127-490: The Europa Lander is an astrobiology mission concept by NASA to send a lander to Europa , an icy moon of Jupiter . If funded and developed as a large strategic science mission , it would be launched in 2027 to complement the studies by the Europa Clipper orbiter mission and perform analyses on site. The objectives of the mission are to search for biosignatures at the subsurface ≈10 cm, to characterize
254-461: A sun -like star, however with developments within extremophile research contemporary astrobiological research often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support life based on the availability of an energy source, such as the presence of volcanic activity on a planet or moon that could provide a source of heat and energy. It is important to note that these assumptions are based on our current understanding of life on Earth and
381-527: A system of multiple protostars , which are quite common, with Jupiter being the second but failed protostar. But the Solar System never developed into a system of multiple stars and Jupiter does not qualify as a protostar or brown dwarf since it does not have enough mass to fuse hydrogen. According to the " grand tack hypothesis ", Jupiter began to form at a distance of roughly 3.5 AU (520 million km ; 330 million mi ) from
508-556: A 1:2 resonance, which caused Saturn to shift into a higher orbit, disrupting the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, depleting the Kuiper belt, and triggering the Late Heavy Bombardment . Based on Jupiter's composition, researchers have made the case for an initial formation outside the molecular nitrogen (N 2 ) snow line, which is estimated at 20–30 AU (3.0–4.5 billion km; 1.9–2.8 billion mi) from
635-489: A 3:2 mean motion resonance at approximately 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140 million mi) from the Sun. This changed the direction of migration, causing them to migrate away from the Sun and out of the inner system to their current locations. All of this happened over a period of 3–6 million years, with the final migration of Jupiter occurring over several hundred thousand years. Jupiter's migration from
762-464: A Greek zeta with a horizontal stroke , ⟨Ƶ⟩ , as an abbreviation for Zeus . In Latin, Iovis is the genitive case of Iuppiter , i.e. Jupiter. It is associated with the etymology of Zeus ('sky father'). The English equivalent, Jove , is known to have come into use as a poetic name for the planet around the 14th century. Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter. The older adjectival form jovial , employed by astrologers in
889-570: A bipartisan bill that included US$ 80 million in funding to continue the Europa mission concept studies. The United States Congress issued a congressional directive on a Europa Lander, and NASA initiated a study in 2016, assessing and evaluating the concept. The mission concept is being supported by the Ocean Worlds Exploration Program . NASA's Planetary Science Division delivered its report in early February 2017. This
1016-472: A combined mass 7–25 times the Earth. This mixing process could have arisen during formation, while the planet accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula. Alternatively, it could have been caused by an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years after Jupiter's formation, which would have disrupted an originally compact Jovian core. Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies
1143-462: A faint system of planetary rings that were discovered in 1979 by Voyager 1 and further investigated by the Galileo orbiter in the 1990s. The Jovian ring system consists mainly of dust and has three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring. The rings have a reddish colour in visible and near-infrared light. The age of
1270-473: A future Ocean Worlds lander mission (NASA had requested $ 5 million for the Europa Lander). The lander mission would have three main science objectives: The key phases of the flight are: launch, cruise, de-orbit, descent and landing. The spacecraft would consist of several modules that would be discarded at different phases of its deorbiting and landing sequence. The complete stack would be propelled by
1397-478: A large one in the centre and eight others around it, while its southern counterpart also consists of a centre vortex but is surrounded by five large storms and a single smaller one for a total of 7 storms. In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when smaller, white oval-shaped storms merged to form
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#17327805753361524-533: A mass of 60.4 M J . Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had over 40% more mass, the interior would be so compressed that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. For smaller changes in its mass, the radius would not change appreciably. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition
1651-408: A period of about 121 days, moving backward through an angle of 9.9° before returning to prograde movement. Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth is always less than 11.5°; thus, Jupiter always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth-based telescopes. It was during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of
1778-460: A radius of 60,000 km (37,000 mi) (11,000 km (6,800 mi) below the cloud tops) and merge again at 50,000 km (31,000 mi) (22,000 km (14,000 mi) beneath the clouds). Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn and the ice giants Uranus and Neptune. The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward as the heat of planetary formation can only escape by convection. At
1905-510: A role in the emergence of life. Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System . It is a gas giant with a mass more than 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined and slightly less than one-thousandth the mass of the Sun. Its diameter is eleven times that of Earth , and a tenth that of the Sun. Jupiter orbits
2032-585: A single feature—these three smaller white ovals were formed in 1939–1940. The merged feature was named Oval BA . It has since increased in intensity and changed from white to red, earning it the nickname "Little Red Spot". In April 2017, a "Great Cold Spot" was discovered in Jupiter's thermosphere at its north pole . This feature is 24,000 km (15,000 mi) across, 12,000 km (7,500 mi) wide, and 200 °C (360 °F) cooler than surrounding material. While this spot changes form and intensity over
2159-437: A surface depth where the atmospheric pressure level is 1 bar (0.10 MPa ), the temperature is around 165 K (−108 °C; −163 °F). The region where supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a metallic fluid spans pressure ranges of 50–400 GPa with temperatures of 5,000–8,400 K (4,730–8,130 °C; 8,540–14,660 °F), respectively. The temperature of Jupiter's diluted core
2286-403: A transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above molecular hydrogen's critical pressure of 1.3 MPa and critical temperature of 33 K (−240.2 °C ; −400.3 °F ). In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state. The hydrogen and helium gas extending downward from
