Shah Jahan also laid claim to the Caliphate. Although

7440-519: The Muslim realm by the first half of the tenth century. The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over Al-Andalus , reclaimed the title of caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031. During the Umayyad dynasty, the Iberian Peninsula was an integral province of the Umayyad Caliphate ruling from Damascus . The Umayyads lost the position of caliph in Damascus in 750, and Abd al-Rahman I became Emir of Córdoba in 756 after six years in exile. Intent on regaining power, he defeated

7564-524: The Ottoman claim to the caliphate and proceed to have the Ottoman caliph issue orders to the Muslims living in British India to comply with the British government. The British supported and propagated the view that the Ottomans were caliphs of Islam among Muslims in British India, and the Ottoman sultans helped the British by issuing pronouncements to the Muslims of India telling them to support British rule from Sultan Selim III and Sultan Abdulmejid I . Around 1880, Sultan Abdul Hamid II reasserted

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7688-413: The Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated and annexed the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo into his empire. Through conquering and unifying Muslim lands, Selim I became the defender of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina , which further strengthened the Ottoman claim to the caliphate in the Muslim world. Ottomans gradually came to be viewed as the de facto leaders and representatives of the Islamic world. However,

7812-444: The Seljuks and Georgians (the latter knew the city as Karnu-Kalaki) until 1201 when the city and the province was conquered by the Seljuk sultan Süleymanshah II . Erzen-Erzurum fell to the Mongol siege in 1242, and the city was looted and devastated. After the fall of the Sultanate of Rum in early 14th century, it became an administrative province of the Ilkhanate , and later on the city was under Empire of Trebizond occupation for

7936-420: The Turkish ranks and used the double-headed eagle flag. The eagle was used for heraldic purposes in the Middle Ages by a number of Albanian noble families and became the symbol of the Albanians . The Kastrioti 's coat of arms , depicting a black double-headed eagle on a red field, became famous when he led a revolt against the Ottoman Empire resulting in the independence of Albania from 1443 to 1479. This

8060-501: The Umayyad Caliphate covered 5.17 million square miles (13,400,000 km ), making it the largest empire the world had yet seen and the seventh largest ever to exist in history. Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the caliph. However, for a variety of reasons, including that they were not elected by Shura and suggestions of impious behaviour,

8184-424: The Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within the Muslim community. Some supported prominent early Muslims like Zubayr ibn al-Awwam ; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim , or his own lineage, the descendants of Ali, should rule. There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays ). At

8308-408: The Umayyad dynasty, named after the great-grandfather of Uthman and Mu'awiyah, Umayya ibn Abd Shams . Beginning with the Umayyads, the title of the caliph became hereditary. Under the Umayyads, the caliphate grew rapidly in territory, incorporating the Caucasus , Transoxiana , Sindh , the Maghreb and most of the Iberian Peninsula ( Al-Andalus ) into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent,

8432-421: The advent of Islam, Arabian monarchs traditionally used the title malik 'king', or another from the same Semitic root . The term caliph ( / ˈ k eɪ l ɪ f , ˈ k æ l ɪ f / ) derives from the Arabic word khalīfah ( خَليفة , pronunciation ), meaning 'successor', 'steward', or 'deputy'—and has traditionally been considered a shortening of Khalīfah rasūl Allāh 'successor of

8556-400: The arms of the town of Velletri , Italy , and the arms and flag of the city of Rijeka , Croatia . An English heraldic tradition, apparently going back to the 17th century, attributes coats of arms with double-headed eagles to the Anglo-Saxon earls of Mercia , Leofwine and Leofric . The design was introduced in a number of British municipal coats of arms in the 20th century, such as

8680-466: The borders of their respective countries. Since the end of the Ottoman Empire, occasional demonstrations have been held calling for the re-establishment of the caliphate. Organisations which call for the re-establishment of the caliphate include Hizb ut-Tahrir and the Muslim Brotherhood . The AKP government in Turkey, a former Muslim Brotherhood ally who has adopted Neo-Ottomanist policies throughout its rule, has been accused of intending to restore

