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61-411: Studies, lessons, and other didactic instrumental pieces composed before the 19th century are extremely varied, without any established genres. Domenico Scarlatti 's 30 Essercizi per gravicembalo ("30 Exercises for harpsichord", 1738) do not differ in scope from his other keyboard works, and J.S. Bach 's four volumes of Clavier-Übung ("keyboard practice") contain everything from simple organ duets to

122-507: A Mass, and at least two successful ballets: Cinderella , which received over one hundred performances, and Hercule et Omphale . Partly because Sor was himself such a classical guitar virtuoso—contemporaries considered him to be the best in the world —he made a point of writing didactic music for players of that instrument of all levels. His Twelve Studies Op. 6, the Twelve Studies Op. 29, the (24) Progressive Lessons Op. 31, and

183-445: A Minuet and Rondo by Haydn." "Here, Newman recognizes the creative value of Sor's guitar sonatas, but misconstrues several important points. Most significantly, Newman falls into an easy association of Sor's sonata style with that of Haydn (and Boccherini)." (p.1) (...) "The present article examines the formal and stylistic procedures employed by Sor in his guitar sonatas, determining appropriate models for these works and placing them in

244-428: A Theme by Mozart , Op. 9. It is based on the melody for "Das klinget so herrlich, das klinget so schön!" from The Magic Flute , composed in 1791. Sor was a prolific and, in his time, quite popular composer. There was a great demand for him to compose material that was approachable by less accomplished players. The resulting body of instructional studies he produced is not only noteworthy for its value to students of

305-564: A likely chronological context. This examination affords a telling glimpse of Sor at two very different stages of his career: as a young composer in Spain emulating the imported cosmopolitan high-classical style of the Italian opera overture and Austro-French symphony; and as an established post-classicist exercising a personal aesthetic and a confident, individual approach to formal construction." (p. 3) "How should one perform Sor's music? I believe

366-611: A military or administrative post, Sor could finally give music a serious try in France. He gained renown at first as a virtuoso guitarist and composer for the instrument. When he attempted composing operas , however, he was rejected by the French. His Op. 7 was a large and strange piece, notated in three clefs, and no guitarist at the time could play it. Since France was no longer supportive of his music, Sor decided to try his talents elsewhere. In 1815, he went to London to attempt to build

427-541: A music master to Princess Maria Barbara, who had married into the Spanish royal house. She later became Queen of Spain. Scarlatti remained in Spain for the remaining 25 years of his life and had five children there. After his wife died in 1739, he married a Spaniard, Anastasia Maxarti Ximenes. Among his compositions during his time in Madrid were most of the 555 keyboard sonatas for which he is best known. Scarlatti befriended

488-464: A number of étude and study collections for instruments other than the piano. Guitarist composer Fernando Sor published his 12 Studies, op. 6 for guitar in London as early as 1815. These works all conform to the standard definition of 19th-century étude in that they are short compositions, each exploiting a single facet of technique. Collections of studies for flute were published during the second half of

549-426: A specific date of composition is not known, cellist and composer Friedrich Dotzauer composed a set of 113 études during the 19th century, 113 Studies for Cello Solo . Dotzauer composed many different forms of music, ranging from opera and symphonies to chamber pieces. Most of his music has been long forgotten, with the exception of his 113 studies. The first two volumes (studies 1-62) are for intermediate players while

610-425: A stronger music career there. Again, he gained considerable fame as a classical guitarist and gave guitar and voice lessons. Since ballet in London was more popular than opera, Sor decided to try his hand at this new genre of music. He had considerable success this time, especially with his ballet Cendrillon . By 1823, once he had acquired a level of fame in London, Sor again wandered away, this time with his wife,

671-579: A variety of musical forms, although today he is known mainly for his 555 keyboard sonatas . He spent much of his life in the service of the Portuguese and Spanish royal families. Scarlatti was born in Naples , Kingdom of Naples , then belonging to the Spanish Empire . He was born in 1685, the same year as Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel . He was the sixth of ten children of

