Misplaced Pages

#333666

94-576: Earlier, "troika" had been used as the designation of a triumvirate that represented the European Union in its foreign relations, in particular concerning its common foreign and security policy (CFSP), until the Treaty of Lisbon was ratified in 2009. The term Troika has been widely used in Greece , Cyprus ( Greek : τρόικα ), Ireland , Portugal , and Spain to refer to the consortium of

188-581: A parliamentary system ). A difference from all other parliaments is the absence of a Parliamentary legislative initiative . However, given that in most national parliaments initiatives not backed by the executive rarely succeed the value of this difference is in question. Equally, its independence and power means that the European Parliament has an unusually high success rate for its amendments in comparison to national parliaments; 80% average and 30% for controversial proposals. The composition of

282-951: A triumvirate composed of the Foreign Affairs Minister of the Member State holding the (rotating) Presidency of the Council of Ministers , the Secretary-General of the Council of the European Union (who also held the post of High Representative of the Common Foreign and Security Policy ), and the European Commissioner for External Relations . The "troïka" represented the European Union in external relations that fell within

376-635: A broad range of issues relevant to the monetary policy and the financial stability of the eurozone countries. The consequences of the decisions taken by the European Troika resulted in many critics both within the European institutions and at national levels. The European Parliament was excluded from negotiations and therefore decided to establish a special committee of inquiry led by the Austrian centre-right MEP Othmar Karas in order to analyse

470-572: A chairman, Edvard Beneš , who joined Masaryk in exile in 1915, as the organization's general secretary, and Milan Rastislav Štefánik , a Slovak who was an aviator in the French Army, designating to represent Slovak interests in the national council. During the closing weeks of the war, the Czechoslovak National Council was formally upgraded to a provisional government and its members were designated to hold top offices in

564-686: A common programme. This body is separate from the European Council , which is a similar body, but is composed of national leaders. The council is composed of twenty-seven national ministers (one per state). However the Council meets in various forms depending upon the topic. For example, if agriculture is being discussed, the council will be composed of each national minister for agriculture. They represent their governments and are accountable to their national political systems. Votes are taken either by majority or unanimity with votes allocated according to population. In these various forms they share

658-668: A delegation. Two years later, he was accompanied by a Mongolian military unit of 2000, returned to Anatolia with a jarlig given by Guyuk declaring him sultan. He was recognized as sultan in Sivas , Erzincan , Diyarbakır , Malatya , Harput . Later, a meeting was held, resulting in an accord where the three brothers (Kaykaus, Kilij and Kayqubad) would share the throne. A khutbah was read on their behalf, and coins were struck in their names. However, influenced by some emirs, Kilij Arslan did not accept this and went into conflict with Kaykaus, but suffered an unexpected defeat. On 14 June 1249, he

752-627: A government as complex and as redundant as the EU." The first institutions were created at the start of the 1950s with the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), based on the Schuman declaration , between six states . The ECSC was designed to bring the markets of coal and steel, the materials needed to wage war, under the control of a supranational authority with the aim of encouraging peace and economic development. It established

846-889: A greater role in checking the executive. The three communities were later merged in 1967, by the Merger Treaty , into the European Communities. The institutions were carried over from the European Economic Community (making the Commission of that community the direct ancestor of the current Commission). Under the Treaties of Rome, the Common Assembly (which renamed itself the Parliamentary Assembly, and then

940-545: A monitor, counterweight and to add democratic legitimacy was composed of 78 national parliamentarians. The second was the Council of Ministers, pushed by the smaller states also to add an intergovernmental element and harmonise national policies with those of the authority. In 1957 the Treaties of Rome established two similar communities, creating a common market ( European Economic Community ) and promoting atomic energy co-operation ( Euratom ). The three institutions shared

1034-411: A number of types of legislation which can be passed. The strongest is a regulation , an act or law which is directly applicable in its entirety. Then there are directives which bind members to certain goals which they must achieve. They do this through their own laws and hence have room to manoeuvre in deciding upon them. A decision is an instrument which is focused at a particular person/group and