8804-404: The buildings of al-Andalus were constructed in this period. The Almohad Caliphate ( Berber languages : Imweḥḥden , from الموحدون al-Muwaḥḥidun , " the Monotheists " or "the Unifiers") was a Moroccan Berber Muslim movement founded in the 12th century. The Almohad movement was started by Ibn Tumart among the Masmuda tribes of southern Morocco. The Almohads first established

8928-516: The caliphate to Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi , on the condition that he reside outside Turkey; Senussi declined the offer and confirmed his support for Abdulmejid . The title was then claimed by Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca and Hejaz , leader of the Arab Revolt , but his kingdom was defeated and annexed by ibn Saud in 1925. Egyptian scholar Ali Abdel Raziq published his 1925 book Islam and

9052-469: The caliphate were united to any degree, excepting the final period of the Rashidun Caliphate under Ali himself. The caliphate was reputed to exercise a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews, Maltese Christians and Copts . The Shiʻa Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah of the Fatimid dynasty , who claimed descent from Muhammad through his daughter, claimed

9176-692: The caliphate. After the Umayyad campaigns in India and the conquest on small territories of the western part of the Indian peninsula, early Indian Muslim dynasties were founded by the Ghurid dynasty and the Ghaznavids , most notably the Delhi Sultanate . The Indian sultanates did not extensively strive for a caliphate since the Ottoman Empire was already observing the caliphate. The emperors of

9300-569: The capital from Baghdad to Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the peoples they claimed to rule. In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew until Ar-Radi (934–941) was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to Muhammad ibn Ra'iq . In 1261, following the Mongol conquest of Baghdad , the Mamluk rulers of Egypt tried to gain legitimacy for their rule by declaring

9424-598: The capital of the emirate of Ḳālīḳalā and was used as a base for raids into Byzantine territory. Though only an island of Arab power within Christian Armenian-populated territory, the native population was generally a reliable client of the Caliph's governors. As the power of the Caliphate declined, and the resurgence of Byzantium began, the local Armenian leaders preferred the city to be under

9548-476: The casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the decades of Byzantine–Persian warfare . Ali's reign was plagued by turmoil and internal strife. The Persians, taking advantage of this, infiltrated the two armies and attacked the other army causing chaos and internal hatred between the companions at the Battle of Siffin . The battle lasted several months, resulting in a stalemate. To avoid further bloodshed, Ali agreed to negotiate with Mu'awiyah. This caused

9672-476: The chief military stronghold along the eastern border of the empire, Theodosiopolis held a highly important strategic location and was fiercely contested in wars between the Byzantines and Persians. Emperors Anastasius I and Justinian I both refortified the city and built new defenses during their reigns. Theodosiopolis was conquered by the Umayyad general Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik in 700/701. It became

9796-656: The citadel fortress, and the 13th century Çifte Minareli Medrese (the "Twin Minaret" madrasa). Visitors may also wish to visit the Çobandede Bridge , which dates back to late 13th century, the Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque and the Grand Mosque . One specialty of Erzurum's cuisine is Cağ Kebab . Although this kebab variety is of recent introduction outside its native region, it is rapidly attaining widespread popularity around Turkey. Kadayıf Dolması

9920-403: The city of Cairo there in 969. Thereafter, Cairo became the capital of the caliphate, with Egypt becoming the political, cultural and religious centre of the state. Islam scholar Louis Massignon dubbed the fourth century AH /tenth century CE as the " Ismaili century in the history of Islam". The term Fatimite is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate. The ruling elite of

10044-702: The city returned to Ottoman possession following his death in 1747. In 1821, during the last major Ottoman-Persian War , the Ottomans were decisively defeated at Erzurum by the Iranian Qajars at the Battle of Erzurum (1821) . In 1829 the city was captured by the Russian Empire , but was returned to the Ottoman Empire under the Treaty of Adrianople (Edirne), in September of the same year. During

