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111-475: Ernest Bell (8 March 1851 – 14 September 1933) was an English publisher, writer and activist. He was an advocate for animal rights and welfare , vegetarianism , and humanitarian causes. Bell was born in 1851 in Hampstead . Educated at St Paul's School and Trinity College, Cambridge , he graduated with a BA in 1873 and an MA in 1876. Bell's commitment to animals began in his university years, joining

222-478: A brain-damaged human could not make moral judgments, moral judgments cannot be used as the distinguishing characteristic for determining who is awarded rights. Cohen writes that the test for moral judgment "is not a test to be administered to humans one by one", but should be applied to the capacity of members of the species in general. Judge Richard Posner of the United States Court of Appeals for

333-660: A central role in animal advocacy since the 19th century. The anti-vivisection movement in the 19th and early 20th century in England and the United States was largely run by women, including Frances Power Cobbe , Anna Kingsford , Lizzy Lind af Hageby and Caroline Earle White (1833–1916). Garner writes that 70 per cent of the membership of the Victoria Street Society (one of the anti-vivisection groups founded by Cobbe) were women, as were 70 per cent of

444-502: A fantasy, a world of escape. Scruton singled out Peter Singer , a prominent Australian philosopher and animal-rights activist, for criticism. He wrote that Singer's works, including Animal Liberation , "contain little or no philosophical argument. They derive their radical moral conclusions from a vacuous utilitarianism that counts the pain and pleasure of all living things as equally significant and that ignores just about everything that has been said in our philosophical tradition about

555-406: A gradation or spectrum with other types of sentient rights, including human rights and the rights of conscious artificial intelligences (posthuman rights). According to sociologist David Nibert of Wittenberg University , the struggle for animal liberation must happen in tandem with a more generalized struggle against human oppression and exploitation under global capitalism . He says that under

666-539: A graduate from Girton College, Cambridge , became the first female editor of the Vegetarian Society's Dietetic Reformer and Vegetarian Messenger . Early vegetarian writers for the Dietetic Reformer and Vegetarian Messenger in the 1870s and 1880s advocated biological evolution and reshaped it into a teleological progress. The Pod , formerly The Vegetarian , is the membership magazine of

777-473: A journal that distributed almost 5,000 copies monthly at a cost of one penny each. The society made available publications on the topic sometimes accompanied by lectures. Following the deaths of Simpson, Brotherton, and their American colleague Alcott, the vegetarian movement experienced a sharp decline. Membership numbers fell significantly during the 1860s and 1870s, with only 125 members remaining by 1870. The London Food Reform Society, founded in 1875 with

888-834: A legitimate sacrifice of interests can vary considerably. Certain forms of animal-rights activism, such as the destruction of fur farms and of animal laboratories by the Animal Liberation Front , have attracted criticism, including from within the animal-rights movement itself, and prompted the U.S. Congress to enact laws, including the Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act , allowing the prosecution of this sort of activity as terrorism . The concept of moral rights for animals dates to Ancient India , with roots in early Jain and Hindu history, while Eastern, African, and Indigenous peoples also have rich traditions of animal protection. In

999-510: A means to an end, a view that places him firmly in the abolitionist camp. His theory does not extend to all animals, but only to those that can be regarded as subjects-of-a-life. He argues that all normal mammals of at least one year of age would qualify: ... individuals are subjects-of-a-life if they have beliefs and desires; perception, memory, and a sense of the future, including their own future; an emotional life together with feelings of pleasure and pain; preference- and welfare-interests;

1110-492: A mistake to portray animal rights activists as homogeneous." Even though around 90% of US adults regularly consume meat, almost half of them appear to support a ban on slaughterhouses: in Sentience Institute 's 2017 survey of 1,094 U.S. adults' attitudes toward animal farming, 49% "support a ban on factory farming, 47% support a ban on slaughterhouses, and 33% support a ban on animal farming". The 2017 survey

1221-440: A more egalitarian democratic socialist system, one that would "allow a more just and peaceful order to emerge" and be "characterized by economic democracy and a democratically controlled state and mass media", there would be "much greater potential to inform the public about vital global issues—and the potential for "campaigns to improve the lives of other animals" to be "more abolitionist in nature." Philosopher Steven Best of

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1332-421: A particular situation". The idea that nonhuman animals are worthy of prima facie rights is to say that, in a sense, animals have rights that can be overridden by many other considerations, especially those conflicting a human's right to life, liberty, property, and the pursuit of happiness. Garry supports his view arguing: ... if a nonhuman animal were to kill a human being in the U.S., it would have broken

1443-541: A patriarchal society: both are "the used"; the dominated, submissive " Other ". When the British feminist Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797) published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), Thomas Taylor (1758–1835), a Cambridge philosopher, responded with an anonymous parody, A Vindication of the Rights of Brutes (1792), saying that Wollstonecraft's arguments for women's rights could be applied equally to animals,

1554-429: A philosophical context, a prima facie (Latin for "on the face of it" or "at first glance") right is one that appears to be applicable at first glance, but upon closer examination may be outweighed by other considerations. In his book Ethics: A Pluralistic Approach to Moral Theory , Lawrence Hinman characterizes such rights as "the right is real but leaves open the question of whether it is applicable and overriding in