SECTION 10

#1732776483334

1128-532: A similar position: Institutions of the European Union The institutions of the European Union are the seven principal decision-making bodies of the European Union and Euratom governed under the Treaties of the European Union and European Union law . They are, as listed in Article 13 of the Treaty on European Union : Institutions are distinct from both advisory bodies to

1222-577: A state with three different military leaders who all claim to be the sole leader. Informally, the term "triumvirate" may be used for any association of three. Under the influence of the Soviet Union , the term troika (Russian: for "group of three") may be used for "triumvirate". In the Bible triumvirates occurred at some notable events in both the Old Testament and New Testament . In

1316-508: A strong austerity program for the adjustment of Greek fiscal measures. The political impact of the austerity imposed on countries of the EU periphery, which were confronted with significant debt, led to "a predominant economic and social dislocation". The origin of the European Troika can be traced back to the Greek loan package of May 2010 and the EFSF . The work of the three members were distinct:

1410-421: A triumvirate is no longer met. Triumvirate A triumvirate ( Latin : triumvirātus ) or a triarchy is a political institution ruled or dominated by three individuals, known as triumvirs ( Latin : triumviri ). The arrangement can be formal or informal. Though the three leaders in a triumvirate are notionally equal, the actual distribution of power may vary. The term can also be used to describe

1504-512: Is Christine Lagarde . The European Court of Auditors (ECA), despite its name, has no judicial powers. It ensures that taxpayer funds from the budget of the European Union have been correctly spent. The court provides an audit report for each financial year to the Council and Parliament. The Parliament uses this to decide whether to approve the commission's handling of the budget. The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti-fraud actions. The Court of Auditors

1598-745: Is a President (the Council President) and Prime Minister (the Commission President). However, unlike the French model, the Council President does not hold formal powers such as the ability to directly appoint and sack the other, or the ability to dissolve Parliament. Hence while the Council President may have prestige, it would lack power and while the Commission President would have power, it would lack

1692-540: Is at the centre of the European System of Central Banks which comprises all EU national banks. The bank is governed by a board of national bank governors and a President. It is also the central bank for the eurozone (the states which have adopted the euro) and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price stability . The ECB is located in Frankfurt. The current president

1786-405: Is directly applicable. Institutions may also issue recommendations and opinions which are merely non-binding declarations. The ordinary legislative procedure is used in nearly all policy areas and provides an equal footing between the two bodies. Under the procedure, the Commission presents a proposal to Parliament and the council. They then send amendments to the Council which can either adopt

1880-567: Is not an EU member state). The Swiss consensus-driven system is seen as successfully uniting a state divided by language and religion, although the EU was not directly modelled on the Swiss system despite bearing a number of similarities. The European Commission has similarities to the Swiss Federal Council in that both have all-party representation and are appointed on the basis of nationality rather than popularity. The President of

1974-715: Is the judicial branch of the European Union (EU) and is responsible for interpreting EU law and treaties. The CJUE consists of two separate courts: the Court of Justice and the General Court . From 2005 to 2016 it also consisted of the Civil Service Tribunal . The CJEU is located in Luxembourg . The European Central Bank (ECB) is the only one among the 7 institutions that is also an international entity with treaty capability in its own right. It

SECTION 20

#1732776483334

2068-578: Is the one where the ECB changes collateral policy and large-scale medium-term liquidity creation to encourage markets to invest in higher-yielding government bonds. Its third and most controversial role is the one where the ECB launches the Securities Market Programme, a kind of shaping programme that targets fiscal adjustment and structural reforms in the fiscal policy of individual member states. The ECB also provides advice and expertise on

2162-903: The Book of Exodus Moses , his brother Aaron and, according to some views their nephew or brother-in-law, Hur acted this way during the Battle of Rephidim against the Amalekites . Later, when Moses was away on the Mount Sinai Aaron and Hur were left in charge of all the Israelites. In the Gospels as a leading trio among the Twelve Apostles at three particular occasions during public ministry of Jesus acted Peter , James, son of Zebedee and his brother John . They were