10168-563: The city. On the eve of the First World War, 37,480 Armenians lived in the kaza of Erzurum, with 43 churches, three monasteries and 52 schools. All but about 200 Armenians were executed during the Armenian genocide . Today, the city has a Lom population. One of the largest source of income and economic activity in the city has been Atatürk University . Established in 1950, it is one of the largest universities in Turkey, having more than forty-thousand students. Tourism also provides

10292-419: The claim in dormancy . Throughout the history of Islam, a few other Muslim states, almost all of which were hereditary monarchies , have claimed to be caliphates. Not all Muslim states have had caliphates. The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a caliph should be elected by Muslims or their representatives. Shia Muslims , however, believe a caliph should be an imam chosen by God from

10416-706: The command of Yazid son of Muawiya, an army led by Umar ibn Saad, a commander by the name of Shimr Ibn Thil-Jawshan killed Ali's son Hussein and his family at the Battle of Karbala in 680, solidifying the Shia-Sunni split . Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hashim and the supporters of the lineage of Ali united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the Shi‘at ‘Alī , "the Party of Ali", were again disappointed when

10540-487: The control of our army, thereby recognizing American sovereignty." Political Militant [REDACTED] Islam portal After the Armistice of Mudros of October 1918 with the military occupation of Constantinople and Treaty of Versailles (1919), the position of the Ottomans was uncertain. The movement to protect or restore the Ottomans gained force after the Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920) which imposed

10664-400: The control of powerless Muslim emirs rather than powerful Byzantine emperors . In 931, and again in 949, Byzantine forces led by Theophilos Kourkouas , grandfather of the future emperor John I Tzimiskes , captured Theodosiopolis. Its Arab population was expelled and the city was resettled by Greeks and Armenians. Emperor Basil II rebuilt the city and its defenses in 1018 with the help of

10788-662: The district of Karin ( Կարին ). It is presumed its name was derived from a local tribe called the Karenitis. An alternate theory contends that a local princely family, the Kamsarakans , the Armenian off-shoot of the Iranian Kārin Pahlav family , lent its name to the locale that eventually became the city. During Roman times, Erzurum was named Theodosiopolis ( Latin : Theodosiopolis , Greek : Θεοδοσιούπολις ). On

10912-573: The double-headed eagle motif. The earliest occurrence in the context of the Byzantine Empire appears to be on a silk brocade dated to the 10th century, which was, however, likely manufactured in Islamic Spain ; similarly early examples, from the 10th or 11th century, are from Bulgaria and from France . The early Byzantine Empire continued to use the (single-headed) imperial eagle motif. The double-headed eagle appears only in

11036-693: The double-headed eagle used in Western heraldry, used as a symbol by the Wadiyar dynasty of the Kingdom of Mysore from the 16th century. Coins (gold pagoda or gadyana) from the rule of Achyuta Deva Raya (reigned 1529–1542) depicted the Gandaberunda. Of similar age is a sculpture on the roof of the Rameshwara temple in the temple town of Keladi in Shivamogga . The symbol was in continued use by

11160-747: The double-headed eagle was retained by the Austrian Empire , and served also as the coat of arms of the German Confederation . The German states of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen continued to use the double-headed eagle as well until they were abolished shortly after the First World War , and so did the Free City of Lübeck until it was abolished by the Nazi government in 1937. Austria, which switched to

11284-713: The double-headed eagle was the most powerful heraldic mark up to that time, as it symbolized the union of the imperial dignity of the Holy Roman Empire (the Habsburg empire) with the Spanish Monarchy . The double-headed eagle would end up being the emblem of the Habsburgs in Madrid and Vienna, becoming universal with the global expansion of the Spanish empire . After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806,