1665-479: A position he intended as reductio ad absurdum . In her works The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory (1990) and The Pornography of Meat (2004), Carol J. Adams focuses in particular on what she argues are the links between the oppression of women and that of non-human animals. Some transhumanists argue for animal rights, liberation, and "uplift" of animal consciousness into machines. Transhumanism also understands animal rights on

1776-498: A positive view of universal healthcare, favor reducing discrimination against African Americans, the LGBT community and undocumented immigrants, and expanding welfare to aid the poor. Two surveys found that attitudes towards animal rights tactics, such as direct action , are very diverse within the animal rights communities. Near half (50% and 39% in two surveys) of activists do not support direct action. One survey concluded "it would be

1887-411: A right to life, some control over their environment, company, play, and physical health. Stephen R. L. Clark , Mary Midgley , and Bernard Rollin also discuss animal rights in terms of animals being permitted to lead a life appropriate for their kind. Egalitarianism favors an equal distribution of happiness among all individuals, which makes the interests of the worse off more important than those of

1998-534: A split from the Swedenborgians . One distinctive feature of the Bible Christians was a belief in a meat-free diet, or ovo-lacto vegetarianism , as a form of temperance . The Concordium was a boarding school near London on Ham Common , Richmond, Surrey, which opened in 1838. Pupils at the school followed a diet completely free of animal products , known today as a vegan diet . The Concordium

2109-653: A vegetarian diet was a long-standing topic of debate within the Society. In 1944, Donald Watson , a member of the LVS, suggested creating a separate group for those adhering to a dairy- and egg-free diet. This led to the establishment of The Vegan Society . In the 1950s and '60s, former rivalries were put aside as the MVS and LVS started working together, with many calling for unification. In 1958, their magazines combined to become The British Vegetarian . They reunited in 1969, forming

2220-609: A vegetarian through the influence of T. L. Nichols. In 1925, it was reported that Bell had been a vegetarian for 50 years and attributed his good health to a meat-free diet. He argued that there would less chronic disease if people adopted vegetarianism. Bell became a member of the Vegetarian Society and was elected a vice-president in 1896 and was president from 1914 to 1933. He wrote the Preface for E. W. Bowdich's vegetarian cookbook New Vegetarian Dishes , in 1893. Bell

2331-512: A view summarised by the philosopher Roger Scruton , who writes that only humans have duties, and therefore only humans have rights. Another argument, associated with the utilitarian tradition, maintains that animals may be used as resources so long as there is no unnecessary suffering; animals may have some moral standing, but any interests they have may be overridden in cases of comparatively greater gains to aggregate welfare made possible by their use, though what counts as "necessary" suffering or

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2442-429: A worse outcome. There are a number of positions that can be defended from a consequentalist or deontologist perspective, including the capabilities approach , represented by Martha Nussbaum , and the egalitarian approach , which has been examined by Ingmar Persson and Peter Vallentyne . The capabilities approach focuses on what individuals require to fulfill their capabilities: Nussbaum (2006) argues that animals need

2553-497: Is a moral intuition of many, probably most, Americans. We realize that animals feel pain, and we think that to inflict pain without a reason is bad. Nothing of practical value is added by dressing up this intuition in the language of philosophy; much is lost when the intuition is made a stage in a logical argument. When kindness toward animals is levered into a duty of weighting the pains of animals and of people equally, bizarre vistas of social engineering are opened up. Roger Scruton ,

2664-492: Is exemplified by Peter Singer , and the latter by Tom Regan and Gary Francione . Their differences reflect a distinction philosophers draw between ethical theories that judge the rightness of an act by its consequences (consequentialism/teleological ethics, or utilitarianism), and those that focus on the principle behind the act, almost regardless of consequences (deontological ethics). Deontologists argue that there are acts we should never perform, even if failing to do so entails

2775-418: Is right. "The holders of rights must have the capacity to comprehend rules of duty governing all, including themselves. In applying such rules, [they] ... must recognize possible conflicts between what is in their own interest and what is just. Only in a community of beings capable of self-restricting moral judgments can the concept of a right be correctly invoked." Cohen rejects Singer's argument that, since

2886-854: The British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection by Cobbe in London in 1898; the Animal Welfare Board of India by Rukmini Devi Arundale in 1962; and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals , co-founded by Ingrid Newkirk in 1980. In the Netherlands, Marianne Thieme and Esther Ouwehand were elected to parliament in 2006 representing the Parliamentary group for Animals. The preponderance of women in

2997-951: The Humanitarian League . He was also a close friend of fellow animal campaigner Jessey Wade , who worked for him as his secretary until his death. For thirty years, Bell was the Honorary Secretary of the Hampstead Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. He was also the Chairman of the Committee of the Anti-Vivisection Society and of the National Anti-Vivisection Society and involved with

3108-467: The RSPCA and adopting vegetarianism . He married twice, first to Elize Wilhelmina Wolfel and later to Marie Anna von Taysen, and had one daughter. Bell dedicated much of his life to his father's publishing company, George Bell & Sons , and was an early follower of Ralph Waldo Emerson . He actively contributed to various reform causes, editing and launching publications, and leading organisations such as

3219-598: The Sharia . This recognition is based on both the Qur'an and the Hadith . The Qur'an contains many references to animals, detailing that they have souls, form communities, communicate with God, and worship Him in their own way. Muhammad forbade his followers to harm any animal and asked them to respect animals' rights. Nevertheless, Islam does allow eating of certain species of animals. According to Christianity , all animals, from

