59-780: Ernst Toller (1 December 1893 – 22 May 1939) was a German author, playwright, left-wing politician and revolutionary, known for his Expressionist plays. He served in 1919 for six days as President of the short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic , after which he became the head of its army. He was imprisoned for five years for his part in the armed resistance by the Bavarian Soviet Republic to the central government in Berlin. While in prison Toller wrote several plays that gained him international renown. They were performed in London and New York City as well as in Berlin. In 1933 Toller
118-428: A seasonal affective disorder . Outside the mood disorders: borderline personality disorder often features an extremely intense depressive mood; adjustment disorder with depressed mood is a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor, in which the resulting emotional or behavioral symptoms are significant but do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode; and posttraumatic stress disorder ,
177-544: A "rational response to global conditions", according to Ann Cvetkovich . Psychogeographical depression overlaps somewhat with the theory of "deprejudice", a portmanteau of depression and prejudice proposed by Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon in 2012, who argue for an integrative approach to studying the often comorbid experiences. Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon are concerned with the ways in which social stereotypes are often internalized , creating negative self-stereotypes that then produce depressive symptoms. Unlike
236-420: A diagnosis of a psychiatric or medical condition which may benefit from treatment. The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) 2009 guidelines indicate that antidepressants should not be routinely used for the initial treatment of mild depression, because the risk-benefit ratio is poor. Physical activity has a protective effect against the emergence of depression in some people. There
295-561: A distinction between endogenous (internally caused) and exogenous (externally caused) types. Other psycho-dynamic theories were proposed. Existential and humanistic theories represented a forceful affirmation of individualism. Austrian existential psychiatrist Viktor Frankl connected depression to feelings of futility and meaninglessness . Frankl's logotherapy addressed the filling of an "existential vacuum" associated with such feelings, and may be particularly useful for depressed adolescents. Researchers theorized that depression
354-521: A general store. At the outbreak of World War I, he volunteered for the German Army. After serving for 13 months on the Western Front , he suffered a complete physical and psychological collapse. His first drama, Transformation ( Die Wandlung , 1919), was wrought from his wartime experiences. Together with leading anarchists , such as B. Traven and Gustav Landauer , and Toller's party,
413-536: A greater faith in audiences' ability to receive a playwright's message on their own without complete textual guidance. In early German expressionist theatre, the protagonists often represented variations on the New Man , one who was neither too meek or too headstrong, who was intelligent, and who was unafraid to act on their morals. Structurally, Expressionism in theatre was often characterized by episodic scenes or station dramas (Stationendramen) which were modeled after
472-410: A main symptom. The mood disorders are a group of disorders considered to be primary disturbances of mood. These include major depressive disorder (commonly called major depression or clinical depression) where a person has at least two weeks of depressed mood or a loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities; and dysthymia , a state of chronic depressed mood, the symptoms of which do not meet
531-439: A medical diagnosis (cancer, HIV, diabetes, etc.), bullying, loss of a loved one, natural disasters, social isolation, rape, relationship troubles, jealousy, separation, or catastrophic injury . Similar depressive symptoms are associated with survivor's guilt . Adolescents may be especially prone to experiencing a depressed mood following social rejection , peer pressure, or bullying. Depression in childhood and adolescence
590-447: A mental disorder that sometimes follows trauma , is commonly accompanied by depressed mood. Researchers have begun to conceptualize ways in which the historical legacies of racism and colonialism may create depressive conditions. Given the lived experiences of marginalized peoples, ranging from conditions of migration , class stratification , cultural genocide , labor exploitation , and social immobility , depression can be seen as
649-436: A process of self-recognition and identifying familiar stimuli. By maintaining one's personal past and identity, it is a technique that stimulates people to view their lives in a more objective and balanced way, causing them to pay attention to positive information in their life stories, which would successfully reduce depressive mood levels. There is limited evidence that continuing antidepressant medication for one year reduces