2256-784: The European Commission within the European Troika was to participate in the Troika negotiations and the periodical supervising exercises on behalf of the Eurozone Member States that provided the loans to the Eurozone (EZ) countries in financial need. This function raised some concerns with the ‘independent’ function of the European Commission within the EU’s political framework. According to article 17 of

2350-666: The European Commission , the European Central Bank and the International Monetary Fund that provided a bailout to these states since 2010, and the financial measures and government policies that the three institutions have demanded to be implemented in return by Greece and the other nations concerned. Slovenia barely avoided intervention by the Troika in 2013, thanks to the loan of EUR 1.5 billion from PIMCO . These institutions had wide influence and increased their power over time. They implemented

2444-601: The European Stability Mechanism (ESM). These financial programmes are concluded outside the European Treaties , and thus outside of the jurisdiction of EU law . However, all EU institutions should act in accordance with the Rule of Law , even when exercising authority outside of the Treaties. A role for the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as a member of the Troika was not considered at

2538-484: The European Union . The current president is Charles Michel (since 1 December 2019). The Council of the European Union (informally known as the Council of Ministers or just the Council ) is a body holding legislative and some limited executive powers and is thus the main decision-making body of the Union. Its Presidency rotates between the states every six months, but every three Presidencies now cooperate on

2632-756: The First Czechoslovak Republic . According to the Article 8 paragraph (3) from the Constitution of Indonesia , there are three head of government institutions that can act as a "temporary" triumvirate only if there are vacancies in the position of president and vice president at the same time (e.g. both president and vice president were assassinated, sick, not doing their duties, died, or resigned). They are Minister of Foreign Affairs , Minister of Home Affairs , and Minister of Defense . Those three ministers can act for president and vice president together for maximum 30 days. After that, during

2726-632: The Grand Tutor Chen Fan (d. 168), and another prominent statesman Hu Guang (91–172) formed a triumvirate nominally in charge of the Privy Secretariat , when in fact it was a regent triumvirate that was overseeing the affairs of state and Emperor Ling. In Hinduism , the gods Brahma , Vishnu and Shiva form the triumvirate Trimurti , where they each represent the balancing forces of creation, preservation, and destruction, respectively. Their female counterparts and consorts,

2820-692: The Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE), statesmen Huo Guang (d. 68 BCE), Jin Midi (d. 86 BCE), and Shangguan Jie 上官桀 (d. 80 BCE) formed a triumvirate following the death of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) and the installation of the child emperor Zhao . Despite the Three Excellencies – including the Grand chancellor , Grand Secretariat , and irregularly the Grand Commandant – representing

2914-594: The Rajo Adaik who ruled the customs and the Rajo Ibadaik who acted as a Grand Mufti . During the Roman Republic , triumviri (or tresviri ) were special commissions of three men appointed for specific administrative tasks apart from the regular duties of Roman magistrates . The term triumvirate is most commonly used by historians of ancient Rome to refer to two political alliances during

Troika (European group) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3008-605: The Russian word for a three-horse carriage , but it is also used to describe an informal alliance between three actors. In the context of the Euro crisis , the term ‘Troika’ refers to the cooperation between three actors: the European Commission , the European Central Bank (ECB) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The Troika set out the conditions under which financial assistance, or promises of assistance, would be approved to European countries in financial difficulties. When

3102-498: The crisis of the Roman Republic : Tamil Triumvirate refers to the triumvirate of Chola , Chera , and Pandya who dominated the politics of the ancient Tamil country. Sivaperuman , Murugan and Agatiyar are considered triumvirate of Tamil language and Sangam literature . In 1246, Rum Seljuk sultan Kaykaus II was invited to Güyük Khan 's coronation. Instead he sent Kilij Arslan IV , who went to Karakorum with

3196-427: The first triumvirate of Julius Caesar , Pompey , and Crassus which led to the end of the Roman Republic . Although officially all members of the committee shared equal power the three men's friendship and close ideological base led their detractors to declaim them as triumvirs which was used against them in the coup of 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794). In the early days of the national struggle and before Gandhi,