3330-498: The University of Texas at El Paso states that the animal liberation movement, as characterized by the Animal Liberation Front and its various offshoots, "is a significant threat to global capital." ... Animal liberation challenges large sectors of the capitalist economy by assailing corporate agriculture and pharmaceutical companies and their suppliers. Far from being irrelevant to social movements, animal rights can form

3441-553: The Vegetarian Society , Humanitarian League , and several animal protection societies. Bell co-founded the League Against Cruel Sports in 1924 and received a lifetime award for his advocacy work for animals. He died in 1933 at the age of 82. In 1936, the Ernest Bell Library was established by the Vegetarian Society to preserve his writings. Ernest Bell was born in Hampstead on 8 March 1851,

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3552-581: The "Vegetable Diet". In early 1847 a letter to the Truth-Tester proposed the formation of a Vegetarian Society. In response to this letter, William Oldham held what he called a "physiological conference" in July 1847 at the Concordium. Up to 130 attended, including Bible Christian James Simpson , who presented a speech. The conference passed a number of resolutions, including a resolution to reconvene at

3663-782: The Anti-Bearing Rein Association, National Canine Defence League (now Dogs Trust) and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds . Bell founded the League for the Prohibition of Cruel Sports in 1924 with Henry B. Amos , Jessey Wade and George Greenwood . Bell became chairman of the board of directors of George Bell & Sons in 1926 and, in 1929, he received a lifetime award from a collaboration between 22 different animal societies. Bell became

3774-411: The British philosopher, argued that rights imply obligations. Every legal privilege, he wrote, imposes a burden on the one who does not possess that privilege: that is, "your right may be my duty." Scruton therefore regarded the emergence of the animal rights movement as "the strangest cultural shift within the liberal worldview", because the idea of rights and responsibilities is, he argued, distinctive to

3885-529: The Cartesian view of animals. Darwin noted the mental and emotional continuity between humans and animals, suggesting the possibility of animal suffering. The anti-vivisection movement emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, driven significantly by women. From the 1970s onward, growing scholarly and activist interest in animal treatment has aimed to raise awareness and reform laws to improve animal rights and human–animal relationships. For some

3996-838: The Committee of Vegetarian Interests was established, comprising members from the two Vegetarian Societies, health food manufacturers, and retailers, to negotiate with the Ministry of Food. During WWII, the blockade of the UK lead to food shortages, and the government became intimately involved in the diet of the civilian population. Food was rationed , with ration coupons becoming a second currency needed to buy all rationed goods. Vegetarians were well-catered for. Anyone who registered as vegetarian with their local Food Office got special ration books. These had no meat ration; instead, there were more ration coupons for cheese, eggs, and nuts. There were about 100,000 people officially registered as vegetarians in

4107-405: The Ernest Bell Library, was proposed by Henry S. Salt in 1934 and was established by the executive of the Vegetarian Society in 1936. The library has more than 1,500 books, journals, magazines and newspapers. It is currently cared for by The Humanitarian League, a Hong Kong–based organisation named after the original Humanitarian League. Animal rights Many advocates of animal rights oppose

4218-506: The LVS and Vegetarian offices moved to the Congregational Memorial Hall , becoming a hub for reform activities. The movement's growth led to specialist societies for children, athletes, and others, with vegetarian restaurants serving as meeting places. In 1889, the LVS created a national Vegetarian Federal Union , despite controversy from the MVS. By 1901, 21 societies had been established, coordinated from 1895 by

4329-563: The LVS was raw food advocate Arnold Hills , and other members included Thomas Allinson and Mahatma Gandhi . Members of the LVS were considered more radical than the MVS. The newly independent society's ambitions were laid out in its journal, The Vegetarian , funded by Arnold Hills. Despite challenges, optimism prevailed with plans for a Charing Cross Vegetarian Hotel and Restaurant. Several branches existed, attracting new members in Oxford, Nottingham, Brighton, Guildford, and Reading. In 1889,

4440-408: The LVS. In 1920, the MVS hosted a summer school at Arnold House, Llanddulas, attracting around 70 attendees each week. Both societies organised holidays and outings for vegetarians, with the MVS's May meetings remaining popular annual events well after World War II . World War I was a challenging period for vegetarians; no allowance was made for vegetarians in the armed forces. In World War II,

4551-645: The Law (1995) was the first extensive jurisprudential treatment of animal rights. In it, Francione compares the situation of animals to the treatment of slaves in the United States , where legislation existed that appeared to protect them while the courts ignored that the institution of slavery itself rendered the protection unenforceable. He offers as an example the United States Animal Welfare Act , which he describes as an example of symbolic legislation, intended to assuage public concern about

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4662-661: The London branch were strained due to differing definitions of vegetarianism and conflicts over required approval of "advanced" literature by the Society. In 1888, the London branch split, forming the London Vegetarian Society (LVS), also known as the London Vegetarian Association. After this, the Vegetarian Society was often referred to as the Manchester Vegetarian Society (MVS). The first President of