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#1732801747143708-472: A result of these factors. It is possible that some early generation beta-blockers induce depression in some patients, though the evidence for this is weak and conflicting. There is strong evidence for a link between alpha interferon therapy and depression. One study found that a third of alpha interferon-treated patients had developed depression after three months of treatment. ( Beta interferon therapy appears to have no effect on rates of depression.) There
767-434: A study on academic journal Molecular Psychiatry that depression is not caused by a serotonin imbalance in the human body, unlike what most of the psychiatry community points to, and that therefore anti-depressants do not work against the illness. However, such study was met with criticism from some psychiatrists, who argued the study's methodology used an indirect trace of serotonin, instead of taking direct measurements of
826-766: Is a normal temporary reaction to life events, such as the loss of a loved one; and it is also a symptom of some physical diseases and a side effect of some drugs and medical treatments. It may feature sadness , difficulty in thinking and concentration, or a significant increase or decrease in appetite and time spent sleeping. People experiencing depression may have feelings of dejection or hopelessness and may experience suicidal thoughts . Depression can either be short term or long term. Adversity in childhood , such as bereavement, neglect, mental abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, or unequal parental treatment of siblings, can contribute to depression in adulthood. Childhood physical or sexual abuse in particular significantly correlates with
885-445: Is associated with low extraversion , and people who have high levels of neuroticism are more likely to experience depressive symptoms and are more likely to receive a diagnosis of a depressive disorder. Additionally, depression is associated with low conscientiousness. Some factors that may arise from low conscientiousness include disorganization and dissatisfaction with life. Individuals may be more exposed to stress and depression as
944-500: Is crucial for the access of treatments. The mhGAP adopted its approach of improving detection rates of depression by training general practitioners. However, there is still weak evidence supporting this training. According to 2011 study, people who are high in hypercompetitive traits are also likely to measure higher for depression and anxiety. The term depression was derived from the Latin verb deprimere , "to press down". From
1003-404: Is limited evidence suggesting yoga may help some people with depressive disorders or elevated levels of depression, but more research is needed. Reminiscence of old and fond memories is another alternative form of treatment, especially for the elderly who have lived longer and have more experiences in life. It is a method that causes a person to recollect memories of their own life, leading to
1062-794: Is moderately strong evidence that finasteride when used in the treatment of alopecia increases depressive symptoms in some patients. Evidence linking isotretinoin , an acne treatment, to depression is strong. Other medicines that seem to increase the risk of depression include anticonvulsants , antimigraine drugs , antipsychotics and hormonal agents such as gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist . Several drugs of abuse can cause or exacerbate depression, whether in intoxication, withdrawal, and from chronic use. These include alcohol, sedatives (including prescription benzodiazepines ), opioids (including prescription pain killers and illicit drugs such as heroin), stimulants (such as cocaine and amphetamines), hallucinogens, and inhalants . Depressed mood can be
1121-660: Is shown to be lower than those who do not. Likewise, those from smaller towns and rural areas tend to have higher rates of depression, anxiety, and psychological unwellness. Studies have consistently shown that physicians have had the highest depression and suicide rates compared to people in many other lines of work—for suicide, 40% higher for male physicians and 130% higher for female physicians. Life events and changes that may cause depressed mood includes, but are not limited to, childbirth, menopause, financial difficulties, unemployment, stress (such as from work, education, military service, family, living conditions, marriage, etc.),
1180-541: Is similar to adult major depressive disorder, although young sufferers may exhibit increased irritability or behavioral dyscontrol instead of the more common sad, empty, or hopeless feelings seen with adults. Children who are under stress, experiencing loss, or have other underlying disorders are at a higher risk for depression. Childhood depression is often comorbid with mental disorders outside of other mood disorders; most commonly anxiety disorder and conduct disorder . Depression also tends to run in families. Depression