3290-405: The Council in some sensitive areas, and does not have legislative initiative . It does, however, have powers over the Commission which the Council does not. It has been said that its democratic nature and growing powers have made it one of the most powerful legislatures in the world. The Parliament's President (its speaker) is Roberta Metsola ( European People's Party ), who was elected from

3384-578: The Court of Justice and the Parliament, however, they had a separate Council and High Authority, which was called the Commission in these Communities. The reason for this is the different relationship between the Commission and Council. At the time the French government was suspicious of the supranational and wanted to limit the powers of the High Authority in the new Communities, giving the council

3478-565: The EU Council. However, unlike the EU's Council, the Bundesrat does not vary its composition depending on the topic being discussed. They both bear similar criticisms , because of the interference of executives in the legislative process. The institutions are not concentrated in a single capital city ; instead, their headquarters are spread across four cities: Brussels , Luxembourg , Strasbourg and Frankfurt . The current arrangement

3572-674: The EU and within the Troika. By acting on behalf of some Member States , the Commission is departing from its independent position. Formally the European Central Bank (ECB) does not participate in the decision-making of the programme, these decisions are taken by the IMF and the Finance ministers of the Member States. The role of the ECB can be divided into three groups: A first aspect is the role of verbal interventions addressed to distressed Member States and financial markets. Its second role

3666-484: The European Parliament) was supposed to become elected. However, this was delayed by the council until 1979. Since then it gained more powers via successive treaties. The Maastricht Treaty also gave further powers to the council by giving it a key role in the two new pillars of the EU which were based on intergovernmental principles. The 2009 Lisbon Treaty brought nearly all policy areas (including

3760-497: The European Union and agencies of the European Union . Most EU institutions were created with the establishment of the European Community in 1958. Much change since then has been in the context of shifting the balance of power away from the council and towards the Parliament. The role of the commission has often been to mediate between the two or tip the balance. However, the commission is becoming more accountable to

3854-464: The European Union and has the ability to propose new laws (bills) . It also deals with the day-to-day running of the Union and has the duty of upholding the law and treaties (in this role it is known as the "Guardian of the Treaties"). The commission is led by a President who is nominated by the council (in practice the European Council ) and approved by Parliament. The remaining 26 Commissioners are nominated by member states, in consultation with

Troika (European group) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3948-429: The European Union (of relevant national government ministers). Its 705 members are elected every five years by universal suffrage and sit according to political allegiance . They represent nearly 500 million citizens (the world's second largest democratic electorate) and form the only directly elected body in the Union. Despite forming one of the two legislative chambers of the Union, it has weaker powers than

4042-421: The European Union represents governments, the parliament represents citizens and the commission represents the European interest. Essentially, the Council of the European Union, parliament or another party place a request for legislation to the commission. The commission then drafts this and presents it to the parliament and the Council of the European Union, where in most cases both must give their assent. Although

4136-491: The Federal Council rotates between its members each year, in a fashion similar to that of the EU's Council Presidency. Due to this system of presidency Swiss leaders, like those of the EU, are relatively unknown with national politics viewed as somewhat technocratic resulting in low voter turnout , in a similar fashion to that of the European Parliament. Other parallels include the jealously guarded powers of states ,

4230-627: The Grand Chancellor was senior to all, these new three senior officials had equal censorial and advisory powers. When a young or weak-minded emperor ascended to the throne, these Three Excellencies could dominate the affairs of state. There were also other types of triumvirates during the Eastern Han; for example, at the onset of the reign of Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), the General-in-chief Dou Wu (d. 168),

4324-434: The Grand Chancellor was viewed as senior to the Grand Secretariat while the post of Grand Commandant was vacant for most of the dynasty. After Emperor Guangwu established the Eastern Han (25–220 CE), the Grand Commandant was made a permanent official while the Minister over the Masses replaced the Grand Chancellor and the Minister of Works replaced the Grand Secretariat. Unlike the three high officials in Western Han when

4418-403: The IMF advocated for more robust debt relief, the EU insisted on more limited options. The European institutions prioritised the maintenance of cohesion and protection of their own rules. Also, the members of the Troika could not agree upon potential risks of financial spillovers across member states of the EZ. For the European institutions, this was a very sensitive topic; this is why the objective