4773-462: The Manchester and London Vegetarian Societies in 1888 before reuniting in 1969, registering as a charity, and continued advocating for vegetarianism through public education and influencing food producers. The Vegetarian Society campaigns to encourage dietary changes, reduce meat consumption, and assist policymakers in developing a more compassionate food system. In 1969, the Society introduced

4884-567: The Seventh Circuit debated the issue of animal rights in 2001 with Peter Singer. Posner posits that his moral intuition tells him "that human beings prefer their own. If a dog threatens a human infant, even if it requires causing more pain to the dog to stop it, than the dog would have caused to the infant, then we favour the child. It would be monstrous to spare the dog." Singer challenges this by arguing that formerly unequal rights for gays, women, and certain races were justified using

4995-687: The Society produced the documentary Devour the Earth , written by Tony Wardle and narrated by Paul McCartney . McCartney became a patron of the society in the same year. The Vegetarian Society Awards were inaugurated in 2001 to acknowledge businesses and services that cater to the UK's population of vegetarians . The first ceremony took place at the Grosvenor House Hotel in London, with later events at The Waldorf Hotel and The Magic Circle headquarters. These early events, open to members and

5106-597: The Society, leading to extensive research efforts, with results published in major journals, magazines, and newspapers. In 1969, the Society introduced its seedling logo. In 1986, they introduced a scheme allowing manufacturers to use their logo on foods that met their strict vegetarian guidelines. Their accreditation criteria states that the food must be: free from animal flesh, slaughterhouse byproducts, and cross-contamination with non-vegetarian products; not tested on animals; only GMO-free and free-range eggs (with specific humane standards) are used. This initiative led to

5217-403: The UK during WWII. Meat rations during the war were very small (in order to increase the food supply; see trophic level ). Many meals had to be vegetarian, and the government promoted vegetarian recipes. The whole population ate much more cereals and vegetables, and much less meat. Many retained wartime eating habits after the war. There was also great public interest in nutrition and diets, and

5328-574: The UK which is accredited with the Vegetarian Society Approved vegan trademark. National Vegetarian Week is the charity's flagship event. It started in 1992 as a single day and was expanded into a full week. The Vegetarian Society Cookery School runs leisure classes in vegetarian and vegan cooking. It collaborates with various charities and community groups to provide tailored cookery courses. The school offers training for professional chefs and individuals seeking new careers in

5439-461: The US before 1989 were taught to ignore pain, he writes, and at least one major veterinary hospital in the 1960s did not stock narcotic analgesics for animal pain control. In his interactions with scientists, he was often asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" evidence that they could feel pain. Scientific publications have made it clear since the 1980s that

5550-546: The United Kingdom ( VSUK ) is a British registered charity . It campaigns for dietary changes, licenses Vegetarian Society Approved trademarks for vegetarian and vegan products, runs a cookery school and lottery, and organises National Vegetarian Week in the UK. In the 19th century, various groups in Britain promoted meat-free diets, leading to the formation of the Vegetarian Society in 1847, which later split into

5661-480: The Vegetarian Society Approved trademark. It launched a Vegetarian Society Approved vegan trademark in 2017. The trademarks are licensed to companies to display on products which contain only vegetarian or vegan ingredients, and also that nothing non-vegetarian or non-vegan was used during the production process. These trademarks can be seen on products in shops and supermarkets and also on dishes in restaurants. In 2022 McDonald's launched their McPlant burger across

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5772-559: The Vegetarian Society and continues to be produced three times a year. The Vegetarian Society has had several notable patrons. Rose Elliot , who became a patron in 2002, is an author of over fifty vegetarian cookbooks and received an MBE in 1999. Actor Jerome Flynn became a patron after adopting a vegetarian lifestyle at 18. Musician Paul McCartney and his late wife Linda became patrons in 1995. Fashion designer Stella McCartney and photographer Mary McCartney joined their parents as patrons. Television presenter Wendy Turner-Webster ,

5883-633: The Vegetarian Society of the United Kingdom. Their headquarters were established at Parkdale, Altrincham , Greater Manchester. The organisation became a registered charity in September of that year. In the 1950s, Frank Wokes founded the Vegetarian Nutritional Research Centre in Watford, working closely with the Society to promote research on vegetarian nutrition and health. The centre was eventually absorbed by

5994-544: The Western world, Aristotle viewed animals as lacking reason and existing for human use, though other ancient philosophers believed animals deserved gentle treatment. Major religious traditions, chiefly Indian or Dharmic religions , opposed animal cruelty. While scholars like Descartes saw animals as unconscious automata and Kant denied direct duties to animals, Jeremy Bentham emphasized their capacity to suffer. The publications of Charles Darwin eventually eroded

6105-628: The ability to initiate action in pursuit of their desires and goals; a psychophysical identity over time; and an individual welfare in the sense that their experiential life fares well or ill for them, logically independently of their utility for others and logically independently of their being the object of anyone else's interests. Whereas Singer is primarily concerned with improving the treatment of animals and accepts that, in some hypothetical scenarios, individual animals might be used legitimately to further human or nonhuman ends, Regan believes we ought to treat nonhuman animals as we would humans. He applies

6216-554: The ability to suffer, nothing more, and once it is established that a being has interests, those interests must be given equal consideration. Singer quotes the English philosopher Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900): "The good of any one individual is of no more importance, from the point of view ... of the Universe, than the good of any other." Singer argues that equality of consideration is a prescription, not an assertion of fact: if