2413-405: Is a gas giant , meaning its chemical composition is primarily hydrogen and helium. These materials are classified as gasses in planetary geology, a term that does not denote the state of matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System, with a diameter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at its equator , giving it a volume 1,321 times that of the Earth. Its average density, 1.326 g/cm ,
2540-594: Is a common molecule that provides an excellent environment for the formation of complicated carbon-based molecules, and is generally considered necessary for life as we know it to exist. Thus, astrobiological research presumes that extraterrestrial life similarly depends upon access to liquid water, and often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support liquid water. Some researchers posit environments of water- ammonia mixtures as possible solvents for hypothetical types of biochemistry . Environmental stability : Where organisms adaptively evolve to
2667-454: Is about 50 km (31 mi) deep and consists of at least two decks of ammonia clouds: a thin, clearer region on top and a thicker, lower deck. There may be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia clouds, as suggested by flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter. These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth. The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in
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#17327805753362794-414: Is about ten times larger than Earth ( 11.209 R 🜨 ) and smaller than the Sun ( 0.102 76 R ☉ ). Jupiter's mass is 318 times that of Earth; 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. It is so massive that its barycentre with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's centre. Jupiter's radius is about one tenth
2921-444: Is an oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles . On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is 9,276 km (5,764 mi) longer than the polar diameter. Three systems are used as frames of reference for tracking planetary rotation, particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies to latitudes from 7° N to 7° S; its period
3048-508: Is conducted utilising the methodology of planetary and environmental science , especially atmospheric science , for astrobiological applications, and is often conducted through remote sensing and in situ missions. Astrobiology also concerns the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth to try to understand the conditions that are necessary for life to form on other planets. This research seeks to understand how life emerged from non-living matter and how it evolved to become
3175-526: Is considered to have a narrow scope limited to search of life external to Earth. Another associated term is xenobiology , from the Greek ξένος, "foreign"; βίος , "life"; and -λογία, "study", coined by American science fiction writer Robert Heinlein in his work The Star Beast ; xenobiology is now used in a more specialised sense, referring to 'biology based on foreign chemistry', whether of extraterrestrial or terrestrial (typically synthetic) origin. While
3302-413: Is denser, with a composition of roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements by mass. The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula . Neon in the upper atmosphere consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun. Jupiter's helium abundance is about 80% that of the Sun due to
3429-411: Is estimated to be 20,000 K (19,700 °C; 35,500 °F) with a pressure of around 4,000 GPa. The atmosphere of Jupiter is primarily composed of molecular hydrogen and helium, with a smaller amount of other compounds such as water, methane, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia. Jupiter's atmosphere extends to a depth of approximately 3,000 km (2,000 mi) below the cloud layers. Jupiter
3556-831: Is extreme, so the lander may need as much additional protection as the Juno Radiation Vault in the Juno Jupiter orbiter. The vault helped reduce radiation exposure to vulnerable systems, especially electronics on the orbiter. NASA announced in May 2017 to the scientific community to think on possible Europa Lander instruments. The concept study reports were made available in June 2019. NASA selected 14 potential instruments for maturation under Instrument Concepts for Europa Exploration 2 (ICEE-2) awarding approximately US$ 2 million each for two years. The ICEE-2 project would allow
3683-670: Is lower than those of the four terrestrial planets . The atmosphere of Jupiter is approximately 76% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass. By volume, the upper atmosphere is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium, with the lower proportion owing to the individual helium atoms being more massive than the molecules of hydrogen formed in this part of the atmosphere. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of elemental carbon , oxygen , sulfur , and neon , as well as ammonia , water vapour , phosphine , hydrogen sulfide , and hydrocarbons like methane , ethane and benzene . Its outermost layer contains crystals of frozen ammonia. The planet's interior
3810-489: Is nearly circular. This low eccentricity is at odds with exoplanet discoveries, which have revealed Jupiter-sized planets with very high eccentricities. Models suggest this may be due to there being two giant planets in our Solar System, as the presence of a third or more giant planets tends to induce larger eccentricities. The axial tilt of Jupiter is 3.13°, which is relatively small, so its seasons are insignificant compared to those of Earth and Mars. Jupiter's rotation
3937-675: Is perpetually covered with clouds of ammonia crystals, which may contain ammonium hydrosulfide as well. The clouds are located in the tropopause layer of the atmosphere, forming bands at different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are subdivided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts . The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence . Wind speeds of 100 metres per second (360 km/h; 220 mph) are common in zonal jet streams . The zones have been observed to vary in width, colour and intensity from year to year, but they have remained stable enough for scientists to name them. The cloud layer
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4064-546: Is present. It follows that Europa is an excellent candidate in the search for life elsewhere in the Solar System . This subsurface water may not only be warmed by geological activity, but likely also enriched with dissolved minerals and organic compounds . Various ecosystems exist on Earth without any access to sunlight relying instead on hydrothermal vents or other sources of chemicals suitable to energy production by extremophiles (see chemosynthesis ). Measurements to date indicate that Europa has an ocean approximately twice