1239-472: Is the study of how epigenetics (heritable characteristics that do not involve changes in DNA sequence) contribute to depression. Behavioral theories of depression explain the etiology of depression with behavioral science ; adherents promote the use of behavioral therapies for treatment. Evolutionary approaches to depression are attempts by evolutionary psychologists and evolutionary psychiatrists to use
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#17328017471431298-499: The Freikorps . The noted authors Max Weber and Thomas Mann testified on Toller's behalf when he was tried for his part in the revolution. He was sentenced to five years in prison and served his sentence in the prisons of Stadelheim , Neuburg and Eichstätt . From February 1920 until his release, he was in the fortress of Niederschönenfeld , where he spent 149 days in solitary confinement and 24 days on hunger strike . Toller
1357-610: The Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD), Toller was involved in the short-lived 1919 Bavarian Soviet Republic . The communists were against the founding of a communist republic at this point. He served as president from 6 April to 12 April. Communists agitated against Toller and his councils and sent speakers into soldiers barracks to announce that the Council Republic did not deserve to be defended. He issued numerous decrees,
1416-513: The Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Both of these measures are psychological tests that ask personal questions of the participant, and have mostly been used to measure the severity of depression. The Beck Depression Inventory is a self-report scale that helps a therapist identify the patterns of depression symptoms and monitor recovery. The responses on this scale can be discussed in therapy to devise interventions for
1475-763: The Stations of the Cross . Machinal by Sophie Treadwell utilized nine episodes to tell the story of Helen Jones instead of scenes. Expressionist theatre also commonly adopted very general or simple names for the characters in the plays, like A Man, Woman, or in The Adding Machine , "Mr. Zero" Expressionist theatre had very different scenic design compared to the theatrical movements that came before it like naturalism and romanticism. Set pieces and props were typically used sparingly with much more emphasis on creating striking sound and light design. When scenery
1534-546: The global population , or about 280 million people of all ages (as of 2020). Depression affects a person's thoughts , behavior , feelings , and sense of well-being . Experiences that would normally bring a person pleasure or joy gives reduced pleasure or joy, and the afflicted person often experiences a loss of motivation or interest in those activities. Depressed mood is a symptom of some mood disorders , also categorized and called depression , such as major depressive disorder , bipolar disorder and dysthymia . It
1593-503: The 14th century, "to depress" meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits. It was used in 1665 in English author Richard Baker's Chronicle to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit", and by English author Samuel Johnson in a similar sense in 1753. In Ancient Greece, disease was thought due to an imbalance in the four basic bodily fluids, or humors . Personality types were similarly thought to be determined by
1652-589: The 1920s and 1930s in China. Expressionism in Chinese theatre has recently experienced a resurgence in popularity since the 1980s. In Spain Ramon Valle-lnclan's Esperpento , which was first produced in 1925, was very similar to German expressionist plays of the same decade. The most defining characteristics of Expressionism in the theatrical context were the emphasis on uncovering intense emotions and
1711-556: The Foreign Affairs Deputy Dr. Franz Lipp (who had been admitted several times to psychiatric hospitals) informed Vladimir Lenin via cable that the ousted former Minister-President, Johannes Hoffmann , had fled to Bamberg and taken the key to the ministry toilet with him. On April 13, 1919 the Communist Party seized power, with Eugen Leviné as their leader. In May 1919, the republic was defeated by
1770-564: The United States among audiences and artists alike. Eugene O'Neill , although widely known for his realist dramas, was the first playwright in the United States to experience success with an expressionist piece. O'Neill's The Hairy Ape was the first fully expressionist play written by an American playwright, it premiered in 1922. Elmer Rice gained notoriety shortly after with the premier of his expressionist play The Adding Machine in 1923. These playwrights and many others within