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732-462: A wide range of styles and moods is one of the hallmarks of Scarlatti's work. Another stylistic trait of this composer is the ability to mix “different forms or levels of discourse”. Other distinctive attributes of his music are: Kirkpatrick produced an edition of the sonatas in 1953, and the numbering from this edition—the Kk. or K. number—is now nearly always used. Previously, the numbering commonly used

793-454: Is a story of a trial of skill with George Frideric Handel at the palace of Cardinal Ottoboni in Rome, where Scarlatti was judged possibly superior to Handel on the harpsichord , although inferior on the organ . Later in life, he was known to cross himself in veneration when speaking of Handel's skill. While in Rome, Scarlatti composed several operas for Queen Casimir's private theatre. He

854-482: Is designated with a historical plaque, and his descendants still live in Madrid. He was buried at a convent there, but his grave no longer exists. Minor planet 6480 Scarlatti is named in his honour. Only a small number of Scarlatti's compositions were published during his lifetime. Scarlatti himself seems to have overseen the publication in 1738 of the most famous collection, his 30 Esercizi (Exercises). They were well received throughout Europe and were championed by

915-405: Is entitled Mes Ennuis ("My Annoyances"), and six of his ballets are dedicated to "whoever wants them". These and other caustic remarks did not help his sales in the least. The foreword to Op. 45 goes even further than sarcasm: "Let's see if that's that. Six short and easy pieces in stages, which aim to lead to what has generally been agreed are difficulties. Composed and dedicated to the person with

976-406: Is high. The ideas, which grow out of the instrument yet stand up well enough apart from it, are fresh and distinctive. The harmony is skillful and surprisingly varied, with bold key changes and with rich modulations in the development sections. The texture is naturally of interest too, with the melody shifted from top to bottom, to middle, and frequent contrapuntal bits added. Among the extended forms,

1037-417: Is meant to be expressed with such devices as dynamics, tone color, portamento, chordal arpeggiation [...]. These same modern guitarists with the conspiratorial support of supposedly enlightened musicologists will often perform this music, sometimes on a "period" guitar, and use practically none of the above-mentioned expressive devices.)" One of Sor's popular compositions is his Introduction and Variations on

1098-484: Is not always a record of his having approved or used them. But in the file and marriage certificate of his grandfather, which includes Fernando's great-grandfathers, the name always appears as Sor, and this is true too of the corresponding document for one of the great-grandfathers, the oldest document yet found. Born in Barcelona to a fairly well-off family, he was baptized as José Fernando Macario Sors, as recorded in

1159-466: Is subtitled the "Lohengrin Etude", as it is written using music from Act Three, Scene Three of Wagner's Lohengrin (opera) . Following the creation of his High School of Cello Playing book, Popper created two more sets of études directed at more novice and intermediate audiences. The first, Zehn mittelschwere grosse Etüden; Als Vorstudien zur "Hohen Schule des Violoncellspieles" (10 Studies Preparatory to

1220-473: The Salve Regina of 1756, which is thought to be his last composition. Fernando Sor Fernando Sor (baptised 14 February 1778 – 10 July 1839) was a Spanish classical guitarist and composer of the late Classical era and early Romantic era . Best known for writing solo classical guitar music, he also composed an opera (at the age of 19), three symphonies, guitar duos, piano music, songs,

1281-420: The castrato singer Farinelli , a fellow Neapolitan also enjoying royal patronage in Madrid. Musicologist and harpsichordist Ralph Kirkpatrick , who published a biography of Scarlatti in 1953, commented that Farinelli's correspondence provides "most of the direct information about Scarlatti that has transmitted itself to our day". Scarlatti died in Madrid at the age of 71. His residence at 35 Calle de Leganitos

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1342-462: The ring finger of his plucking hand "rarely" and "only for harmony (never for melody)." He eschewed the use of nails on that hand. As Sor's works were published in various countries, his name was translated, leading to variances in its spelling. These included Joseph Fernando Macario Sors, Ferdinand Sor, Ferdinando Sor and, in the last years, Ferran Sor. His family name appears in various forms in other contemporary documents as well, and there