4512-424: The IMF co-financed the loans for Greece, the ECB focused its competences on the banking system and the Commission worked on economic reforms with the IMF. The "Troika solution" was controversial in the Euro crisis' solution following the Lisbon Treaty, as supranational organizations increased their presence among the institutional landscape of the European Union. At this time, the EU was more technocratic and emphasised

4606-407: The Indian National Congress was known to be under Lal-Bal-Pal i.e. Lala Lajpat Rai , Bipin Chandra Pal and Bal Gangadhar Tilak , often dubbed Lokmanya Tilak. The Czechoslovak National Council , an organization founded in Paris in 1916 by Czech and Slovak émigrés during World War I to liberate their homeland from Austria-Hungary , consisted of the triumvirate of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk as

4700-409: The Minister of War; and Ahmed Djemal Pasha (1872–1922), the Minister of the Navy . Post- war Bosnia and Herzegovina is ruled by a three-member Presidency . While French Huguenots had derisively bestowed the name Triumvirate on the alliance formed in 1561 between Catholic Francis, Duke of Guise , Anne de Montmorency , and Jacques d'Albon during the French Wars of Religion , in later years

4794-416: The Parliament's members in 2022. The European Council is the group of heads of state or government of the EU member states . It meets four times a year to define the Union's policy agenda and give impetus to integration. The President of the European Council is the person responsible for chairing and driving forward the work of the institution, which has been described as the highest political body of

SECTION 50

#1732776483334

4888-455: The Parliament: in 1999 it forced the resignation of the Santer Commission and forced a reshuffle of the proposed Barroso Commission in 2004. The development of the institutions, with incremental changes from treaties and agreements, is testament to the evolution of the Union's structures without one clear "master plan." Some observers like Tom Reid of The Washington Post said of the institutions that "nobody would have deliberately designed

4982-529: The President, and have their portfolios assigned by the President. The Council then adopts this list of nominee-Commissioners. The council's adoption of the commission is not an area which requires the decision to be unanimous; their acceptance is arrived at according to the rules for qualified majority voting . The European Parliament then interviews and casts its vote upon the Commissioners. The interviews of individual nominees are conducted separately, in contrast to Parliament's vote of approval which must be cast on

5076-438: The TEU “ the Commission has to act completely independent in carrying out its responsibilities, and they shall refrain from any action incompatible with their duties or the performance of their tasks .” The fact that the Commission was acting on behalf of the member states in the case of financial assistance programs was far removed from its political role. The question remains as to how the Commission can reconcile its task within

5170-427: The Troika had questionable legal basis at all because it was established as an emergency solution. German politician Norbert Lammert stated that in his view it was incorrect to discuss the lack of democratic legitimacy of the Troika since the adjustment programmes had been approved by the parliaments of Ireland , Portugal , Cyprus and Greece ; however, the parliaments did not know the implications when they approved

5264-468: The Troika: 90% of the amount paid interest. For Cyprus, Greece (thrice), Ireland and Portugal, the European Commission, the ECB and the IMF agreed on Memoranda of Understanding with the relevant governments in a three-year financial aid programme on the condition of far-reaching austerity measures to be imposed on their societies in order to cut government expenditure . For details in each case, see Social benefits and wages could not be sustained due to

5358-420: The budget) under the co-decision procedure (renamed " ordinary legislative procedure "), hence increasing the power of the Parliament . The rules for the distribution of seats in the parliament were also changed to a formula system. The High Representative merged with the European Commissioner for External Relations and joined the commission. The appointment of the Commission President became dependent upon

5452-417: The commission as a whole without the ability to accept or reject individual Commissioners. Once approval has been obtained from the Parliament, the Commissioners can take office. The current President is Ursula von der Leyen ( EPP ); her commission was elected in 2019. The Court of Justice of the European Union ( CJEU ) ( French : Cour de justice de l'Union européenne or " CJUE "; Latin : Curia )