6327-421: The age of 82. His funeral took place at Hendon Parish Church two days later and was attended by his widow, other family members, and representatives from many societies, including the Vegetarian Society. Tributes were paid to him in the publications Animal World and The Vegetarian Messenger and Health Review , as well as from Henry B. Amos and Stephen Coleridge . A library to preserve Bell's writings known as

6438-630: The animal rights movement; indeed, the terms "animal protection" and "protectionism" are increasingly favored. His position in 1996 was that there is no animal rights movement in the United States. Mark Rowlands , professor of philosophy at the University of Florida, has proposed a contractarian approach, based on the original position and the veil of ignorance —a "state of nature" thought experiment that tests intuitions about justice and fairness—in John Rawls 's A Theory of Justice (1971). In

6549-525: The assignment of moral value and fundamental protections on the basis of species membership alone. They consider this idea, known as speciesism , a prejudice as irrational as any other. They maintain that animals should not be viewed as property or used as food, clothing, entertainment, or beasts of burden merely because they are not human. Multiple cultural traditions around the world such as Jainism , Taoism , Hinduism , Buddhism , Shinto and Animism also espouse forms of animal rights. In parallel to

6660-459: The associate membership, Newman commented: It occurs to me to ask whether certain grades of profession might not be allowed within our Society, which would give to it far greater material support, enable it to circulate its literature, and at the same time retain the instructive spectacle of a select band of stricter feeders... Yet, as our Society is at present (1871) constituted, all those friendly are shut out... But if they entered as Associates in

6771-531: The attitude of individuals regarding the treatment of animals and animal rights. These include gender, age, occupation, religion, and level of education. There has also been evidence to suggest that prior experience with pets may be a factor in people's attitudes. According to some studies, women are more likely to empathize with the cause of animal rights than men. A 1996 study suggested that factors that may partially explain this discrepancy include attitudes towards feminism and science, scientific literacy, and

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6882-633: The background of growing concern about the environment, animal rights, and food safety the society has flourished in recent decades." In 2024, the Vegetarian Society announced a rebrand. It has a new logo, rebranded magazine and website. In the same year, the Society moved its head office to Ancoats , Manchester. The Vegetarian Society first published The Vegetarian Messenger (1849–1860). It became The Dietetic Reformer and Vegetarian Messenger (1861–1897), The Vegetarian Messenger and Health Review (1898–1952), The Vegetarian (1953–1958) and The British Vegetarian (1959–1971). In 1885, Beatrice Lindsay,

6993-538: The basis for a broad coalition of progressive social groups and drive changes that strike at the heart of capitalist exploitation of animals, people and the earth. R. G. Frey , professor of philosophy at Bowling Green State University, is a preference utilitarian. In his early work, Interests and Rights (1980), Frey disagreed with Singer—who wrote in Animal Liberation (1975) that the interests of nonhuman animals must be given equal consideration when judging

7104-487: The basis of animal rights is in religion or animal worship (or in general nature worship ), with some religions banning killing any animal. In other religions animals are considered unclean . Hindu and Buddhist societies abandoned animal sacrifice and embraced vegetarianism from the 3rd century BCE. One of the most important sanctions of the Jain , Hindu, and Buddhist faiths is the concept of ahimsa , or refraining from

7215-452: The better off. Another approach, virtue ethics , holds that in considering how to act we should consider the character of the actor, and what kind of moral agents we should be. Rosalind Hursthouse has suggested an approach to animal rights based on virtue ethics. Mark Rowlands has proposed a contractarian approach. Nussbaum (2004) writes that utilitarianism, starting with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill , has contributed more to

7326-435: The catering industry on vegetarian standards. In 2017, the Vegetarian Society launched Veggie Lotto, the first vegetarian and vegan lottery in the UK. Tickets are priced at £1, with 50p allocated to the society. Funds raised support training for caterers, free courses for community groups and vulnerable individuals, and the promotion of vegetarian and vegan food. Historian Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska has noted that "against

7437-399: The consequences of an act—on the grounds that animals have no interests. Frey argues that interests are dependent on desire, and that no desire can exist without a corresponding belief. Animals have no beliefs, because a belief state requires the ability to hold a second-order belief—a belief about the belief—which he argues requires language: "If someone were to say, e.g. 'The cat believes that

7548-822: The debate about moral rights, law schools in North America now often teach animal law , and several legal scholars, such as Steven M. Wise and Gary L. Francione , support the extension of basic legal rights and personhood to non-human animals. The animals most often considered in arguments for personhood are hominids . Some animal-rights academics support this because it would break the species barrier, but others oppose it because it predicates moral value on mental complexity rather than on sentience alone. As of November 2019 , 29 countries had enacted bans on hominoid experimentation ; Argentina has granted captive orangutans basic human rights since 2014. Outside of primates , animal-rights discussions most often address

7659-516: The destruction of life. According to Buddhism, humans do not deserve preferential treatment over other living beings. The Dharmic interpretation of this doctrine prohibits the killing of any living being. These Indian religions' dharmic beliefs are reflected in the ancient Indian works of the Tolkāppiyam and Tirukkural , which contain passages that extend the idea of nonviolence to all living beings. In Islam, animal rights were recognized early by