4191-414: Is the fastest of all the Solar System's planets, completing a rotation on its axis in slightly less than ten hours; this creates an equatorial bulge easily seen through an amateur telescope. Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation . The rotation of Jupiter's polar atmosphere is about 5 minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere. The planet
4318-580: Is the planet's shortest, at 9h 50 m 30.0s. System II applies at latitudes north and south of these; its period is 9h 55 m 40.6s. System III was defined by radio astronomers and corresponds to the rotation of the planet's magnetosphere; its period is Jupiter's official rotation. Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon , and Venus ), although at opposition Mars can appear brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter's position with respect to
4445-448: Is the strongest of any planet in the Solar System, with a dipole moment of 4.170 gauss (0.4170 mT ) that is tilted at an angle of 10.31° to the pole of rotation. The surface magnetic field strength varies from 2 gauss (0.20 mT) up to 20 gauss (2.0 mT). This field is thought to be generated by eddy currents —swirling movements of conducting materials—within the fluid, metallic hydrogen core. At about 75 Jupiter radii from
4572-528: The Arecibo message , and computational approaches to detecting and deciphering 'natural' language communication. While some high-profile scientists, such as Carl Sagan , have advocated the transmission of messages, theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking warned against it, suggesting that aliens may raid Earth for its resources. Emerging astrobiological research concerning the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth utilises methodologies within
4699-534: The Europa Clipper as a scheduled large strategic science mission and to discuss this lander as a possible follow up. The president's 2018 and 2019 federal budget proposals do not fund the Europa Lander, but they did assign US$ 195 million for concept studies and research on the required science instruments. The 2022 omnibus spending bill allocates $ 14.2 million to Icy Satellites Surface Technology for
4826-482: The Hubble Space Telescope discovered that Europa has a very tenuous exosphere composed of oxygen . Compared to Earth , its atmosphere is thin to the extreme, with pressure at the surface predicted to be 0.1 μPa , or 10 times that of the Earth. The lander would communicate directly to Earth, but the Europa Clipper , if still operational, could function as an additional communications relay for
4953-549: The Middle Ages , has come to mean 'happy' or 'merry', moods ascribed to Jupiter's influence in astrology . The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno- , which is used to form some Jupiter-related words, such as zenography . Jupiter is believed to be the oldest planet in the Solar System, having formed just one million years after the Sun and roughly 50 million years before Earth. Current models of Solar System formation suggest that Jupiter formed at or beyond
5080-519: The Space Launch System (SLS), with a suggested launch between 2025-2030. The SLS is proposed given the spacecraft's mass of 16.6 metric tons, including the solid propellant to place the spacecraft into orbit around Jupiter, and the sky crane landing system. One calculated trajectory would see a launch aboard SLS in 2025, Earth gravity assist in 2027, and Jupiter/Europa arrival in 2030. It would spend some time orbiting around Jupiter over
5207-580: The Uranus Orbiter and Probe and Enceladus Orbilander . The primary mission goal is detection of organic indicators of past or present life, called biosignatures . The lander was described as a logical follow-up to the Galileo orbiter and probe mission in the 1990s, for which a major result was the discovery of a large sub-surface ocean that may offer habitable aquatic conditions. On Earth, life can be found in essentially all locations where water
Europa Lander - Misplaced Pages Continue
5334-479: The Viking program , which was the first US mission to land on Mars and search for signs of life . This mission, along with other early space exploration missions, laid the foundation for the development of astrobiology as a discipline. Regarding habitable environments , astrobiology investigates potential locations beyond Earth that could support life, such as Mars , Europa , and exoplanets , through research into
5461-443: The extremophiles populating austere environments on Earth, like volcanic and deep sea environments. Research within this topic is conducted utilising the methodology of the geosciences, especially geobiology , for astrobiological applications. The search for biosignatures involves the identification of signs of past or present life in the form of organic compounds , isotopic ratios, or microbial fossils. Research within this topic
5588-461: The origins , early evolution , distribution, and future of life in the universe by investigating its deterministic conditions and contingent events. As a discipline, astrobiology is founded on the premise that life may exist beyond Earth. Research in astrobiology comprises three main areas: the study of habitable environments in the Solar System and beyond, the search for planetary biosignatures of past or present extraterrestrial life, and
5715-605: The precipitation of these elements as helium-rich droplets, a process that happens deep in the planet's interior. Based on spectroscopy , Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more of the next most common elements , including oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. These planets are known as ice giants because during their formation, these elements are thought to have been incorporated into them as ice; however, they probably contain very little ice. Jupiter
5842-402: The snow line : a distance from the early Sun where the temperature was sufficiently cold for volatiles such as water to condense into solids. First forming a solid core, the planet then accumulated its gaseous atmosphere. Therefore, the planet must have formed before the solar nebula was fully dispersed. During its formation, Jupiter's mass gradually increased until it had 20 times the mass of
5969-490: The " Suì Star" ( Suìxīng 歲星 ) and established their cycle of 12 earthly branches based on the approximate number of years it takes Jupiter to rotate around the Sun; the Chinese language still uses its name ( simplified as 歲 ) when referring to years of age. By the 4th century BC, these observations had developed into the Chinese zodiac , and each year became associated with a Tai Sui star and god controlling
6096-423: The 1660s, Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots in Jupiter's atmosphere, observe that the planet appeared oblate, and estimate its rotation period. In 1692, Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes a differential rotation. The Great Red Spot may have been observed as early as 1664 by Robert Hooke and in 1665 by Cassini, although this is disputed. The pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe produced