11408-414: The earlier Ottoman caliphs did not officially bear the title of caliph in their documents of state, inscriptions, or coinage. It was only in the late eighteenth century that the claim to the caliphate was discovered by the sultans to have a practical use, since it allowed them to counter Russian claims to protect Ottoman Christians with their own claim to protect Muslims under Russian rule. The outcome of

11532-587: The emblem of its parent association Enosis Konstantinopoliton Thessalonikis which was founded in 1923) P.A.O.K. (Panthesalonikios Athletic club of Constantinople) . The Greek clubs use this symbol since both were founded by Greek refugees who moved to Greece from Constantinople in the 1920s. It is also the emblem of the Dutch clubs NEC and Vitesse Arnhem , the English football club AFC Wimbledon and Scottish side Saint Johnstone FC . The Gandabherunda insignia

11656-538: The existing Islamic rulers of the area who defied Umayyad rule and united various local fiefdoms into an emirate. Rulers of the emirate used the title "emir" or "sultan" until the tenth century, when Abd al-Rahman III was faced with the threat of invasion by the Fatimid Caliphate. To aid his fight against the invading Fatimids, who claimed the caliphate in opposition to the generally recognised Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, Al-Mu'tadid , Abd al-Rahman III claimed

11780-473: The former bishopric remains a Latin Catholic titular see , renamed as Titular Archiepiscopal See of Aprus. Its post is vacant since 1968, Antonio Gregorio Vuccino was its last archbishop. In 1829, Erzurum had 130,000 inhabitants, including 30,000 Armenians. In 1909, there were 60,000 inhabitants, including 15,000 Armenians (2,500 families). Armenians mainly lived in the northern and northwestern districts of

11904-465: The key founders of the modern Turkish Republic , resigned from the Ottoman army in Erzurum and was declared an "Honorary Native" and freeman of the city, which issued him his first citizenship registration and certificate (Nüfus Cuzdanı) of the new Turkish Republic. The Erzurum Congress of 1919 was one of the starting points of the Turkish War of Independence . In September 1935, Erzurum was made

12028-522: The keystone of an arch of the citadel built at Konya (Ikonion) under Kayqubad I (r. 1220–1237). The motif appears on Turkomen coins of this era, notably on coins minted under Artuqid ruler Nasir al-Din Mahmud of Hasankeyf (r. 1200–1222). It is also found on some stone reliefs on the towers of Diyarbakır Fortress . Later in the 13th century, the motif was also adopted in Mamluk Egypt ; it

12152-523: The local Armenian population. In 1071, after the decisive battle at Manzikert , the Seljuk Turks took possession of Theodosiopolis. The Saltukids were rulers of an Anatolian beylik (principality) centered in Erzurum, who ruled from 1071 to 1202. Melike Mama Hatun , sister of Nâsırüddin Muhammed, was the ruler between 1191 and 1200. Theodosiopolis repelled many attacks and military campaigns by

12276-651: The medieval period, by about the 10th century in Byzantine art, but as an imperial emblem only much later, during the final century of the Palaiologos dynasty . In Western European sources, it appears as a Byzantine state emblem since at least the 15th century. A modern theory, forwarded by Zapheiriou (1947), connected the introduction of the motif to Byzantine Emperor Isaac I Komnenos (1057–1059), whose family originated in Paphlagonia . Zapheiriou supposed that

12400-516: The messenger of God'. However, studies of pre-Islamic texts suggest that the original meaning of the phrase was 'successor selected by God'. In the immediate aftermath of the death of Muhammad, a gathering of the Ansar (natives of Medina ) took place in the saqifa (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on

12524-519: The name Erzurum from the Arabic Arḍu ar-Rūm ( Arabic : ارض الروم ) 'land of the Rûm '. During the brief period it came under Georgian rule, the city was known as Karnu-kalaki ( Georgian : კარნუ-ქალაქი ). The following variants of the name also occur: Erzerum , Arzrum . The surroundings of Erzurum at the Urartian period presumably belonged to Diauehi . Later, Erzurum existed under