1403-478: The "High School of Cello Playing") , was published a year later. This set of 10 études was aimed at intermediate players to study before working on the more advanced High School of Cello Playing book. Approximately five years later, Popper published his final set of études, 15 Leichte Etüden in der ersten Lage (15 Easy Etudes in the First Position) . As the title states, this set of études was written so that

1464-422: The (24) Very Easy Exercises Op. 35 have been widely played for two hundred years and are regularly reprinted. On the other hand, some of Sor's music, not least his popular Introduction and Variations on Mozart's "Das klinget so herrlich" Op. 9, is fiendishly difficult. Unlike modern classical guitar players, Sor used the smaller, slimmer "Romantic" guitars predating today's familiar Torres instrument. He used

1525-464: The 19th century by Ernesto Köhler , Wilhelm Popp and Adolf Terschak. The early 20th century saw the publication of a number of important collections of études. Claude Debussy 's Études for piano (1915) conform to the "one facet of technique per piece" rule, but exhibit unorthodox structures with many sharp contrasts, and many concentrate on sonorities and timbres peculiar to the piano, rather than technical points. Leopold Godowsky 's 53 Studies on

1586-497: The Chopin Études (1894–1914) are built on Chopin's études: Godowsky's additions and changes elevated Chopin's music to new, hitherto unknown levels of difficulty. Other important études of this period include Heitor Villa-Lobos ' virtuoso 12 Études for guitar (1929) and pieces by Russian composers: Sergei Rachmaninoff 's Études-Tableaux (1911, 1917) and several collections by Alexander Scriabin (all for piano). By mid-century

1647-890: The Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments, cat. no. 2521; and in private ownership (exhibited at the Londen Early Music Instrument Makers Exhibition, 1991). Sor also lent his name to the instruments of Louis Panormo of London. However, in neither case is the instrument known, then or now, as a 'Sor model'." A guitar of Lacôte that was signed by Sor is displayed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art : 1 . In his method , Sor mentions: "[...] if I wanted an instrument, I would procure it from M. Joseph Martinez of Malaga, or from M. Lacote [...] The guitars to which I have always given

1708-589: The French at this time. After the defeat of the Spanish army, however, Sor accepted an administrative post in the occupying government. Here he was to be officially labeled an afrancesado along with the other Spaniards who abandoned their defense of Spain to embrace the French Revolutionary ideas. After the Spanish repelled the French in 1813, Sor and other afrancesados left Spain for fear of retribution. He went to Paris , never to return to his home country again. Having abandoned his family's ideal of

1769-595: The Spanish Guitar . Sor undoubtedly played guitars by Pierre René Lacôte , mentioning: "M. Lacote, a French maker, the only person who, besides his talents, has proved to me that he possesses the quality of not being inflexible to reasoning". Some guitars of Lacôte show Sor's signature: "Fernando Sor, the Catalan man was out of his mind in Paris has signed a number of guitars by René Lacôte – examples now survive in

1830-459: The answer is with considerably more freedom, expression and passion than has, for the most part, been done in the recent past. Sor, in his method of 1830 has much to say about the use of tone color on the guitar and even discusses how to imitate the various orchestral instruments. This use of color is something that is very uncommon amongst modern guitarists. Ironically Sor says very little about other aspects of expression, but other guitar methods from

1891-463: The ballerina Félicité Hullin, to Moscow in her quest to become a prima ballerina . Not much is known about his time there, however, despite the exaggeration about his romantic and professional life. After three years in Moscow, he traveled around Europe giving concerts and getting into music circles everywhere he went. In 1827, partly due to his advancing age, he settled down and decided to live out

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1952-476: The baptismal record, although in most of his manuscript and printed musical works he appears as Fernando Sor or Ferdinand Sor, and only in some cases does his surname appear as Sors. Sor was descended from a long line of career soldiers and intended to continue that legacy, but was distracted from this when his father introduced him to Italian opera. He fell in love with music and abandoned his military ambitions. Along with opera, Sor's father also introduced him to