6223-540: The 1950s and 1960s with the advent of space exploration , when scientists began to seriously consider the possibility of life on other planets. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 , the first artificial satellite, which marked the beginning of the Space Age . This event led to an increase in the study of the potential for life on other planets, as scientists began to consider the possibilities opened up by
6350-555: The Carrier Stage, that also features the solar panels . After orbit injection around Jupiter , the spacecraft would spend about two years adjusting its orbit and velocity before attempting to land on Europa. In preparation to its landing, the Carrier Stage would be discarded, leaving the spacecraft stack in a configuration called Deorbit Vehicle (DOV) that would decelerate and initiate the descent. The engine module for this phase, called Deorbit Stage (DOS) would be discarded after
6477-497: The ESA's Beagle 2 , which failed minutes after landing on Mars, NASA's Phoenix lander , which probed the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars and researched the history of water, and NASA's Curiosity rover , currently probing the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars. Astrobiological research makes a number of simplifying assumptions when studying
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#17327805753366604-450: The Earth, approximately half of which was made up of silicates, ices and other heavy-element constituents. When the proto-Jupiter grew larger than 50 Earth masses it created a gap in the solar nebula. Thereafter, the growing planet reached its final mass in 3–4 million years. Since Jupiter is made of the same elements as the Sun (hydrogen and helium) it has been suggested that the Solar System might have been early in its formation
6731-485: The Earth, it can vary in visual magnitude from as bright as −2.94 at opposition down to −1.66 during conjunction with the Sun. The mean apparent magnitude is −2.20 with a standard deviation of 0.33. The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 30.5 arc seconds . Favourable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through the perihelion of its orbit, bringing it closer to Earth. Near opposition, Jupiter will appear to go into retrograde motion for
6858-434: The Solar System. In the 1960s-1970s, NASA established the Viking program , which was the first US mission to land on Mars and search for metabolic signs of present life; the results were inconclusive. In the 1980s and 1990s, the field began to expand and diversify as new discoveries and technologies emerged. The discovery of microbial life in extreme environments on Earth, such as deep-sea hydrothermal vents, helped to clarify
6985-430: The Sun at a distance of 5.20 AU (778.5 Gm ), with an orbital period of 11.86 years . It is the third brightest natural object in the Earth's night sky , after the Moon and Venus , and has been observed since prehistoric times . Its name derives from that of Jupiter , the chief deity of ancient Roman religion . Jupiter was the first of the Sun's planets to form, and its inward migration during
7112-448: The Sun is 778 million km ( 5.2 AU ) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. This is approximately two-fifths the orbital period of Saturn, forming a near orbital resonance . The orbital plane of Jupiter is inclined 1.30° compared to Earth. Because the eccentricity of its orbit is 0.049, Jupiter is slightly over 75 million km nearer the Sun at perihelion than aphelion , which means that its orbit
7239-532: The Sun, and possibly even outside the argon snow line, which may be as far as 40 AU (6.0 billion km; 3.7 billion mi). Having formed at one of these extreme distances, Jupiter would then have, over a roughly 700,000-year period, migrated inwards to its current location, during an epoch approximately 2–3 million years after the planet began to form. In this model, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter, and Saturn would also have migrated inwards. Jupiter
7366-406: The Sun. As the young planet accreted mass, its interaction with the gas disk orbiting the Sun and the orbital resonances from Saturn caused it to migrate inward. This upset the orbits of several super-Earths orbiting closer to the Sun, causing them to collide destructively. Saturn would later have begun to migrate inwards at a faster rate than Jupiter until the two planets became captured in
7493-531: The ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, Jupiter was named after the chief god of the divine pantheon : Zeus to the Greeks and Jupiter to the Romans. The International Astronomical Union formally adopted the name Jupiter for the planet in 1976 and has since named its newly discovered satellites for the god's lovers, favourites, and descendants. The planetary symbol for Jupiter, [REDACTED] , descends from
7620-409: The atmospheres of planets : Scientists are studying the potential for life to exist in the atmospheres of planets, with a focus on the study of the physical and chemical conditions necessary for such life to exist, namely the detection of organic molecules and biosignature gases; for example, the study of the possibility of life in the atmospheres of exoplanets that orbit red dwarfs and the study of
7747-409: The biosphere : Scientists are studying the ways in which human activities, such as deforestation, pollution, and the introduction of invasive species, are affecting the biosphere and the long-term survival of life on Earth. Long-term preservation of life : Researchers are exploring ways to preserve samples of life on Earth for long periods of time, such as cryopreservation and genomic preservation, in
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#17327805753367874-411: The building blocks of life- amino acids, nucleotides, and lipids- and how these molecules could have formed spontaneously under early Earth conditions. The study of impact events : Scientists are investigating the potential role of impact events- especially meteorites- in the delivery of water and organic molecules to early Earth. The study of the primordial soup : Researchers are investigating
8001-561: The burn, leaving what is called the Powered Descent Vehicle (PDV) – which comprises the lander and the sky crane system . The sky crane system would lower the lander with a tether to a soft landing with a 100 m (330 ft) accuracy. The lander would feature a robotic arm with 5 degrees of freedom , that would enable it to dig out several shallow sub-surface samples at a maximum depth of 10 cm (3.9 in) and deliver them to its onboard laboratory. Once landed,
8128-472: The chromophores from view. Jupiter has a low axial tilt , thus ensuring that the poles always receive less solar radiation than the planet's equatorial region. Convection within the interior of the planet transports energy to the poles, balancing out temperatures at the cloud layer. A well-known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot , a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22° south of