5546-432: The conclusion that austerity policies in Greece were more harsh than in Ireland, emphasising political and socio-economic consequences, specifically unemployment, emigration, and deterioration of citizens' physical and mental health. Other critics of the Troika are Yanis Varoufakis , a former Greek finance minister, German writer Fritz R. Glunk, and Noam Chomsky . This term was used in the European Union when referring to

5640-418: The considerable level of translation and the choice of a lesser city as the capital. Furthermore, executive power in the EU is not concentrated in a single institution. It becomes clearer under the Lisbon Treaty with the division of the European Council as a distinct institution with a fixed President. This arrangement has been compared to the dual executive system found in the French republic where there

5734-462: The context of the Soviet Union , the term troika ( Russian : for "group of three") is used for "triumvirate". In the Roman Republic (1849), the title of two sets of three joint chiefs of state in the year 1849: Almost immediately following the Roman Republic, the Red Triumvirate governed the restored Papal States from 1849 to 1850: The word has been used as a term of convenience, though not an official title, for other groups of three in

SECTION 60

#1732776483334

5828-403: The controlling aspect of the Troika mechanism. During the crisis period, Germany played a dominant role and took power to rebalance its national interests. The European strategy was implemented with the goal of reducing the Greek fiscal deficit from 15% to 5%. In 2015, the GDP of Greece remained stagnant compared to 2009, and the loans appeared to be insufficient to achieve the fiscal goals fixed by

5922-563: The council can only be compared with the quite unique and unusual composition of the German upper house, the Bundesrat . Membership of the Bundesrat is limited to members of the governments of the states of Germany and can be recalled by those governments in the same manner as the EU's Council. They retain their state role while sitting in the Bundesrat and their term ends when they are recalled by their state governments (who are solely responsible for their appointment) or they cease to sit in their state government. Hence they also are not elected at

6016-420: The crisis. With a deteriorating social situation and weak domestic production, growth of Greek debt overtook the GDP rate. For the creditor countries, one of the most important conditions for the bailout was the liberalisation of production and the labour market in Greece. Reforms taken in a context of fiscal austerity can have negative effects without short-term improvement. The term ‘ troika ’ has its origins in

6110-449: The eurozone with financial problems from being supported by other stakeholders, like the European Central Bank, European Union institutions or other Eurozone countries within the Monetary Union . Therefore, the competences of the Troika originated in a statement taken by the Heads of State and Government of the EU member states to establish a joint programme and to provide conditional bilateral loans to Greece . The Troika falls outside

6204-408: The exact nature of this depends upon the legislative procedure in use, once it is approved and signed by both bodies it becomes law. The commission's duty is to ensure it is implemented by dealing with the day-to-day running of the Union and taking others to Court if they fail to comply. The European Parliament (EP) shares the legislative and budgetary authority of the Union with the Council of

6298-454: The fact that "if nothing had been done for Greece, the impact of the crisis would have been undeniably worse for this country". As it turned out, the Troika underestimated the impact of austerity policies on economic growth. Another problem was in the different philosophies in relation to economic policy across the EC , the ECB and the IMF according to the European Commissioner in charge of economic and monetary affairs Olli Rehn . Whereas

6392-429: The first effects of the crisis emerged in Greece, the IMF was kept at a distance. The EU saw this as an internal matter and wanted to resolve it internally, yet the IMF was pulled in eventually. It was seen as a reliable, neutral organisation that had expertise in helping highly indebted countries. The IMF was responsible, together with the finance ministers, for the decision-making in the financial programmes. The role of

6486-448: The first institutions. At its core was an independent executive called the " High Authority " with supranational powers over the Community. The laws made by the Authority would be observed by a Court of Justice in order to ensure they were upheld and to arbitrate. During the negotiations, two supervisory institutions were put forward to counterbalance the power of the High Authority. The "Common Assembly" proposed by Jean Monnet to act as

6580-426: The goddesses Saraswati , Lakshmi and Parvati , make up the parallel Tridevi . Triumvirates during the Pagaruyuang era in the Minangkabau Highlands were known as Rajo Tigo Selo, or "the three reigning kings." The Rajo Tigo Selo was descended from the same line in the same dynasty and ruled at the same reigning time. It consisted of three kings, the Rajo Alam who ruled the government and diplomatic affairs,