2013-440: The cellist was famous for or their unique playing style. Some of these cellists include Bernhard Romberg , Luigi Boccherini , and Jean-Louis Duport . Sebastian Lee was a cellist and composed various works for the cello. In 1842, he composed his own book of études: Forty Melodic and Progressive Etudes for Violoncello . Sebastian Lee was mostly known as a virtuosic player and less so of a teacher; he did not directly teach anyone

2074-460: The choir school located at the monastery. Sor reveals in writings, mainly from the last ten years of his life, that he was greatly attached to this place, and had fond, nostalgic memories of his childhood there. But his mother began to see that Sor was becoming greatly distracted from his "chosen" path in the military or administration and, following the advice of friends, took him out of the monastery and placed him in military school for four years. It

2135-528: The composer and teacher Alessandro Scarlatti . His older brother Pietro Filippo was also a musician. Scarlatti first studied music under his father. Other composers who may have been his early teachers include Gaetano Greco , Francesco Gasparini , and Bernardo Pasquini , all of whom may have influenced his musical style. Scarlatti was appointed as a composer and organist at the Chapel Royal of Naples in 1701 and briefly worked under his father, who

2196-445: The didactic aspect of Chopin's work, however, since the difficulty and the technique used varies within a given piece. Each of the études has a different character, designated by its name: Preludio; Molto Vivace; Paysage [Landscape]; Mazeppa; Feux Follets [Irrlichter/ Will-o'-the-wisp]; Vision; Eroica; Wilde Jagd [Wild Hunt]; Ricordanza; Allegro Molto Agitato; Harmonies du Soir [Evening Harmonies]; and Chasse-neige [Snow-whirls]. Although

2257-431: The earliest pianofortes . (There are four for the organ and a few for small instrumental groups). Some display harmonic audacity in their use of discords, and unconventional modulations to remote keys . Though Scarlatti wrote over 500 sonatas, there is a wide variety in his works. Some are deeply serious, others are light and almost humorous. Some sound like courtly dances, others like street songs. This ability to cover

2318-423: The era do recommend much use of portamento, arpeggiation of chords, and other expressive devices which most people today consider anachronistic and completely out of style in the interpretation of the guitar music from this very era! (It never ceases to amaze me how so many modern guitarists and musicologists [...] don't even consider the wealth of material and instruction from Sor's era which cries out that this music

2379-518: The exact composition dates for these surviving sonatas are not known, Kirkpatrick concluded that they might all have been composed late in Scarlatti's career (after 1735), with most of them possibly written after the composer's 67th birthday. Aside from his many sonatas, Scarlatti composed several operas, cantatas, and liturgical pieces. Well-known works include the Stabat Mater of 1715, and

2440-507: The extensive and difficult Goldberg Variations . The situation changed in the early 19th century. Instruction books with exercises became very common. Of particular importance were collections of "studies" by Johann Baptist Cramer (published between 1804 and 1810), early parts of Muzio Clementi 's Gradus ad Parnassum (1817–26), numerous works by Carl Czerny , Maria Szymanowska 's Vingt exercises et préludes (c. 1820), and Ignaz Moscheles ' Studien Op. 70 (1825–26). However, with

2501-442: The first Allegro movements still show considerable flexibility in the application of 'sonata form', especially in the larger number of ideas introduced and recalled. For that matter, the style still goes back to that of Joseph Haydn and Mozart, especially in the first movement of Op. 22, which has all the neatness of syntax and accompaniment to be found in a classic symphony, and its third and fourth movements, which could nicely pass as

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2562-1123: The foremost English writer on music of the eighteenth century, Charles Burney . Burney wrote that the harpsichordist Joseph Kelway was "head of the Scarlatti sect", a group of English musicians that championed Scarlatti as early as 1739, also including Thomas Roseingrave . The many sonatas unpublished during Scarlatti's lifetime have appeared in print irregularly in the past two and a half centuries. He has attracted notable admirers, including Béla Bartók , Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli , Pieter-Jan Belder , Johann Sebastian Bach , Muzio Clementi , Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart , Ludwig van Beethoven , Carl Czerny , Franz Liszt , Johannes Brahms , Frédéric Chopin , Claude Debussy , Emil Gilels , Francis Poulenc , Olivier Messiaen , Enrique Granados , Marc-André Hamelin , Vladimir Horowitz , Ivo Pogorelić , Scott Ross (the first performer to record all 555 sonatas), Heinrich Schenker , András Schiff and Dmitri Shostakovich . Scarlatti's 555 keyboard sonatas are single movements, mostly in binary form , and some in early sonata form , and mostly written for harpsichord or

