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57-562: The park is located in the Kunene region and shares boundaries with the regions of Oshana , Oshikoto and Otjozondjupa . Areas north of the Etosha pan were inhabited by Ovambo people , while various Otjiherero-speaking groups lived immediately outside the current park boundaries. The areas inside the park close to the Etosha pan were inhabited by Khoisan -speaking Hai//om people. Explorers Charles John Andersson and Francis Galton are

114-402: A female head of house, while 60% had a male. For those 15 years and older, 52% had never married, 12% married with certificate, 17% married traditionally, 12% married consensually, 2% were divorced or separated, and 4% were widowed. The most commonly spoken languages at home were Otjiherero languages (42% of households) and Nama / Damara (36%). For those 15 years and older, the literacy rate

171-449: A high density of predators like leopards in the hills, giving the mountains its English name of Leopard Hills. The Halali area is also home to dolomite hills within the park, with one hill inside the camp and the nearby Twee Koppies outside . Western Etosha is also dominated by dolomite hills and is the only place in the park that has mountain zebra . The Etosha National Park has a savanna desert climate. The annual mean average temperature

228-718: A lack of recognition of the minority indigenous tribes' communal lands. November 23, 2012, hundreds of Himba and Zemba from Omuhonga and Epupa region protested in Okanguati against Namibia’s plans to construct a dam in the Kunene River in the Baynes Mountains , against increasing mining operations on their traditional land and human rights violations against them. March 25, 2013, over thousand Himba and Zemba people marched in protest again, this time in Opuwo, against

285-462: A population of 86,856 (43,253 females and 43,603 males or 101 males for every 100 females) growing at an annual rate of 2.3%. The fertility rate was 4.9 children per woman. 26% lived in urban areas while 74% lived in rural areas, and with an area of 115,293 km , the population density was 0.8 persons per km . By age, 17% of the population was under 5 years old, 25% between 5–14 years, 51% between 15–59 years, and 7% 60 years and older. The population

342-480: A protein-rich grass that is eaten by grazers like blue wildebeest and springbok . The areas around the Etosha pan also have other halophytic vegetation including grasses like Sporobolus spicatus and Odyssea paucinervis , as well as shrubs like Suaeda articulata . Most of the park is savanna woodlands except for areas close to the pan. Mopane is the most common tree, estimated to make up around 80% of all trees in

399-461: A wide variety of data on aerosols , land cover, and other characteristics of the land and atmosphere to study and understand the interactions between people and the natural environment . The dolomite hills on the southern border of the park near the Andersson entrance gate are called Ondundozonananandana , meaning the place where young boy herding cattle went to never return, probably implying

456-400: Is 24 °C (75 °F). In winter, the mean nighttime lows are around 10 °C (50 °F), while in summer temperatures often hover around 40 °C (104 °F). As it is a desert, there is a large variation between day and night. Rain almost never falls in the winter. In most places in the park, the pans are devoid of vegetation with the exception of halophytic Sporobolus salsus ,

513-403: Is also the single-most important custodian of the black rhino in the world. In 2022, 46 white and black rhinos were poached. By 1881, large game mammals like elephants , rhinoceroses and lions had been nearly exterminated in the region. The proclamation of the game reserve helped some of the animals recover, but some species like buffalo and wild dogs have been extinct since the middle of

570-654: Is dominated by acacia species such as Acacia nebrownii , Acacia luederitzii , Acacia melliferra , Acacia hebeclada and Acacia tortilis . Grasslands in the park are mainly around the Etosha pan where the soil is sandy. Depending on the soil and the effects of the pan, grasslands could be dominated by one of the Eragrostis , Sporobolus , Monelytrum , Odyssea or Enneapogon species. The park has about 114 mammal species, 340 bird species, 110 reptile species, 16 amphibian species and 1 species of fish (up to 49 species of fish during floods). Etosha National Park

627-499: Is highly inhospitable. There is a constant, heavy surf on the beaches. In the days before engine-powered ships and boats, it was possible to get ashore through the surf, but impossible to launch from the shore. The only way out was by going through a marsh hundreds of kilometres long and only accessible via a hot and arid desert. The coast is largely made up of soft sand occasionally interrupted by rocky outcrops. The southern section consists of gravel plains, while north of Terrace Bay

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684-626: Is one of the fourteen regions of Namibia . Its capital is Opuwo , its governor is Marius Sheya . The region's name comes from the Kunene River which forms the northern border with Angola . Besides the capital Opuwo, the region contains the municipality of Outjo , the town Khorixas and the self-governed village Kamanjab . Kunene is home to the Himba people , a subtribe of the Herero , as well as to Damara people and Nama people . As of 2020 , Kunene had 58,548 registered voters. Kunene's western edge