7770-469: The door is locked,' then that person is holding, as I see it, that the cat holds the declarative sentence 'The door is locked' to be true; and I can see no reason whatever for crediting the cat or any other creature which lacks language, including human infants, with entertaining declarative sentences." Carl Cohen , professor of philosophy at the University of Michigan, argues that rights holders must be able to distinguish between their own interests and what

7881-537: The effects of eating less meat. The 1950s saw a significant rise in the popularity of vegetarian cuisine. Walter Fleiss, who owned the well-known Vega restaurant near Leicester Square in London, successfully lobbied for the inclusion of a vegetarian category in the Salon Culinaire Food Competition. Sponsored by the Society, this event and subsequent ones brought vegetarianism into mainstream awareness. The inclusion of eggs and dairy in

7992-573: The end of September. On 30 September 1847 the meeting which had been planned at the Physiological Conference took place at Northwood Villa Hydropathic Institute in Ramsgate . Joseph Brotherton , MP for Salford , and a Bible Christian chaired. James Simpson was elected president of the society, Concordist William Oldham elected treasurer, and Truth-Tester editor William Horsell elected secretary. The name "Vegetarian Society"

8103-410: The equality of the sexes were based only on the idea that men and women were equally intelligent, we would have to abandon the practice of equal consideration if this were later found to be false. But the moral idea of equality does not depend on matters of fact such as intelligence, physical strength, or moral capacity. Equality therefore cannot be grounded on the outcome of scientific investigations into

8214-449: The extent to which it satisfies the preferences (interests) of those affected. His position is that there is no reason not to give equal consideration to the interests of human and nonhumans, though his principle of equality does not require identical treatment. A mouse and a man both have an interest in not being kicked, and there are no moral or logical grounds for failing to accord those interests equal weight. Interests are predicated on

8325-634: The food sector through its Professional Chef's Diploma program. In the 19th century a number of groups in Britain actively promoted and followed meat-free diets. Key groups involved in the formation of the Vegetarian Society were members of the Bible Christian Church , supporters of the Concordium , and readers of the Truth-Tester journal. The Bible Christian Church was founded in 1809 in Salford by Reverend William Cowherd after

8436-484: The future. Salt emphasised rejecting unhealthy, expensive, and unwholesome food rather than just animal products. Francis William Newman served as president of the Vegetarian Society from 1873 to 1883. He made an associate membership possible for people who were not completely vegetarian, such as those who ate chicken or fish . Newman was critical of raw food vegetarianism which he rejected as fanatical. He believed that abstinence from meat, fish and fowl should be

8547-501: The help of Martin Nunn, an advocate of cooperation and industrial reform, held free bi-monthly lectures and debates at Franklin Hall, attracting increasing audiences due to support from eager young men and notable food reformers. The Society's Food Reform Magazine subtly criticised the Vegetarian Society in Manchester for not being supportive enough. While Manchester believed its organisation

8658-558: The human condition, and it makes no sense to spread them beyond our own species. He accused animal rights advocates of "pre-scientific" anthropomorphism , attributing traits to animals that are, he says, Beatrix Potter -like, where "only man is vile." It is within this fiction that the appeal of animal rights lies, he argued. The world of animals is non-judgmental, filled with dogs who return our affection almost no matter what we do to them, and cats who pretend to be affectionate when, in fact, they care only about themselves. It is, he argued,

8769-402: The inclusion of eggs, dairy products, and honey in their diet based on biblical teachings. They had no plans to reduce the consumption of these animal products. In contrast, Henry Stephens Salt argued in his 1885 work A Plea for Vegetarianism that the main goal of vegetarians should be to abolish flesh-meat while acknowledging that dairy and eggs were also unnecessary and could be eliminated in

8880-406: The intelligence of nonhumans. All that matters is whether they can suffer. Commentators on all sides of the debate now accept that animals suffer and feel pain, although it was not always so. Bernard Rollin , professor of philosophy, animal sciences, and biomedical sciences at Colorado State University, writes that Descartes's influence continued to be felt until the 1980s. Veterinarians trained in

8991-591: The laws of the land and would probably get rougher sanctions than if it were a human. My point is that like laws govern all who interact within a society, rights are to be applied to all beings who interact within that society. This is not to say these rights endowed by humans are equivalent to those held by nonhuman animals, but rather that if humans possess rights then so must all those who interact with humans. In sum, Garry suggests that humans have obligations to nonhuman animals; animals do not, and ought not to, have uninfringible rights against humans. Women have played

9102-612: The loss of the Food Reform Society's subscription list interest, office closure, and establishment of an independent auxiliary. W. J. Monk was its president. The Vegetarian Society's London Auxiliary became an independent body under the name London Vegetarian Society in 1888. From its founding, the Society was primarily influenced by members of the Bible Christian Church in Salford, who advocated for

9213-401: The lowest grade... they might be drawn on gradually, and would swell our funds, without which we can do nothing. If anybody said that I should die if I did not take beef tea or mutton, even on medical advice, I would prefer death. That is the basis of my vegetarianism. ― Mahatma Gandhi , to the London Vegetarian Society on 20 November 1931 Relations between the Society in Manchester and