8255-481: The cloud layer gradually transitions to a liquid in deeper layers, possibly resembling something akin to an ocean of liquid hydrogen and other supercritical fluids. Physically, the gas gradually becomes hotter and denser as depth increases. Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere. Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at
8382-501: The composition of non-ice near-subsurface material, and determine the proximity of liquid water and recently erupted material near the lander's location. NASA had previously evaluated a Europa Lander concept in 2005 with the Europa Lander Mission concept. Also, a lander was evaluated in 2012. There was continued support for Europa missions, including in 2014, when the U.S. Congress House Appropriations Committee announced
8509-400: The conditions and ingredients that were present on the early Earth that could have led to the formation of the first living organisms, such as the presence of water and organic molecules, and how these ingredients could have led to the formation of the first living organisms. This includes the role of water in the formation of the first cells and in catalysing chemical reactions. The study of
8636-652: The conditions of the environments in which they reside, environmental stability is considered necessary for life to exist. This presupposes the necessity of a stable temperature , pressure, and radiation levels; resultantly, astrobiological research focuses on planets orbiting Sun -like red dwarf stars . This is because very large stars have relatively short lifetimes, meaning that life might not have time to emerge on planets orbiting them; very small stars provide so little heat and warmth that only planets in very close orbits around them would not be frozen solid, and in such close orbits these planets would be tidally locked to
8763-500: The conditions under which it can exist. As our understanding of life and the potential for it to exist in different environments evolves, these assumptions may change. Astrobiological research concerning the study of habitable environments in our solar system and beyond utilises methods within the geosciences. Research within this branch primarily concerns the geobiology of organisms that can survive in extreme environments on Earth, such as in volcanic or deep sea environments, to understand
8890-587: The detection of biosignatures, such as the use of remote sensing to search for biosignatures in the atmosphere of exoplanets. SETI and CETI : Scientists search for signals from intelligent extraterrestrial civilizations using radio and optical telescopes within the discipline of extraterrestrial intelligence communications (CETI). CETI focuses on composing and deciphering messages that could theoretically be understood by another technological civilization. Communication attempts by humans have included broadcasting mathematical languages, pictorial systems such as
9017-443: The diverse array of organisms we see today. Research within this topic is conducted utilising the methodology of paleosciences, especially paleobiology , for astrobiological applications. Astrobiology is a rapidly developing field with a strong interdisciplinary aspect that holds many challenges and opportunities for scientists. Astrobiology programs and research centres are present in many universities and research institutions around
9144-450: The diversity and activity of microorganisms in environments such as deep mines, subsurface soil, cold glaciers and polar ice, and high-altitude environments. Research also regards the long-term survival of life on Earth, and the possibilities and hazards of life on other planets, including: Biodiversity and ecosystem resilience : Scientists are studying how the diversity of life and the interactions between different species contribute to
9271-407: The early magnetic field in protecting the Earth from harmful radiation and helping to stabilise the climate. This research has immense astrobiological implications where the subjects of current astrobiological research like Mars lack such a field. The study of prebiotic chemistry : Scientists are studying the chemical reactions that could have occurred on the early Earth that led to the formation of
9398-422: The emergence of life. The study of the early oceans : Scientists are investigating the composition and chemistry of the early oceans and how it may have played a role in the emergence of life, such as the presence of dissolved minerals that could have helped to catalyse the formation of organic molecules. The study of hydrothermal vents : Scientists are investigating the potential role of hydrothermal vents in
9525-425: The equator. It was first observed in 1831, and possibly as early as 1665. Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown two more "red spots" adjacent to the Great Red Spot. The storm is visible through Earth-based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger. The storm rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about six days. The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 km (5 mi) above
9652-412: The event of a catastrophic event that could wipe out most of life on Earth. Emerging astrobiological research concerning the search for planetary biosignatures of past or present extraterrestrial life utilise methodologies within planetary sciences. These include: The study of microbial life in the subsurface of Mars : Scientists are using data from Mars rover missions to study the composition of
9779-436: The feasibility of potential life existing in harsh conditions. The development of new techniques for the detection of biosignatures, such as the use of stable isotopes, also played a significant role in the evolution of the field. The contemporary landscape of astrobiology emerged in the early 21st century, focused on utilising Earth and environmental science for applications within comparate space environments. Missions included
9906-496: The formation of Jupiter with orbital properties that are close to those of the present-day planet. Other models predict Jupiter forming at distances much farther out, such as 18 AU (2.7 billion km; 1.7 billion mi). According to the Nice model , the infall of proto- Kuiper belt objects over the first 600 million years of Solar System history caused Jupiter and Saturn to migrate from their initial positions into
10033-494: The four largest moons of Jupiter (now known as the Galilean moons ) using a telescope. This is thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons other than Earth's. Just one day after Galileo, Simon Marius independently discovered moons around Jupiter, though he did not publish his discovery in a book until 1614. It was Marius's names for the major moons, however, that stuck: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The discovery
10160-400: The halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring. These rings appear to be made of dust, whereas Saturn's rings are made of ice. The main ring is most likely made out of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis , which is drawn into Jupiter because of the planet's strong gravitational influence. New material is added by additional impacts. In a similar way,