741-778: Is the shores of the Atlantic Ocean . In the north, it borders Angola's Namibe Province, and in the far eastern part of its northern edge it borders Cunene Province. Domestically, it borders the following regions: The region comprises seven constituencies : Kunene is one of few regions that Namibia's ruling SWAPO party does not dominate. Previously the rivalry was mainly with the United Democratic Front (UDF), but recently other parties show good results in Kunene's constituencies. In November 2008, SWAPO activists and politicians called for organization to "destroy"

798-675: The Oshindonga word meaning "Great White Place" referring to the Etosha pan. The Hai//om called the pan Khubus which means "totally bare, white place with lots of dust". The pan is also known as Chums , which refers to the noise made by a person's feet when walking on the clay of the pan. At this time the Hai//om people recognized the authority of the Ovambo chief at Ondonga but the Hereros did not. The Hai||om were forcibly removed from

855-768: The 2014 elections and SWAPO's win in Kunene, Angelika Muharukua was appointed governor, and after her death in 2017, Marius Sheya was appointed. Cholera is a major concern in Kunene Region, particularly near the border with Angola. In December 2008, while the Zimbabwean cholera outbreak caused the deaths of hundreds of Zimbabweans, a similar but separate outbreak occurred in the northern Kunene Region constituency of Epupa . As 19 December, 3 people had died and 29 had become sick. In May 2008, approximately 15 people died of cholera as well. February 2012, traditional Himba chiefs issued two separate Declarations to

912-934: The African Union and to the OHCHR of the United Nations . The first, titled "Declaration of the most affected Ovahimba , Ovatwa, Ovatjimba and Ovazemba against the Orokawe Dam in the Baynes Mountains" outlines the objections from regional Himba chiefs and communities that reside near the Kunene River. The second, titled "Declaration by the traditional Himba leaders of Kaokoland in Namibia " lists violations of civil, cultural, economic, environmental, social and political rights perpetrated by

969-471: The 1965 National Geographic documentary Survivors of the Skeleton Coast . Many of the native species of succulent plants depend on the thick sea fogs , which roll-in from the coast, for their moisture; in addition to water droplets for their hydration, windblown detritus from the arid interior serves as a food source for numerous invertebrates , which, in turn, feed the herpetofauna and form

1026-594: The 2012 Namibia Labour Force Survey, unemployment in the Kunene Region stood at 27.0%. The two studies are methodologically not comparable. Skeleton Coast The Skeleton Coast is the northern part of the Atlantic coast of Namibia . Immediately south of Angola , it stretches from the Kunene River to the Swakop River , although the name is sometimes used to describe the entire Namib Desert coast. The indigenous San people (formerly known as Bushmen), of

1083-592: The 2012 Namibia Labour Force Survey, unemployment in the Kunene Region stood at 27.0%. The two studies are methodologically not comparable. Among households, 73% had safe water , 66% no toilet facility, 22% electricity for lighting, 72% access to radio , and 81% had wood or charcoal for cooking. In terms of household's main sources of income, 35% derived it from farming, 37% from wages and salaries, 7% cash remittances, 7% from business or non-farming, and 10% from pension. For every 1,000 live births there were 49 female infant deaths and 61 male. The life expectancy at birth

1140-413: The 20th century. A writer from Otjiwarongo was appointed game warden in 1951, and he considered the grasslands to be severely overgrazed. A bone meal plant was constructed near Rietfontein, and culling of zebras and wildebeests began in 1952. Official records indicate 293 zebras and 122 wildebeest were processed at the plant, but conservationists claimed thousands had been culled and successfully forced

1197-534: The British refrigerated cargo liner Dunedin Star ran aground. All her 106 passengers and crew were eventually rescued, but at the cost of a tug , an SAAF aircraft and the lives of two rescuers. The account is recorded in a book Skeleton Coast by John Henry Marsh. On Thursday, 22 March 2018, a Japanese registered fishing vessel, MVF Fukuseki Maru , got into trouble and ran aground near Durissa Bay, south of

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1254-481: The Etosha area was proclaimed as "Game Reserve 2" by Ordinance 88 of 1907, the park stretched from the mouths of the Kunene River and Hoarusib River on the Skeleton Coast to Namutoni in the east. The original area was estimated to be 99,526 square kilometres (38,427 sq mi), an estimate that has been corrected to about 80,000 square kilometres (31,000 sq mi). Ordinance 18 of 1958 changed