6674-417: The last EU elections . The Council of Ministers adopted more qualified majority voting and the European Council was made a distinct institution with a permanent president. The Court of Justice had some minor renaming and adjustments. In addition, the central bank became a full institution. There are three political institutions which hold the executive and legislative power of the union. The Council of

6768-427: The legislative and budgetary power of the Parliament, and also lead the Common Foreign and Security Policy . The presidency has been held by Hungary since July 2024. The European Commission (EC) is the executive arm of the Union. It is a body composed of one appointee from each state, currently twenty-seven, but is designed to be independent of national interests. The body is responsible for drafting all law of

6862-459: The level of the Troika's accountability. According to the findings of the committee, the Troika's members had highly asymmetric distribution of responsibilities. In addition, differing mandates together with varying negotiation and decision-making structures only led to more divisions and made it difficult to find a common approach. The British MEP Sharon Bowles observed that the response to the crisis lacked transparency and even credibility. In fact,

6956-475: The most senior ministerial positions of state, this triumvirate was supported by the economic technocrat and Imperial Secretary Sang Hongyang (d. 80 BCE), their political lackey. The acting Chancellor Tian Qianqiu was also easily swayed by the decisions of the triumvirate. The Three Excellencies existed in Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE) as the Grand Chancellor, Grand Secretariat, and Grand Commandant, but

7050-648: The new institutions, the Central Bank is based in Frankfurt , while the European Council is based in Brussels (but has some extraordinary meetings elsewhere). Brussels' hosting of institutions has made it a major centre for the EU. Together with NATO it has attracted more journalists and ambassadors than Washington, D.C. However the three-city agreement has been criticised, notably concerning

7144-652: The only apostles present at the Raising of Jairus' daughter , Transfiguration of Jesus and Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane . Later, at the time of the Early Christian Church this triumvirate of the leading apostles changed slightly after the former James's death, as it became composed of Peter, John and James, brother of Jesus , known collectively also as the three Pillars of the Church . During

7238-417: The power of Parliament. While the EU's system of governance is largely unique, elements can be compared to other models. One general observation on the nature of the distribution of powers would be that the EU resembles the federalism of Germany . There, powers are predominantly shared (states can exercise federal powers where the federation has not already exercised them) between the levels of government, and

7332-476: The prestige of the former. The nature of the European Parliament is better compared with the United States House of Representatives than with the national parliaments of the European Union . This is notable in terms of the committees being of greater size and power, political parties being very decentralised and it being separated from the executive branch (most national governments operate under

7426-569: The programmes. The Troika interventions generated long-lasting political damage not only for the European Union but also for the member states themselves. Many European citizens claimed that the budget cuts resulted in the EZ's longest recession since the creation of the Euro single currency in 1999. During that period, the efficiency of the Troika was another cause of concern but the ECB president Jean-Claude Trichet tried to reassure people and highlighted

7520-469: The same time and the body as a whole cannot be dissolved like most parliaments. As government representatives, members do not vote as individual members but in state blocks, rather than political alignment, to their state governments' agreed line. Each state has unequal voting powers based on population, with an absolute majority required for decisions. Likewise, the presidency rotates equally between members, though each year rather than every six months like in

7614-648: The scope of European law . The Troika can be considered as a working group in charge of negotiating financial assistance programmes with indebted Eurozone countries. Apart from that, it also carries out evaluations of the implementation level of the programme. The financial assistance in itself is provided by special mechanisms, such as the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF), the European Financial Stabilisation Mechanism (EFSM) and

7708-592: The scope of the common foreign and security policy (CFSP). With the 2009 ratification of the Lisbon Treaty , the post of Secretary-General of the Council was separated from the post of High Representative for the CFSP, which then assumed the responsibilities of the European Commissioner for External Relations. Since only two of the original posts making up the troika still exist, the definition of

7802-517: The states participate strongly with decision-making at the federal level. This is in contrast with other federations, for example the United States, where powers are more clearly divided between the levels of government, and the states have little say in federal decision-making. The EU's institutional set up is also somewhat similar to the government of Switzerland (which, although in Europe,