2623-416: The guitar, but for its inherent musicality. Much of this work is organized in several opus numbers (in increasing order of difficulty): Op. 60 (25 lessons), Op. 44 (24 lessons), Op. 35 (24 exercises), Op. 31 (24 lessons), Op. 6 (12 studies) and Op. 29 (12 studies). Sor's Méthode pour la Guitare was first published in Paris in 1830 and translated into English by A Merrick in 1832 under the title Method for

2684-459: The guitar. At a young age, Sor's parents wouldn't give his musical abilities too much special attention, for fear it would distract from his Latin studies. Therefore, the young Sor (still not 11 years old) began to write songs to words in Latin to impress his parents. He even invented his own system for notating music, as he had not yet received formal training. When he reached the age of 11 or 12,

2745-531: The head of the Barcelona Cathedral took notice of young Sor's talent, and he was enrolled in the school there. Not long after, his father died, leaving his mother without the funds to continue his education at the Cathedral. However, at around the same time Joseph Arredondo, the new abbot of Santa Maria de Montserrat , the famous monastery, heard of his talent, and provided funds for him to attend

2806-415: The last two volumes (studies 63-113) are for advanced players. Friedrich Grützmacher composed several works for smaller instrumental groups as well as a book of études for solo cello, 24 Etudes for Cello . The book is divided into two volumes, each with 12 études. The first volume is generally for intermediate players as it does not involve the use of thumb position, while the second volume, which includes

2867-449: The late parts of Clementi's collection and Moscheles' Charakteristische Studien Op. 95 (1836–37) the situation began to change, with both composers striving to create music that would both please the audiences in concert and serve as a good teaching tool. Such a combination of didactic and musical value in a study is sometimes referred to as a concert study. The technique required to play Chopin's Études , Op. 10 (1833) and Op. 25 (1837)

2928-442: The least patience, by Fernando Sor. Opus 45." His last work was a mass in honour of his daughter, who died in 1837. The event sent the already sickly Sor into serious depression, and he died in 1839, of tongue and throat cancer. François-Joseph Fétis has called him "le Beethoven de la guitare", though he has also remarked that Sor had failed to produce a good tone on one occasion. "The creative worth of Sor's guitar sonatas

2989-452: The most difficult works in the repertory. The three books of Études by György Ligeti (1985, 1988–94, 1995) are perhaps closest to the old tradition in that they too concentrate each on a particular technique. Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji 's 100 Transcendental Studies (1940–44), which take Godowsky and Liszt as their starting point, frequently focus on particular technical elements, as well as various rhythmical difficulties. William Bolcom

3050-506: The old étude tradition was largely abandoned. Olivier Messiaen 's Quatre études de rythme ("Four studies in rhythm", 1949–50) were not didactic compositions, but experiments with scales of durations , as well as with dynamics , figurations , coloration , and pitches. John Cage 's études— Études Australes (1974–75) for piano, Études Boreales (1978) for cello and/or piano and Freeman Études (1977–80, 1989–90) for violin—are indeterminate pieces based on star charts , and some of

3111-494: The player could stay in first position , which makes it this set much more approachable to beginners. Domenico Scarlatti Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti (26 October 1685 – 23 July 1757) was an Italian composer. He is classified primarily as a Baroque composer chronologically, although his music was influential in the development of the Classical style . Like his renowned father Alessandro Scarlatti , he composed in