1311-652: The Government of Namibia (GoN). September 2012, the United Nations special rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples visited the Himba, and heard their concerns that they do not have recognized traditional authorities, and that they are placed under the jurisdictions of chiefs of neighboring dominant tribes, who make decisions on behalf of the minority communities. In his view, the lack of recognition of traditional chiefs is, in accordance with Namibian law, relates to

1368-502: The Kunene region discovering enough a deposit of 2.37 billion tons of iron ore, enough for the next 100 years. A cobalt deposit is being developed by Gecko Opuwo Cobal. Kunene has 60 schools with a total of 20,332 pupils. According to the Namibia 2001 Population and Housing Census, Kunene had a population of 68,735 (34,237 females and 34,487 males or 101 males for every 100 females) growing at an annual rate of 1.9%. The fertility rate

1425-572: The Namibian interior called the region "The Land God Made in Anger", while Portuguese sailors once referred to it as "The Gates of Hell". On the coast, the upwelling of the cold Benguela current gives rise to dense ocean fogs (called cassimbo by the Angolans) for much of the year. The winds blow from land to sea, rainfall rarely exceeds 10 millimetres (0.39 in) annually, and the climate

1482-862: The Prime Minister of the Cape Colony . The settlement had to be abandoned in 1886 after clashes with the Hai||om and defeat by Chief Nehale Mpingana . The German Reich ordered troops to occupy Okaukuejo , Namutoni and Sesfontein in 1886 in order to kill migrating wildlife to stop the spread of rinderpest to cattle. A fort was built by the German cavalry in 1889 at the site of the Namutoni spring. On 28 January 1904, 500 men under Nehale Mpingana attacked Imperial Germany 's Schutztruppe at Fort Namutoni and completely destroyed it, driving out

1539-635: The UDF government in Kunene. SWAPO also claimed that UDF and Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA) were "sabotaging" local government initiatives in the region due to incompetence. Central to the politics of Kunene Region is the battle over the proposed Epupa Dam in Epupa Constituency near the border with Angola . Business leaders based in Opuwo, who are mostly Ovambo people , formed the Kaoko Development League which supports

1596-562: The Ugab River mouth, lying 2 km from the Skeleton Coast beach in the ocean. All 24 foreign crew members were rescued by Namibian authorities. Namibia has declared the 16,000 square kilometres (6,200 sq mi) area of coastline and adjacent deserts, scrub and marshlands as Skeleton Coast National Park , from the Ugab River to the Kunene . The northern half of the park is a designated wilderness area . Notable features are

1653-527: The United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, South Africa, Australia, Norway and Israel. The salt pans are the most noticeable geological features in the national park. The main depression covers an area of about 5,000 square kilometres (1,900 sq mi), and is roughly 130 km (81 mi) long and as wide as 50 km (31 mi) in some places. The hypersaline conditions of

1710-580: The base of the desert food chain. The desert bird assemblages have been studied in terms of their thermoregulation , coloration, breeding strategies and nomadism . The riverbeds and flatlands further away from the beaches are home to bush elephants , Chacma baboons , southern giraffe , lions , leopard , black rhinoceros , spotted and brown hyenas , gemsbok and springbok , among many other species. The animals get most of their water from wells dug by one another, in addition to consuming various water-laden succulent plants. The black rhinoceros population

1767-698: The clay castles of the Hoarusib River , the Agate Mountain salt pans , and the large brown fur seal colonies at Cape Fria . The remainder of the coast is the National West Coast Recreation Area. The national park is part of the Iona – Skeleton Coast Transfrontier Conservation Area . The coast has been the subject of a number of wildlife documentaries , particularly concerning adaptations to extreme aridity, such as

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1824-586: The coast, notably the Eduard Bohlen , Benguela Eagle , Otavi , Dunedin Star and Tong Taw . The name "Skeleton Coast" was coined by John Henry Marsh as the title for the book he wrote chronicling the shipwreck of the Dunedin Star . Since the book was first published in 1944, it has become so well known that the coast is now generally referred to as "Skeleton Coast" and is named so on most maps today. See § In popular culture , below. One of

1881-470: The colonial forces and taking over their horses and cattle. The fort was rebuilt and troops were stationed once again when the area was declared a game reserve in 1907; Lieutenant Adolf Fischer of Fort Namutoni then became its first "game warden". The present-day Etosha National Park has had many major and minor boundary changes since its inception in 1907. The major boundary changes since 1907 were because of Ordinance 18 of 1958 and Ordinance 21 of 1970. When