9324-473: The majority of researchers do believe animals suffer and feel pain, though it continues to be argued that their suffering may be reduced by an inability to experience the same dread of anticipation as humans or to remember the suffering as vividly. The ability of animals to suffer, even it may vary in severity, is the basis for Singer's application of equal consideration. The problem of animal suffering, and animal consciousness in general, arose primarily because it

9435-718: The membership of the British RSPCA in 1900. The modern animal advocacy movement has a similar representation of women. They are not invariably in leadership positions: during the March for Animals in Washington, D.C., in 1990—the largest animal rights demonstration held until then in the United States—most of the participants were women, but most of the platform speakers were men. Nevertheless, several influential animal advocacy groups have been founded by women, including

9546-434: The mistreatment of animals, and in many countries there are laws that seem to reflect those concerns, "in practice the legal system allows any use of animals, however abhorrent." The law only requires that any suffering not be "unnecessary". In deciding what counts as "unnecessary", an animal's interests are weighed against the interests of human beings, and the latter almost always prevail. Francione's Animals, Property, and

9657-690: The moral rights of humans are based on their possession of certain cognitive abilities, and because these abilities are also possessed by at least some nonhuman animals, such animals must have the same moral rights as humans. Although only humans act as moral agents, both marginal-case humans, such as infants, and at least some nonhumans must have the status of "moral patients". Moral patients are unable to formulate moral principles, and as such are unable to do right or wrong, even though what they do may be beneficial or harmful. Only moral agents are able to engage in moral action. Animals for Regan have " intrinsic value " as subjects-of-a-life, and cannot be regarded as

9768-408: The movement has led to a body of academic literature exploring feminism and animal rights, such as feminism and vegetarianism or veganism , the oppression of women and animals, and the male association of women and animals with nature and emotion, rather than reason—an association that several feminist writers have embraced. Lori Gruen writes that women and animals serve the same symbolic function in

9879-408: The only thing the Society advocates and that it should not be associated with other reform ideas. He was also against the abandonment of salt and seasonings. Under Newman's presidency the Society flourished as income, associates and members increased. From 1875 to 1896 membership for the Society rose to 2,159 and associate membership 1,785. Around 1897 its membership was about 5,000. In regard to

9990-415: The original position, individuals choose principles of justice (what kind of society to form, and how primary social goods will be distributed), unaware of their individual characteristics—their race, sex, class, or intelligence, whether they are able-bodied or disabled, rich or poor—and therefore unaware of which role they will assume in the society they are about to form. The idea is that, operating behind

10101-453: The presence of a greater emphasis on "nurturance or compassion" among women. A common misconception on the concept of animal rights is that its proponents want to grant non-human animals the exact same legal rights as humans, such as the right to vote . This is not the case, as the concept is that animals should have rights with equal consideration to their interests (for example, cats do not have any interest in voting, so they should not have

10212-425: The public, included fundraising activities such as celebrity auctions and raffles, with prizes donated by vegetarian-friendly companies, to support the Society's educational initiatives. In 2003, the Society launched a "Fishconception" campaign after a survey revealed that many restaurants, canteens, and hospitals mistakenly believed that vegetarians eat fish. The campaign aimed to correct this misconception and guide

10323-415: The real distinction between persons and animals." Tom Regan countered this view of rights by distinguishing moral agents and moral patients. According to a paper published in 2000 by Harold Herzog and Lorna Dorr, previous academic surveys of attitudes towards animal rights have tended to suffer from small sample sizes and non-representative groups. However, a number of factors appear to correlate with

10434-407: The recognition of the moral status of animals than any other ethical theory. The utilitarian philosopher most associated with animal rights is Peter Singer, professor of bioethics at Princeton University . Singer is not a rights theorist, but uses the language of rights to discuss how we ought to treat individuals. He is a preference utilitarian , meaning that he judges the rightness of an act by

10545-531: The respondents who were strong Christian fundamentalists and believers in creationism were less likely to advocate for animal rights than those who were less fundamentalist in their beliefs. The findings extended previous research, such as a 1992 study which found that 48% of animal rights activists were atheists or agnostic . A 2019 study in The Washington Post found that those who have positive attitudes toward animal rights also tend to have

10656-406: The right to vote). A 2016 study found that support for animal testing may not be based on cogent philosophical rationales, and more open debate is warranted. A 2007 survey to examine whether or not people who believed in evolution were more likely to support animal rights than creationists and believers in intelligent design found that this was largely the case—according to the researchers,

10767-635: The same set of intuitions. Posner replies that equality in civil rights did not occur because of ethical arguments, but because facts mounted that there were no morally significant differences between humans based on race, sex, or sexual orientation that would support inequality. If and when similar facts emerge about humans and animals, the differences in rights will erode too. But facts will drive equality, not ethical arguments that run contrary to instinct, he argues. Posner calls his approach "soft utilitarianism", in contrast to Singer's "hard utilitarianism". He argues: The "soft" utilitarian position on animal rights

10878-776: The second son of the publisher George Bell and his wife Hannah Simpson. He was educated at St Paul's School, London and attended Trinity College, Cambridge , graduating in 1873 with an BA and an MA in 1876. During his time at Cambridge, Bell had joined the RSPCA in 1873 and the following year had become a vegetarian after reading T. L. Nichols ' pamphlet How to Live on Sixpence a Day . Bell learned German in Dresden after graduation. Bell married Elize Wilhelmina Wolfel in 1875 and they had one daughter; she died in 1883. In 1893, he married Marie Anna von Taysen; they had no children. Bell spent most of his adult life working for his father's publishing company George Bell & Sons . He