7896-543: The term of the triumvirate, the People's Consultative Assembly must elect a new president and vice president from the two pairs of candidates nominated by the political party or coalition of political parties whose candidates were the winner and the runner-up in the previous presidential election. The newly elected president and vice president will continue the remaining term of former president and vice president that were elected from previous general election, not five years. In

7990-571: The term would be used to describe other arrangements within France. At the end of the 1700s, when the French revolutionaries turned to several Roman magistrature names for their newly created institutions, the three-headed collective head of state was named the Consulat (1799–1804), a term in use for two-headed magistratures since Antiquity; furthermore it included an office of First Consul who

8084-525: The text with those amendments or send back a "common position". That proposal may either be approved or further amendments may be tabled by the Parliament. If the Council does not approve those, then a " Conciliation Committee " is formed. The committee is composed of the Council members plus an equal number of MEPs who seek to agree a common position. Once a position is agreed, it has to be approved by Parliament again by an absolute majority . There are other special procedures used in sensitive areas which reduce

8178-515: The three organisations offered assistance, the necessary measures and reforms were imposed in the form of a Memorandum of Understanding between the Troika and the Member States concerned. The legal basis for the action taken by the Commission and the ECB is considered debatable. The creation of this mechanism was due to a political and legal gap in the Treaty of Maastricht . Article 125 TFEU together with article 123 TFEU prevents countries of

8272-493: The time. Firstly, this organisation is an 'outsider'; it is not an institution of the European Union . A second objection was that relying on the IMF's help was an admission of failure of the Eurozone, and a dent in confidence in the euro . In the months leading up to the euro crisis, the IMF already had concerns that countries in the European periphery would be a potential threat to the other major financial markets in Europe via their commercial banks’ balance sheet exposures. When

8366-601: Was approved in 1992 and attached to the Treaty of Amsterdam . The treaty states that the Commission and Council would be based in Brussels, the Courts in Luxembourg City, and the Parliament in Strasbourg. However some departments of the commission and meetings of the Council take place in Luxembourg City, while the Parliament has its committees and some sessions in Brussels and its secretariat in Luxembourg City. Of

8460-402: Was caught and brought to his brother. However, he was well received and returned together to Konya . Both were enthroned alongside Kayqubad II . Thus a period of joint rule began from 1249 until 1254. Kaykaus, controlled the capital, Konya, and everything further west, and the coast at Antalya , up to Ankara . Kilij Arslan was allocated everything to the east of Konya up to Erzurum . Kayqubad

8554-625: Was granted minor estates on a scale sufficient for his personal expenses. The title was revived a few times for (short-lived) three-headed political 'magistratures' in post-feudal times. The Three Pashas also known as Ottoman Triumvirate effectively ruled the Ottoman Empire during World War I : Mehmed Talaat Pasha (1874–1921), the Grand Vizier (prime minister) and Minister of the Interior ; Ismail Enver Pasha (1881–1922),

8648-582: Was not an equal, but the de facto solo head of state and government – a position Napoleon Bonaparte chose to convert openly into the First French Empire in 1804. Prior to Napoleon and during the Terror from 1793 to 1794 Maximilien Robespierre , Louis Antoine de Saint-Just , and Georges Couthon , as members of the governing Committee of Public Safety , were accused by their political opponents of forming an unofficial triumvirate, pointing out

8742-402: Was set up in 1975. It was created as an independent institution due to the sensitivity of the issue of fraud in the Union (the anti-fraud agency, OLAF , is also built on its independence). It is composed of one member from each state appointed by the Council every six years. Every three years one of them is elected as the president of the court, who is currently Klaus-Heiner Lehne . There are

8836-473: Was to avoid debt restructuring . If the Troika had paid more attention to cross-country spillovers and deteriorating conditions, the consequences could have been less harmful. The academic community criticised the Troika, accusing it of having immense power and pursuing an approach of fiscal conservatism . Scholars such as Kevin Featherstone, Judith Clifton, Daniel Diaz-Fuentes and Ana Lara Gómez came to

#333666