1938-425: The first Europeans to record the existence of the Etosha pan on 29 May 1851, although it was already widely known by locals. These European explorers were traveling with Ovambo copper ore traders when they arrived at Omutjamatunda (now known as Namutoni). They passed through, and discovered the Etosha pan when they traveled north upon leaving Namutoni . The name Etosha (spelled Etotha in early literature) comes from

1995-548: The illegal fencing of parts of their traditional land, the lack of land rights to the territory that they have lived upon for centuries, and against the implementation of the Communal Land Reform Act of 2002. Compared to the rest of Namibia, Kunene is relatively underdeveloped. This is due to the mountainous inaccessible geography and the dryness that significantly hinders agriculture. In 2012, Chinese company Namibia East China Non- Ferrous Investments explored

2052-415: The landscape is dominated by high sand dunes . Skeleton Bay is known as a great location for surfing . The area's name derives from the whale and seal bones that once littered the shore, partly due to the whaling industry, although in modern times the coast also harbours the skeletal remains of the shipwrecks caused by offshore rocks and fog. More than a thousand such vessels of various sizes litter

2109-491: The literacy rate was 65%. In terms of education, 51% of girls and 49% of boys between the ages of 6-15 were attending school, and of those older than 15, 50% had left school, 9% were currently at school, and 37% had never attended. In 2011 the employment rate for the labor force (67% of those 15+) was 64% employed and 36% unemployed. For those 15+ years old and not in the labor force (24%), 31% were students, 30% homemakers, and 31% retired, too old, or other categories. According to

2166-566: The national park. Since 2007 the Government has acquired six farms directly south of the Gobaub depression in Etosha National Park. A number of families have settled on these farms under the leadership of Chief David Khamuxab, Paramount Chief of the Hai||om. In 1885, entrepreneur William Worthington Jordan bought a huge tract of land from Ovambo chief Kambonde. The land spanned nearly 170 kilometres (110 mi) from Okaukuejo in

2223-592: The oldest shipwrecks in the Skeleton Coast region is that of the Bom Jesus , near the town of Oranjemund . It ran aground during the 1530s and is known to be one of the oldest discovered shipwrecks of the Iberian Atlantic tradition in Sub-Saharan Africa. Past human occupation by Strandlopers is shown by shell middens of white mussels found along parts of the Skeleton Coast. In 1942

2280-527: The ongoing human rights violations that they endure in Namibia. They expressed their frustration over their traditional chiefs not being recognized as "Traditional Authorities" by the Government of Namibia, Namibia's plans to build the Orokawe dam in the Baynes Mountains at the Cunene River without consulting with the Himba that do not consent to the construction plans, culturally inappropriate education,

2337-505: The only ones the DTA won throughout Namibia. In the 2020 regional election SWAPO obtained 34% of the total votes and won only Outjo Constituency . The Popular Democratic Movement (PDM, the new name of the DTA) and the UDF won three constituencies each. Themistokles Dudu Murorua , a UDF member, was appointed governor of Kunene Region in 2005. He was later replaced by Joshua ǁHoebeb . Following

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2394-422: The pan limit the species that can permanently inhabit the pan itself; occurrences of extremophile micro-organisms are present, which can tolerate the hypersaline conditions. The salt pan is usually dry, but fills with water briefly in summer, when it attracts pelicans and flamingos in particular. In the dry season , winds blowing across the salt pan pick up saline dust and carry it across the country and out over

2451-403: The park in 1954, ending their hunter-gatherer lifestyle to become landless farm laborers. The Hai||om have had a recognized Traditional Authority since 2004 which helps facilitate communications between the community and the government. The government of Namibia acknowledges the park to be the home of Hai||om people and started to carry out plans to resettle displaced families on farms adjacent to

2508-647: The park, past and present, are listed in the table below: This overview is only an indication of the diversity of birds in the park and is not a complete list. South African ostrich Vultures Eagles Secretarybird Other hawks Kites Falcons Owls Storks Blue crane Great white pelican Flamingos Waterfowl Galliformes Coursers and pratincoles Waders Rollers African hoopoe Hornbills Crows Sandgrouse Pigeons and doves Other passerines Bustards Shrikes and Bushshrikes Waxbills Bulbuls Larks Herons Kunene Region Kunene

2565-404: The park. The sandveld in the north-eastern corner of Etosha is dominated by acacia and Terminalia trees. Tamboti trees characterize the woodlands south of the sandveld. Dwarf shrub savanna occurs in areas close to the pan and is home to several small shrubs including a halophytic succulent Salsola etoshensis . Thorn bush savanna occurs close to the pan on limestone and alkaline soils and