12648-582: The ninth century, the Abbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed predominantly of Turkic Cuman, Circassian and Georgian slave origin known as Mamluks. By 1250 the Mamluks came to power in Egypt. The Mamluk army, though often viewed negatively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Early on, it provided the government with a stable force to address domestic and foreign problems. However, creation of this foreign army and al-Mu'tasim's transfer of

12772-526: The official protector of Christians in Ottoman territory. According to Barthold, the first time the title of "caliph" was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the Ottomans was the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca with the Russian Empire in 1774, when the Empire retained moral authority on territory whose sovereignty was ceded to the Russian Empire. The British would tactfully affirm

12896-642: The piecemeal loss of territory through the revolt of tribes and districts enabled the rise of their most effective enemies, the Marinid dynasty , in 1215. The last representative of the line, Idris al-Wathiq , was reduced to the possession of Marrakesh , where he was murdered by a slave in 1269; the Marinids seized Marrakesh, ending the Almohad domination of the Western Maghreb . The Fatimid Caliphate

13020-523: The re-establishment of the Abbasid caliphate in Cairo . The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt had no political power; they continued to maintain the symbols of authority, but their sway was confined to religious matters. The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was Al-Mustansir (r. June–November 1261). The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of Al-Mutawakkil III , who ruled as caliph from 1508 to 1516, then he

13144-555: The reign of Peter the Great (1682–1725). It continued in Russian use until abolished (being identified with Tsarist rule ) with the Russian Revolution in 1917; it was restored in 1993 after that year's constitutional crisis and remains in use up to the present, although the eagle charge on the present coat of arms is golden rather than the traditional, imperial black. It is also widely used by federal agencies. Use of

13268-621: The seat of the newly created third Inspectorate General ( Umumi Müfettişlik, UM). The third UM span over the provinces of Erzurum , Artvin , Rize , Trabzon , Kars Gümüşhane , Erzincan and Ağrı . It was governed by an Inspector General. The Inspectorate General was dissolved in 1952 during the Government of the Democrat Party . Theodosiopolis was important enough in the Late Roman province of Armenia Tertia to become

13392-764: The sewing of caps and trade of his written copies of the Quran. Thus, he has been compared to the second caliph, Umar bin Khattab, and Kurdish conqueror Saladin . The Mughal emperors continued to be addressed as caliphs until the reign of Shah Alam II . Other notable rulers such as Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji , Alauddin Khilji , Firuz Shah Tughlaq , Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah , Babur , Sher Shah Suri , Nasir I of Kalat , Tipu Sultan , Nawabs of Bengal , and

13516-462: The state belonged to the Ismaili branch of Shi'ism. The leaders of the dynasty were Ismaili imams and had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims. They are also part of the chain of holders of the office of the caliphate, as recognised by some Muslims. Therefore, this constitutes a rare period in history in which the descendants of Ali (hence the name Fatimid, referring to Ali's wife Fatima ) and

13640-404: The succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely. Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance, resulting in an altercation which may have involved violence. However, after six months, the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty. Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed. Umar, the second caliph, was killed by

13764-578: The title as a way of countering Russian expansion into Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Sunni Muslims of British India . By the eve of World War I , the Ottoman state, despite its weakness relative to Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia. In 1899, John Hay , U.S. Secretary of State, asked

13888-532: The title of caliph himself. This helped Abd al-Rahman III gain prestige with his subjects, and the title was retained after the Fatimids were repulsed. The rule of the caliphate is considered as the heyday of Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula, before it fragmented into various taifas in the eleventh century. This period was characterised by a flourishing in technology, trade and culture; many of

14012-602: The title of caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially controlling Algeria , Tunisia and Libya , the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine , before the Abbasid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171 and was overtaken by Saladin of the Ayyubid dynasty . The caliphate