10287-516: The hydrogen. The orange and brown colours in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change colour when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be made up of phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons. These colourful compounds, known as chromophores , mix with the warmer clouds of the lower deck. The light-coloured zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallising ammonia that hides
10414-472: The inner solar system eventually allowed the inner planets—including Earth—to form from the rubble. There are several unresolved issues with the grand tack hypothesis. The resulting formation timescales of terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured elemental composition. Jupiter would likely have settled into an orbit much closer to the Sun if it had migrated through the solar nebula . Some competing models of Solar System formation predict
10541-418: The lander would operate for up to 22 days by using chemical battery power, rather than a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) or solar power. The 2019 concept proposes four batteries, which would provide three times the needed energy for safety margin during its ≈22-day surface operations. The baseline is 7 days to complete its surface mission, the additional 15 days are for contingencies. Regardless of
10668-536: The lander. To ensure communication, there is a suggestion to include a telecomm orbiter with the lander mission. A study published in October 2018 suggests that most of Europa's surface may be covered with closely spaced ice spikes, called penitents , as tall as 15 meters (50 ft). Although the imaging available from the Galileo orbiter does not have the resolution needed to confirm this, radar and thermal data are consistent with this interpretation. This supports
10795-520: The late 1800s showed it to be approximately 41,000 km (25,500 mi) across. As of 2015 , the storm was measured at approximately 16,500 by 10,940 km (10,250 by 6,800 mi), and was decreasing in length by about 930 km (580 mi) per year. In October 2021, a Juno flyby mission measured the depth of the Great Red Spot, putting it at around 300–500 kilometres (190–310 miles). Juno missions found several cyclone groups at Jupiter's poles. The northern group contains nine cyclones, with
10922-675: The limits of life, and the conditions under which life might be able to survive on other planets. This includes, but is not limited to: Deep-sea extremophiles : Researchers are studying organisms that live in the extreme environments of deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. These organisms survive in the absence of sunlight, and some are able to survive in high temperatures and pressures, and use chemical energy instead of sunlight to produce food. Desert extremophiles : Researchers are studying organisms that can survive in extreme dry, high temperature conditions, such as in deserts. Microbes in extreme environments : Researchers are investigating
11049-401: The magnetosphere, which protects them from solar wind. The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide , forming a gas torus along its orbit. The gas is ionized in Jupiter's magnetosphere , producing sulfur and oxygen ions . They, together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of Jupiter, form a plasma sheet in Jupiter's equatorial plane. The plasma in
11176-459: The maturation of novel instrument approaches to meet the science goals and objectives of the mission. Planetary protection guidelines require that inadvertent contamination of a Europan ocean by terrestrial organisms must be avoided, to a probability level of less than 1 in 10,000. The lander, and landing system components, must be assembled and tested in a clean room where all parts would have to be cleaned or sterilized before they are installed in
11303-420: The moons Thebe and Amalthea are believed to produce the two distinct components of the dusty gossamer ring. There is evidence of a fourth ring that may consist of collisional debris from Amalthea that is strung along the same moon's orbit. Jupiter is the only planet whose barycentre with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun, though by 7% of the Sun's radius. The average distance between Jupiter and
11430-413: The most obvious result of this is the Great Red Spot , a giant storm that has been recorded since 1831. Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest and second-largest contiguous structure in the Solar System, generated by eddy currents within the fluid, metallic hydrogen core. The solar wind interacts with the magnetosphere , extending it outward and affecting Jupiter's orbit. Jupiter is surrounded by
11557-472: The necessary components for planetary habitability. Carbon and Organic Compounds : Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe and the energy required to make or break a bond is at just the appropriate level for building molecules which are not only stable, but also reactive. The fact that carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms allows for the building of extremely long and complex molecules. As such, astrobiological research presumes that
11684-419: The need to first perform high-definition reconnaissance with the ESA's Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE) and Europa Clipper , launching in 2023 and 2024 respectively, before planning a lander mission. The mission concept would require funding and further development to be launched. One of the key requirements is to operate in the radiation environment at the moon's surface. The radiation environment at Europa
11811-515: The new technology of space exploration. In 1959, NASA funded its first exobiology project, and in 1960, NASA founded the Exobiology Program, now one of four main elements of NASA's current Astrobiology Program. In 1971, NASA funded Project Cyclops , part of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence , to search radio frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum for interstellar communications transmitted by extraterrestrial life outside
11938-410: The next year to maneuver for its landing on Europa. The landing would be performed two years after orbit insertion around Jupiter. At Europa, it would have to land on the surface, matching its velocity, but with essentially no atmosphere there is no "entry", it is just a descent and landing. The Planetary Society noted that NASA called this DDL — de-orbit, descent, and landing. In 1995, astronomers using
12065-430: The orbiter and lander together, but the strong congressional support led to an additional proposal in 2016 for a separate lander mission. The Clipper orbiter will provide reconnaissance data to characterize the radiation environment and help determine a landing location. Astrobiology Astrobiology (also xenology or exobiology ) is a scientific field within the life and environmental sciences that studies