2622-611: The party's national vote total in the region. In the first regional elections in 1992 for the National Assembly of Namibia , SWAPO won in Kamanjab and Outjo. The UDF won in Sesfontein and Khorixas, Opuwo was won by the DTA. In the 2004 regional election for the National Assembly of Namibia , SWAPO won only one constituency in Kunene. Consequently, the only members of the 3rd National Council of Namibia , which

2679-435: The plant's closure during the same year. The drought that began in the year 1980 resulted in the largest capture and culling operation in the history of the park. 2235 mountain zebras and 450 plains zebras were captured, culled or sold. 525 elephants were culled and processed at a temporary abattoir near Olifantsrus. Since 2005, the protected area is considered part of a Lion Conservation Unit. Commonly seen mammals in

2736-482: The proposed dam. The dam would bring in economic development to much of the Region but would interfere with the traditional way of life of the Himba people who reside in the area. A longtime rivalry exists between SWAPO and the Himba people. In the 2004 election for the National Assembly of Namibia , voters in Kunene Region supported numerous parties. The UDF earned the party's single highest vote total and 22.19% of

2793-548: The southern Atlantic . This salt enrichment provides minerals to the soil downwind of the pan on which some wildlife depends, though the salinity also creates challenges to farming activities. The Etosha Pan was one of several sites throughout southern Africa in the Southern African Regional Science Initiative ( SAFARI 2000 ). Using satellites, aircraft, and ground-based data from sites such as Etosha, partners in this program collected

2850-409: The west to Fischer's Pan in the east. The price for the land was £300 sterling, paid for by 25 firearms, one salted horse and a cask of brandy. Dorstland Trekkers first travelled through the park between 1876 and 1879 on their way to Angola. The trekkers returned in 1885 and settled on 2,500-hectare (6,200-acre) farms given to them at no charge by Jordan. The trekkers named the area Upingtonia after

2907-455: The western park boundaries to exclude the area between the Kunene river and the Hoarusib river and instead include the area between Hoanib river and Ugab river, thus reducing the park's area to 55,000 square kilometres (21,000 sq mi). The Odendaal Commission 's (1963) decision resulted in the demarcation of the present-day park boundary in 1970. The Etosha Ecological Institute

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2964-409: Was 4.7 children per woman. 25% lived in urban areas while 75% lived in rural areas, and with an area of 115,293 km , the population density was 0.6 persons per km . By age, 15% of the population was under 5 years old, 26% between 5–14 years, 48% between 15–59 years, and 7% 60 years and older. The population was divided into 12,489 households, with an average size of 5.3 persons. 40% of households had

3021-399: Was 57 years for females and 50 for males. Among children younger than 15, 2% had lost a mother, 5% a father, and 1% were orphaned by both parents. 5% of the entire population had a disability, of which 18% were deaf, 35% blind, 16% had a speech disability, 18% hand disability, 27% leg disability, and 5% mental disability. According to the Namibia 2011 Population and Housing Census, Kunene had

3078-473: Was 57%. In terms of education, 51% of girls and 49% of boys between the ages of 6-15 were attending school, and of those older than 15, 45% had left school, 9% were currently at school, and 41% had never attended. In 2001 the employment rate for the labor force (56% of those 15+) was 77% employed and 23% unemployed. For those 15+ years old and not in the labor force (24%), 19% were students, 56% homemakers, and 25% retired, too old, or other categories. According to

3135-522: Was created by appointments from every regional council, who were not members of SWAPO were chosen by the Kunene Regional Council. These Councillors were Sebastian Ignatius ǃGobs of the UDF and Ngohauvi Lydia Kavetu of the DTA. In the 2015 regional elections SWAPO obtained 46% of the total votes ( 2010 : 42%) and won in five of the seven constituencies while the DTA won two. The two Kunene constituencies Epupa and Opuwo Rural were

3192-478: Was divided into 18,495 households, with an average size of 4.6 persons. 40% of households had a female head of house, while 60% had a male. For those 15 years and older, 56% had never married, 13% married with certificate, 18% married traditionally, 8% married consensually, 2% were divorced or separated, and 3% were widowed. The most commonly spoken languages at home were Otjiherero languages (47% of households) and Nama / Damara (32%). For those 15 years and older,

3249-519: Was formally opened on 1 April 1974 by Adolf Brinkmann of the South-West African Administration. The institute is responsible for all management-related research in the park. Classification of vegetation, population and ecological studies on wildebeest, elephants and lions, and studies on anthrax were among the first major topics to be investigated. The EEI has collaborations with researchers from universities in Namibia,

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