14136-574: Was also the location of one of the key battles in the Caucasus Campaign of World War I between the armies of the Ottoman and Russian Empires . This resulted in the capture of Erzurum by Russian forces under the command of Grand Duke Nicholas and Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich on February 16, 1916. Erzurum reverted to Ottoman control after the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. In 1919, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , one of

14260-717: Was an Isma'ili Shi'i caliphate, originally based in Tunisia , that extended its rule across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the centre of its caliphate. At its height, in addition to Egypt, the caliphate included varying areas of the Maghreb , Sicily, the Levant and the Hejaz . The Fatimids established the Tunisian city of Mahdia and made it their capital city, before conquering Egypt and building

14384-422: Was claimed by the sultans of the Ottoman Empire beginning with Murad I (reigned 1362 to 1389), while recognising no authority on the part of the Abbasid caliphs of the Mamluk-ruled Cairo. Hence the seat of the caliphate moved to the Ottoman capital of Edirne . In 1453, after Mehmed the Conqueror 's conquest of Constantinople , the seat of the Ottomans moved to Constantinople , present-day Istanbul . In 1517,

14508-408: Was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian princes of Castile , Aragon , Navarre and Portugal . Nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248, respectively. The Almohads continued to rule in northern Africa until

14632-465: Was deposed briefly in 1516 by his predecessor Al-Mustamsik , but was restored again to the caliphate in 1517. The Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Al-Mutawakkil III was captured together with his family and transported to Constantinople as a prisoner where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo. The Abbasid dynasty lost effective power over much of

14756-496: Was extended to all western parts of Armenia , and emperor Maurice (582-602) decided to strengthen political control over the region by supporting pro- Chalcedonian fraction of the Armenian Church. In 593, regional council of western Armenian bishops met in Theodosiopolis, proclaimed allegiance to the Chalcedonian Definition and elected John (Yovhannes, or Hovhannes) of Bagaran as new Catholicos of Chalcedonian Armenians. As Ancient Theodosiopolis in Armenia (or "in Cappadocia"),

14880-401: Was formerly in Erzerum. Erzurum has hosted the following international winter sports events: The city's initial football club Erzurumspor , which during 1998–2001 played in the Turkish Super League , was forced to relegate to the Turkish Regional Amateur League due to financial problems. It was finally dissolved in 2015. After dissolution of Erzurumspor due to financial problems, Erzurum

15004-407: Was introduced. The double-headed eagle is now used as an emblem by a number of Orthodox Christian churches, including the Greek Orthodox Church and the Orthodox Autocephalous Church of Albania . In modern Greece, it appears in official use in the Hellenic Army (coat of arms of Hellenic Army General Staff ) and the Hellenic Army XVI Infantry Division , The two-headed eagle appears, often as

15128-454: Was represented at the ceremony by the President of the European Commission Jose Manuel Barroso and the Commissioner for Energy Andris Piebalgs , while the United States was represented by the Special Envoy for Eurasian Energy Richard Morningstar and the Ranking Member of the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations Senator Richard Lugar . Little of medieval Erzurum survives beyond scattered individual buildings such as

15252-439: Was stamping his coins with two-headed eagle symbol. The double-headed eagle remained an important motif in the heraldry of the imperial families of Russia (the House of Romanov (1613–1762)). The double-headed eagle was a main element of the coat of arms of the Russian Empire (1721–1917), modified in various ways from the reign of Ivan III (1462–1505) onwards, with the shape of the eagle getting its definite Russian form during

15376-478: Was the flag of the League of Lezhë, which was the first unified Albanian state in the Middle Ages and the oldest Parliament with extant records. After the fall of Constantinople , the use of two-headed eagle symbols spread to Grand Duchy of Moscow after Ivan III 's second marriage (1472) to Zoe Palaiologina (a niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos , who reigned 1449–1453), The last prince of Tver, Mikhail III of Tver (1453–1505),

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