10989-545: The smallest to the largest, are cared for and loved. According to the Bible, "All these animals waited for the Lord, that the Lord might give them food at the hour. The Lord gives them, they receive; The Lord opens his hand, and they are filled with good things." It further says God "gave food to the animals, and made the crows cry." The two main philosophical approaches to animal ethics are utilitarian and rights-based. The former

11100-410: The status of mammals (compare charismatic megafauna ). Other animals (considered less sentient) have gained less attention— insects relatively little (outside Jainism ) and animal-like bacteria hardly any. The vast majority of animals have no legally recognised rights. Critics of animal rights argue that nonhuman animals are unable to enter into a social contract , and thus cannot have rights,

11211-524: The strict Kantian ideal (which Kant himself applied only to humans) that they ought never to be sacrificed as a means to an end, and must be treated as ends in themselves. Gary Francione, professor of law and philosophy at Rutgers Law School in Newark, is a leading abolitionist writer, arguing that animals need only one right, the right not to be owned. Everything else would follow from that paradigm shift . He writes that, although most people would condemn

11322-492: The treatment of animals, but difficult to implement. He argues that a focus on animal welfare, rather than animal rights, may worsen the position of animals by making the public feel comfortable about using them and entrenching the view of them as property. He calls animal rights groups who pursue animal welfare issues, such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals , the " new welfarists ", arguing that they have more in common with 19th-century animal protectionists than with

11433-578: The veil of ignorance, they will choose a social contract in which there is basic fairness and justice for them no matter the position they occupy. Rawls did not include species membership as one of the attributes hidden from the decision-makers in the original position. Rowlands proposes extending the veil of ignorance to include rationality, which he argues is an undeserved property similar to characteristics including race, sex and intelligence. American philosopher Timothy Garry has proposed an approach that deems nonhuman animals worthy of prima facie rights. In

11544-486: The widespread use of vegetarian symbols on food packaging. In 1982, The Vegetarian Society launched The Cordon Vert Cookery School, a leading vegetarian culinary academy. In 1991, the Society hosted the first National Vegetarian Week, an event that has been held nearly every year since, gaining significant media attention and attracting many to vegetarianism. Vegfest, introduced in 1997, is an annual celebration in central Manchester, drawing thousands of attendees. In 1995,

11655-466: Was a speaker at Vegetarian Society meetings. He commented that meat eating was unethical and that animals will never attain their rights as long as they are considered beings to be eaten. Bell donated a significant amount of his income to various societies throughout his life. He also co-founded and worked for a number of animal and vegetarian organisations: Bell died in Hendon on 14 September 1933, at

11766-498: Was also called Alcott House, in honour of American education and food reform advocate Amos Bronson Alcott . The Truth-Tester was a journal which published material supporting the temperance movement . In 1846 the editorship was taken over by William Horsell , operator of the Northwood Villa Hydropathic Institute in Ramsgate . Horsell gradually steered the Truth-Tester towards promotion of

11877-699: Was argued that animals have no language . Singer writes that, if language were needed to communicate pain, it would often be impossible to know when humans are in pain, though we can observe pain behavior and make a calculated guess based on it. He argues that there is no reason to suppose that the pain behavior of nonhumans would have a different meaning from the pain behavior of humans. Tom Regan, professor emeritus of philosophy at North Carolina State University, argues in The Case for Animal Rights (1983) that nonhuman animals are what he calls "subjects-of-a-life", and as such are bearers of rights. He writes that, because

11988-526: Was chosen for the new organisation by a unanimous vote. The Vegetarian Society's first full public meeting was held in Manchester the following year, attracting 265 members aged 14 to 76, with 232 attending the dinner following the meeting. In 1853 it already had 889 members. In 1849, London's vegetarians gathered and resolved to enhance the spread of vegetarianism in the capital. Consequently, in September 1849, they launched The Vegetarian Messenger ,

12099-470: Was one of the first known English publishers to be a follower of Ralph Waldo Emerson . He devoted significant effort to managing and raising funds for vegetarianism, humanitarianism, and animal welfare . He was the editor of the Animals Life Readers , a series of books, and launched the journal Animals' Friend , which he also edited. Bell was a friend of Henry S. Salt and was Chairman of

12210-902: Was replicated by researchers at the Oklahoma State University , who found similar results: 73% of respondents answered "yes" to the question "Were you aware that slaughterhouses are where livestock are killed and processed into meat, such that, without them, you would not be able to consume meat?" In the U.S., many public protest slaughters were held in the late 1960s and early 1970s by the National Farmers Organization . Protesting low prices for meat, farmers killed their animals in front of media representatives. The carcasses were wasted and not eaten. This effort backfired because it angered television audiences to see animals needlessly and wastefully killed. Vegetarian Society The Vegetarian Society of

12321-505: Was sufficient, London vegetarians, often new converts, disagreed and considered relocating the national offices to London. Debates in 1882 and 1883 on expanding to a national scope faced criticism due to potential hostility and funding issues. The Society briefly renamed itself the National Food Reform Society until October 1885 when the Vegetarian Society paid its debts and made it an auxiliary in London. This led to

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