1829-407: The United States went on to write quite successful expressionist plays including Lajos Egri's Rapid Transit (play) , first premiering in 1927, and Sophie Treadwell's Machinal , first premiering in 1928. Expressionism in theatre and drama has also experienced success in China and Spain. Notably, The Wilderness (play) by Cao Yu and Yama Zhao by Hong Shen were frequently produced in
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1888-556: The chance of death by suicide by two to three times. In 2017, the British Medical Association found that 49% of UK chronic pain patients also had depression. As many as 1/3 of stroke survivors will later develop post-stroke depression . Because strokes may cause damage to the parts of the brain involved in processing emotions, reward, and cognition, stroke may be considered a direct cause of depression. A number of psychiatric syndromes feature depressed mood as
1947-493: The dominant humor in a particular person. Derived from the Ancient Greek melas , "black", and kholé , "bile", melancholia was described as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms by Hippocrates in his Aphorisms , where he characterized all "fears and despondencies, if they last a long time" as being symptomatic of the ailment. During the 18th century, the humoral theory of melancholia
2006-545: The early decades of the 20th century. It was then popularized in the United States, Spain, China, the U.K., and all around the world. Similar to the broader movement of Expressionism in the arts, Expressionist theatre utilized theatrical elements and scenery with exaggeration and distortion to deliver strong feelings and ideas to audiences. The early Expressionist theatrical and dramatic movement in Germany had Dionysian , Hellenistic , and Nietzsche philosophy influences. It
2065-419: The failure of societal systems that have been overlooked. Commonly, Expressionist theatre critiqued the government, big business, the military, family structures, and sexism. Expressionism shifted emphasis from the text of pieces to the physical performance and highlighted the director's role in creating a vehicle to deliver theirs and the playwright's thoughts and feelings to audiences. This shift also reflected
2124-404: The genetic reverberations for subsequent generations. Likewise, research by scientists at Emory University suggests that memories of trauma can be inherited, rendering offspring vulnerable to psychological predispositions for stress disorders , schizophrenia , and PTSD . Measures of depression include, but are not limited to: Beck Depression Inventory-11 and the 9-item depression scale in
2183-1042: The global population has depression, according to a report released by the UN World Health Organization (WHO), which shows an 18 percent increase in the number of people living with depression between 2005 and 2015. Depression is a major mental-health cause of disease burden . Its consequences further lead to significant burden in public health , including a higher risk of dementia , premature mortality arising from physical disorders, and maternal depression impacts on child growth and development. Approximately 76% to 85% of depressed people in low- and middle-income countries do not receive treatment; barriers to treatment include: inaccurate assessment, lack of trained health-care providers, social stigma and lack of resources. The stigma comes from misguided societal views that people with mental illness are different from everyone else, and they can choose to get better only if they wanted to. Due to this more than half of
2242-558: The likelihood of experiencing depression over the survivor's lifetime. People who have experienced four or more adverse childhood experiences are 3.2 to 4.0 times more likely to suffer from depression. Poor housing quality, non-functionality, lack of green spaces , and exposure to noise and air pollution are linked to depressive moods, emphasizing the need for consideration in planning to prevent such outcomes. Locality has also been linked to depression and other negative moods. The rate of depression among those who reside in large urban areas
2301-560: The most distressing symptoms of depression. There are multiple schools of depression theory. Beck's cognitive triad theorizes that an individual with depression has "automatic, spontaneous, and seemingly uncontrollable negative thoughts" about the self, the world or environment, and the future. The Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression helps to explain the common comorbidity of anxiety and depression by separating symptoms into three groups: negative affect, positive affect, and physiological hyperarousal. The epigenetics of depression
2360-454: The people with depression do not receive help with their disorders. The stigma leads to a strong preference for privacy. An analysis of 40,350 undergraduates from 70 institutions by Posselt and Lipson found that undergraduates who perceived their classroom environments as highly competitive had a 37% higher chance of developing depression and a 69% higher chance of developing anxiety. Several studies have suggested that unemployment roughly doubles