12192-455: The origin of life, as these environments may have provided the energy and chemical building blocks needed for its emergence. The study of plate tectonics : Scientists are investigating the role of plate tectonics in creating a diverse range of environments on the early Earth. The study of the early biosphere : Researchers are investigating the diversity and activity of microorganisms in the early Earth, and how these organisms may have played
12319-401: The palaeosciences. These include: The study of the early atmosphere : Researchers are investigating the role of the early atmosphere in providing the right conditions for the emergence of life, such as the presence of gases that could have helped to stabilise the climate and the formation of organic molecules. The study of the early magnetic field : Researchers are investigating the role of
12446-462: The planet collapsed directly from the gaseous protoplanetary disk , it was expected to completely lack a core, consisting instead of a denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic hydrogen) all the way to the centre. Data from the Juno mission showed that Jupiter has a diffuse core that mixes into its mantle, extending for 30–50% of the planet's radius, and comprising heavy elements with
12573-455: The planet receives from the Sun. Its internal structure is believed to consist of an outer mantle of fluid metallic hydrogen and a diffuse inner core of denser material. Because of its rapid rate of rotation, one turn in ten hours, Jupiter is an oblate spheroid ; it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator. The outer atmosphere is divided into a series of latitudinal bands, with turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries;
12700-471: The planet were obtained. A small telescope will usually show Jupiter's four Galilean moons and the cloud belts across Jupiter's atmosphere . A larger telescope with an aperture of 4–6 inches (10–15 cm) will show Jupiter's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth. Observation of Jupiter dates back to at least the Babylonian astronomers of the 7th or 8th century BC. The ancient Chinese knew Jupiter as
12827-457: The planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow shock . Surrounding Jupiter's magnetosphere is a magnetopause , located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath —a region between it and the bow shock. The solar wind interacts with these regions, elongating the magnetosphere on Jupiter's lee side and extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn. The four largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within
12954-399: The polar regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism , and the energy is transmitted out along a cone-shaped surface. When Earth intersects this cone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the radio output of the Sun. Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as
13081-435: The potential for extraterrestrial life, especially intelligent life, has been explored throughout human history within philosophy and narrative, the question is a verifiable hypothesis and thus a valid line of scientific inquiry; planetary scientist David Grinspoon calls it a field of natural philosophy, grounding speculation on the unknown in known scientific theory. The modern field of astrobiology can be traced back to
13208-604: The potential for microbial life in the upper atmosphere of Venus. Telescopes and remote sensing of exoplanets : The discovery of thousands of exoplanets has opened up new opportunities for the search for biosignatures. Scientists are using telescopes such as the James Webb Space Telescope and the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite to search for biosignatures on exoplanets. They are also developing new techniques for
13335-454: The power source, one of the limiting factors for the lifetime of the mission would be enduring intense radiation; the surface of Europa is estimated to experience 540 rem per day, whereas a typical Earth surface dose is about 0.14 rem/year. It is estimated that the probe would receive a total ionizing dose of 2.3 Mrad over the 30 day mission. Radiation damaged the electronics of the Galileo orbiter during its mission. The launcher would be
13462-505: The primordial phase of the Solar System affected much of the formation history of the other planets. Jupiter's atmosphere consists of 76% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass, with a denser interior. It contains trace elements like carbon , oxygen , sulfur , neon , ammonia , water vapour , phosphine , hydrogen sulfide , and hydrocarbons . Jupiter's helium abundance is 80% of the Sun's, similar to Saturn 's composition. The ongoing contraction of Jupiter's interior generates more heat than
13589-411: The radius of the Sun, and its mass is one thousandth the mass of the Sun , as the densities of the two bodies are similar. A " Jupiter mass " ( M J or M Jup ) is used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs . For example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of 0.69 M J , while the brown dwarf Gliese 229 b has
13716-588: The region of the heavens opposite Jupiter's position in the night sky. These beliefs survive in some Taoist religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac's twelve animals. The Chinese historian Xi Zezong has claimed that Gan De , an ancient Chinese astronomer , reported a small star "in alliance" with the planet, which may indicate a sighting of one of Jupiter's moons with the unaided eye. If true, this would predate Galileo's discovery by nearly two millennia. A 2016 paper reports that trapezoidal rule
13843-441: The resilience of ecosystems and their ability to recover from disturbances. Climate change and extinction : Researchers are investigating the impacts of climate change on different species and ecosystems, and how they may lead to extinction or adaptation. This includes the evolution of Earth's climate and geology, and their potential impact on the habitability of the planet in the future, especially for humans. Human impact on
13970-476: The ring system is unknown, possibly dating back to Jupiter's formation. At least 95 moons orbit the planet; the four largest moons — Io , Europa , Ganymede , and Callisto —orbit within the magnetosphere, and were discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610. Ganymede, the largest of the four, is larger than the planet Mercury . Since 1973, Jupiter has been visited by nine robotic probes : seven flybys and two dedicated orbiters, with two more en route. In both
14097-428: The role of minerals : Scientists are investigating the role of minerals like clay in catalysing the formation of organic molecules, thus playing a role in the emergence of life on Earth. The study of the role of energy and electricity : Scientists are investigating the potential sources of energy and electricity that could have been available on the early Earth, and their role in the formation of organic molecules, thus