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3172-455: The preference are those of Alonzo of Madrid, Pagès and Benediz of Cadiz, Joseph and Manuel Martinez of Malaga, or Rada, successor and scholar of the latter, and those of M. Lacote of Paris. I do not say that others do not exist; but never having tried them, I cannot decide on that which I have no knowledge." In his method, he also mentions that "J. Panormo" of London and "Mr. Schroeder of Petersburgh", made some guitars under his direction; but it

3233-427: The rest of his life back in Paris. It was during this retirement that he composed the majority of his classical guitar works. He had to comply with the demands of the public, though, and most guitarists wanted technically simple, nice-sounding pieces. It was in these last ten or so years of his life that his writings reveal his bitterness towards how his publications were being received by the public. For example, Op. 43

3294-405: The use of thumb position as well as other advanced technique, is for more advances players. The later études in this book are mostly as a showcase for virtuosity, such as double artificial harmonics and off-hand pizzicato. Grützmacher also composed a set of 12 études titled Elite-Etüden. Each étude in this book was composed in the style of a famous cellist, usually highlighting some technique that

3355-692: The études from this book. Lee advised against keeping the hand in a strict blocked position when playing using the thumb and suggested keeping the thumb mobile and free, which is how cellists regularly play today. Lee was a fairly prolific composer of cello études. Aside from his Forty Melodic and Progressive Etudes for Violoncello as mentioned above, he also composed 50 Etüden für den Anfang (First Steps in Violoncello Playing) , 40 leichte Etüden in der ersten Lage (40 Easy Etudes for Cello) , 12 Études mélodiques (12 Melodic Etudes) , among other smaller sets of études. The 19th century also saw

3416-687: Was Maestro di Cappella at St. Peter's from 1715 to 1719. In 1719 he travelled to London to direct his opera Narciso at the King's Theatre . According to Vicente Bicchi, Papal Nuncio in Portugal at the time, Scarlatti arrived in Lisbon on 29 November 1719. There he taught music to the Portuguese princess Maria Magdalena Barbara . He left Lisbon on 28 January 1727 for Rome, where he married Maria Caterina Gentili on 6 May 1728. In 1729 he moved to Seville , staying for four years. In 1733, he went to Madrid as

3477-622: Was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for his Twelve New Etudes for Piano in 1988. Out of all of the cello études ever made, the set of 40 etudes, Hohe Schule des Violoncello-Spiels ("High School of Cello Playing"), written by cellist and composer David Popper are arguably the most well known and widely used. Popper met with many of the famous composers at the time, such as Wagner , Berlioz , and Liszt in order to make studies that would help cellists play not only soloistic material, but orchestral material as well. The 19th étude, for example,

3538-495: Was extremely novel at the time of their publication; the first performer who succeeded at mastering the pieces was the renowned virtuoso composer Franz Liszt (to whom Chopin dedicated the Op. 10). Liszt himself composed a number of études that were more extensive and even more complex than Chopin's. Among these, the most well-known is the collection Études d'Execution Transcendante (final version published in 1852). These did not retain

3599-454: Was from the 1906 edition compiled by Neapolitan pianist Alessandro Longo (L. numbers). Kirkpatrick's numbering is chronological, while Longo's ordering is a result of his arbitrarily grouping the sonatas into "suites". In 1967 the Italian musicologist Giorgio Pestelli published a revised catalogue (using P. numbers), which corrected what he considered to be some anachronisms , and added some sonatas missing from Kirkpatrick's edition. Although

3660-480: Was not a terrible turn of events, as he had much free time to play and compose music in the army as well. In 1808, when Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Spain, Sor began to write nationalistic music for the guitar, often accompanied by patriotic lyrics. Sor was even part of traveling military bands that would play protest music on the streets. He was also promoted to captain in Córdoba and may have fought battles against

3721-428: Was then the chapel's maestro di cappella . In 1703 he revised Carlo Francesco Pollarolo 's opera Irene for performance at Naples. Soon after, his father sent him to Venice . After this, nothing is known of his life until 1709, when he went to Rome and entered the service of the exiled Polish queen Marie Casimire . It was there he met Thomas Roseingrave . Scarlatti was already an accomplished harpsichordist ; there

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