2419-448: The press was socialised, the mining industry was socialised, and the eight-hour working day made legally binding. He decreed that citizens could withdraw only 100 marks per day from the banks, and issued reassurance to the workers that these measures were directed against the major capitalists who were attempting to take money abroad. A decree was made against exorbitant rents. His government members were not always well-chosen. For instance,
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2478-457: The property of the novelist Katharine Weber until the copyright expired on 31 December 2009. His works have now entered the public domain. The most recent comprehensive biography of Toller is by Robert Ellis, "Ernst Toller and German Society. Intellectuals as Leaders and Critics" Fairleigh Dickison University Press, 2013. Expressionism (theatre) Expressionism was a movement in drama and theatre that principally developed in Germany in
2537-440: The resources available to a population to seek comfort, health, stability, and sense of security. The historical memory of this trauma conditions the psychological health of future generations, making psychogeographical depression an intergenerational experience as well. This work is supported by recent studies in genetic science which has demonstrated an epigenetic link between the trauma suffered by Holocaust survivors and
2596-601: The result of a number of infectious diseases, nutritional deficiencies , neurological conditions, and physiological problems, including hypoandrogenism (in men), Addison's disease , Cushing's syndrome , pernicious anemia , hypothyroidism , hyperparathyroidism , Lyme disease , multiple sclerosis , Parkinson's disease , celiac disease , chronic pain, stroke, diabetes, cancer, and HIV. Studies have found that anywhere from 30 to 85 percent of patients suffering from chronic pain are also clinically depressed. A 2014 study by Hooley et al. concluded that chronic pain increased
2655-496: The risk of depression recurrence with no additional harm. Recommendations for psychological treatments or combination treatments in preventing recurrence are not clear. Depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide, the United Nations (UN) health agency reported, estimating that it affects more than 300 million people worldwide – the majority of them women, young people and the elderly. An estimated 4.4 percent of
2714-783: The risk of developing depression. The World Health Organization has constructed guidelines – known as The Mental Health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP) – aiming to increase services for people with mental, neurological and substance-use disorders. Depression is listed as one of conditions prioritized by the programme. Trials conducted show possibilities for the implementation of the programme in low-resource primary-care settings dependent on primary-care practitioners and lay health-workers. Examples of mhGAP-endorsed therapies targeting depression include Group Interpersonal Therapy as group treatment for depression and "Thinking Health", which utilizes cognitive behavioral therapy to tackle perinatal depression. Furthermore, effective screening in primary care
2773-990: The second an earlier period of the rise of the Nazis. Their style was outmoded for New York, and the poor reception added to Toller's discouragement. Suffering from depression , separated from his wife and struggling with financial woes (he had given all his money to Spanish Civil War refugees), Toller committed suicide on 22 May 1939. He hanged himself in his room at the Mayflower Hotel , after laying out on his hotel desk "photos of Spanish children who had been killed by fascist bombs". The English author Robert Payne , who knew Toller in Spain and in Paris, later wrote in his diary that Toller had said shortly before his death: "If ever you read that I committed suicide, I beg you not to believe it." Payne continued: "He hanged himself with
2832-475: The severity of a major depressive episode . Another mood disorder, bipolar disorder , features one or more episodes of abnormally elevated mood, cognition , and energy levels, but may also involve one or more episodes of depression. Individuals with bipolar depression are often misdiagnosed with unipolar depression. When the course of depressive episodes follows a seasonal pattern, the disorder (major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, etc.) may be described as
2891-533: The silk cord of his nightgown in a hotel in New York two years ago. This is what the newspapers said at the time, but I continue to believe that he was murdered". W. H. Auden 's poem "In Memory of Ernst Toller" was published in Another Time (1940). After exile: In 2000, Alan Pearlman published his translation into English of several of Toller's plays. The literary rights to the works of Ernst Toller were