14224-559: The same way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior. The Juno mission revealed the presence of "shallow lightning" which originates from ammonia-water clouds relatively high in the atmosphere. These discharges carry "mushballs" of water-ammonia slushes covered in ice, which fall deep into the atmosphere. Upper-atmospheric lightning has been observed in Jupiter's upper atmosphere, bright flashes of light that last around 1.4 milliseconds. These are known as "elves" or "sprites" and appear blue or pink due to
14351-435: The sheet co-rotates with the planet, causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of a magnetodisk. Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature, with short, superimposed bursts in the range of 0.6–30 MHz that are detectable from Earth with consumer-grade shortwave radio receivers . As Io moves through this torus, the interaction generates Alfvén waves that carry ionized matter into
14478-434: The short term, it has maintained its general position in the atmosphere for more than 15 years. It may be a giant vortex similar to the Great Red Spot, and appears to be quasi-stable like the vortices in Earth's thermosphere. This feature may be formed by interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the strong magnetic field of Jupiter, resulting in a redistribution of heat flow. Jupiter's magnetic field
14605-496: The spacecraft. After delivering the lander, the sky crane is recommended to fly away into Jupiter for disposal. At the end of the mission, the lander might self-destruct using an incendiary device. That system can also be triggered if the spacecraft loses contact with the Earth . The Europa Clipper is a separately launched spacecraft that would lay a foundation for the Europa Lander mission. Previously, NASA had evaluated launching
14732-423: The star; whereas the long lifetimes of red dwarfs could allow the development of habitable environments on planets with thick atmospheres. This is significant as red dwarfs are extremely common. ( See also : Habitability of red dwarf systems ). Energy source : It is assumed that any life elsewhere in the universe would also require an energy source. Previously, it was assumed that this would necessarily be from
14859-415: The study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth. The field of astrobiology has its origins in the 20th century with the advent of space exploration and the discovery of exoplanets . Early astrobiology research focused on the search for extraterrestrial life and the study of the potential for life to exist on other planets. In the 1960s and 1970s, NASA began its astrobiology pursuits within
14986-517: The subsurface of Mars , searching for biosignatures of past or present microbial life. The study of liquid bodies on icy moons : Discoveries of surface and subsurface bodies of liquid on moons such as Europa , Titan and Enceladus showed possible habitability zones, making them viable targets for the search for extraterrestrial life. As of September 2024 , missions like Europa Clipper and Dragonfly are planned to search for biosignatures within these environments. The study of
15113-434: The surrounding cloud tops. The Spot's composition and the source of its red colour remain uncertain, although photodissociated ammonia reacting with acetylene is a likely explanation. The Great Red Spot is larger than the Earth. Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and will be a permanent feature of the planet. However, it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial observations in
15240-497: The time of its formation, Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current diameter. Before the early 21st century, most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the formation of Jupiter. If the planet accreted first as a solid body, it would consist of a dense core , a surrounding layer of fluid metallic hydrogen (with some helium) extending outward to about 80% of the radius of the planet, and an outer atmosphere consisting primarily of molecular hydrogen . Alternatively, if
15367-474: The vast majority of life forms in the Milky Way galaxy are based on carbon chemistries , as are all life forms on Earth. However, theoretical astrobiology entertains the potential for other organic molecular bases for life, thus astrobiological research often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support life based on the presence of organic compounds. Liquid water : Liquid water
15494-483: The volume of Earth's oceans. This water layer below the ice may be in contact with the moon's interior allowing ready access to hydrothermal energy and chemistry. A surface mission can take advantage of the relatively young, active surface of Europa as this activity may allow deep subsurface materials to regularly relocate to the surface. In 18 July 2017, the House Space Subcommittee held hearings on
15621-626: The world, and space agencies like NASA and ESA have dedicated departments and programs for astrobiology research. The term astrobiology was first proposed by the Russian astronomer Gavriil Tikhov in 1953. It is etymologically derived from the Greek ἄστρον , "star"; βίος , "life"; and -λογία , -logia , "study". A close synonym is exobiology from the Greek Έξω, "external"; βίος , "life"; and -λογία , -logia , "study", coined by American molecular biologist Joshua Lederberg ; exobiology
15748-592: Was a major point in favour of the heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets by Nicolaus Copernicus ; Galileo's outspoken support of the Copernican theory led to him being tried and condemned by the Inquisition . In the autumn of 1639, the Neapolitan optician Francesco Fontana tested a 22-palm telescope of his own making and discovered the characteristic bands of the planet's atmosphere. During
15875-606: Was a six-month-long study by a Science Definition Team. The study assesses the science value and engineering design of a potential Europa lander mission. NASA's 2021 fiscal year budget in Congress's Omnibus Spending Bill did not include any language mandating or funding the Europa Lander as previous bills, making the mission's future uncertain. The Europa Lander was considered by the Planetary Science Decadal Report of 2023─2032 but rejected in favor of
16002-512: Was achieved. Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times more massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star , its diameter is sufficient as the smallest red dwarf may be slightly larger in radius than Saturn. Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives through solar radiation, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism within its contracting interior. This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm (0.039 in) per year. At
16129-573: Was used by Babylonians before 50 BC for integrating the velocity of Jupiter along the ecliptic . In his 2nd century work the Almagest , the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter's motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years. In 1610, Italian polymath Galileo Galilei discovered
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