2950-618: The system they once opposed. In despair, he kills himself. Two of his early plays were produced in New York in the 1930s: The Machine Wreckers (1922), whose opening night in 1937 he attended, and No More Peace , produced in 1937 by the Federal Theatre Project and presented in New York City in 1938. Their sense of immediacy was gone: the first play was related to the First World War and its aftermath, and
3009-523: The theory of evolution to further understand mood disorders . The biology of depression is the attempt to identify a biochemical origin of depression, as opposed to theories that emphasize psychological or situational causes. Depressed mood may not require professional treatment, and may be a normal temporary reaction to life events, a symptom of some medical condition, or a side effect of some drugs or medical treatments. A prolonged depressed mood, especially in combination with other symptoms, may lead to
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#17328017471433068-558: The theory of "deprejudice", a psychogeographical theory of depression attempts to broaden study of the subject beyond an individual experience to one produced on a societal scale, seeing particular manifestations of depression as rooted in dispossession; historical legacies of genocide , slavery , and colonialism are productive of segregation, both material and psychic material deprivation, and concomitant circumstances of violence, systemic exclusion, and lack of access to legal protections. The demands of navigating these circumstances compromise
3127-637: Was caused by a chemical imbalance in neurotransmitters in the brain, a theory based on observations made in the 1950s of the effects of reserpine and isoniazid in altering monoamine neurotransmitter levels and affecting depressive symptoms. During the 1960s and 70s, manic-depression came to refer to just one type of mood disorder (now most commonly known as bipolar disorder ) which was distinguished from (unipolar) depression. The terms unipolar and bipolar had been coined by German psychiatrist Karl Kleist . In July 2022, British psychiatrist Joanna Moncrieff , also psychiatrist Mark Horowtiz and others proposed in
3186-643: Was exiled from Germany after the Nazis came to power. He did a lecture tour in 1936–1937 in the United States and Canada, settling in California for a while before going to New York. He joined other exiles there. He died by suicide in May 1939. Toller was born in 1893 into a Jewish family in Samotschin , Germany (now Szamocin , Poland). He was the son of Ida (Kohn) and Max Toller, a pharmacist. His parents ran
3245-546: Was impacted by the likes of German poet August Stramm and Swedish playwright August Strindberg . Murderer, the Hope of Women by Oskar Kokoschka , written in 1907 and first performed in Vienna in 1909, was the first fully expressionist drama. Expressionism was then explored and evolved in Germany by a multitude of playwrights, the most famous of which being Georg Kaiser , whose first successful play, The Burghers of Calais ,
3304-677: Was increasingly being challenged by mechanical and electrical explanations; references to dark and gloomy states gave way to ideas of slowed circulation and depleted energy. German physician Johann Christian Heinroth , however, argued melancholia was a disturbance of the soul due to moral conflict within the patient. In the 20th century, the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin distinguished manic depression. The influential system put forward by Kraepelin unified nearly all types of mood disorder into manic–depressive insanity . Kraepelin worked from an assumption of underlying brain pathology, but also promoted
3363-518: Was unable to see the plays he had written in prison performed until after his release in July 1925. The most famous of his later dramas, Hoppla, We're Alive! ( Hoppla, wir Leben! ), directed by Erwin Piscator , premiered in Berlin in 1925. It tells of a revolutionary discharged from a mental hospital after eight years, who discovers that his former comrades have grown complacent and compromised within
3422-472: Was used, it was typically very symbolic and was a purposeful exaggeration or understatement of the setting. Expressionist scenic design focus was more on aiding in the delivery of a scene's meaning versus a mere representation of setting. Emil Pirchan, Ludwig Sievert, and Ernst Stern were very influential expressionist scenic designers. Depression (mood) Depression is a mental state of low mood and aversion to activity. It affects about 3.5% of
3481-431: Was written in 1913 and first performed in 1917. Another highly influential German Expressionist playwright was Ernst Toller who had his first successful play, Transformation , premier in Berlin in 1919. These German playwrights and many others explored and evolved expressionist theatre and drama until the movement faded in popularity throughout Germany by 1924. In the 1920s theatrical expressionism became very popular in
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