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129-497: It is now known that the Mediterranean Sea went through great changes in sea level and variations in the relative positions of the continental plates of Europe and Africa. These brought changes in climate and vegetation. The Iberian Peninsula, located on an important route between Africa and Europe, was enriched by the arrival, following the climate change , of wetland plants, thermophilic plants (those that require

258-434: A great deal of heat), xerophilic plants (those that require a dry climate), orophilic (sub-alpine) plants, Boreo-alpine plants, and so on, many of which managed to remain, thanks to the diversity of environments that exist in the mountain ranges, and which allowed them to rise in elevation if the climate was too warm, or descend if it became too cold. The geological complexity of the majority of Iberian mountains, especially of

387-490: A range of different weather conditions, although generally it may be classified as a typical Mediterranean Continental climate of the Central Plateau. Long, dry and hot summers, with equally long and harsh winters give way to milder weather conditions in spring and later in autumn. The climatic diversity produces a range of vegetation and ecosystems, and trees such as oaks, juniper, pine, beech, etc. can all be found in

516-452: A sandy texture, and a mild, slightly damp climate. Under such conditions it totally or partially displaces the Holm oak; Holm oak may be found in stands of Cork Oak with a certain frequency, as well as Portuguese oaks ( Quercus faginea subsp broteroi ). The area occupied by oak forests corresponds above all to the southwest quadrant of the peninsula, but also to Catalonia , Menorca and even

645-763: A secondary part with respect to Holm oaks, cork oaks, and Pyrenean oaks; it is only on chalky soils that it forms forests of any consideration, especially in the northeast quadrant and centre of the Peninsula. The natural area corresponding to the quejigo is frequently the black pine ( Pinus nigra subsp salzmannii ), which often has been extended at its expense. Los quejigares can often include maples , serbales, European serviceberry or snowy mespilus ( Amelanchier ovalis ), common privet ( Ligustrum vulgare L. ) and common dogwood ( Cornus sanguinea ); their degradation can lead to extensive thickets of box . The last quejigo , Quercus faginea subsp broteri requires

774-573: A variety of shrubs and lianas ; often accompanied by bramble , honeysuckle , ivy , Viburnum tinus , butcher's broom and, in the southwest of the peninsula, wild olive trees. The oak forests of the Balearic Islands are also rich, and incorporate characteristic species of the islands, such as the Balearic cyclamen ( Cyclamen balearicum Willk. ). Towards the interior of the peninsula, these forests become progressively more scarce: as

903-578: A vast number of islands , some of them of volcanic origin. The two largest islands, in both area and population, are Sicily and Sardinia . The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,109 ± 1 m (16,762 ± 3 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea . It lies between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E . Its west–east length, from

1032-512: Is deciduous oak forest: both sessile oaks ( Quercus petraea ) and pedunculate oaks ( Quercus robur ), with European ash ( Fraxinus excelsior ) and hazels in the coolest and deepest soil at the bottom of the valley. The mountain layer is characterised by the presence of beeches and at times, in the Pyrenees, by silver firs ( Abies alba ); these beeches and silver firs occupy the cool slopes with shallow soil. The Mediterranean influence

1161-619: Is a calque of the Latin name, from μέσος ( mésos , "in the middle") and γήινος ( gḗinos , "of the earth"), from γῆ ( gê , "land, earth"). The original meaning may have been 'the sea in the middle of the earth', rather than 'the sea enclosed by land'. Ancient Iranians called it the "Roman Sea", and in Classical Persian texts , it was called Daryāy-e Rōm (دریای روم), which may be from Middle Persian form, Zrēh ī Hrōm (𐭦𐭫𐭩𐭤 𐭩 𐭤𐭫𐭥𐭬). The Carthaginians called it

1290-514: Is a rival; except for the Holm oak, which occupies some of the old, deforested juniper groves, and the European black pine ( Pinus nigra ) which can accompany it with a certain frequency. The common juniper ( Juniperus communis subsp. hemisphaerica ) is habitually a secondary species of these groves. At high elevations they come in contact with forests of Scots pine and with the Savin juniper ;

1419-538: Is about 1,900 kilometres (1,200 mi). The water temperatures are mild in winter and warm in summer and give name to the Mediterranean climate type due to the majority of precipitation falling in the cooler months. Its southern and eastern coastlines are lined with hot deserts not far inland, but the immediate coastline on all sides of the Mediterranean tends to have strong maritime moderation. The sea

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1548-485: Is accompanied and superseded at high elevation by piornales, dwarf junipers, and hummocky high mountain thickets. Their lower altitudinal limit remains patchy, having been extended at the expense of deciduous forests. The maritime pine ( Pinus pinaster ) is found at an intermediate elevation and on generally siliceous soil, which in Galicia goes down to sea level and inland alternates with Pyrenean oak. Over limestone,

1677-414: Is cool, as often chalky as siliceous (rich in silica ), and nearly always acidified by rain. The layer is characterised by the beech tree. The beech tree projects a deep shadow , and so its dense foliage usually excludes other woodland species. It therefore has little undergrowth . In spite of their Atlantic character, these forests reach Moncayo, in the centre of the peninsula. The southernmost are at

1806-449: Is felt in the presence of Holm oaks ( Quercus rotundifolia ) with bay laurel , which are situated on the warmest crests and slopes, especially above chalky soil, where the dryness becomes more pronounced. Improvement by humans has transformed much of this woodland into meadows, which conserve at their edges remnant hedgerows, "setos", of the species of the primitive forest. Clumps of thorny shrubs grow also in glades and clearings, such as

1935-582: Is known as al-Baḥr [al-Abyaḍ] al-Mutawassiṭ ( البحر [الأبيض] المتوسط ) 'the [White] Middle Sea'. In Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was Baḥr al-Rūm ( بحر الروم ) or al- Baḥr al-Rūmī ( بحر الرومي ) 'the Sea of the Romans' or 'the Roman Sea' or Baḥr al-šām ( بحر الشام ) or al-Baḥr al-šāmī ( البحر الشامي ) ("the Sea of Syria"). At first, that name referred only to the eastern Mediterranean, but

2064-632: Is more dominant, sometimes accompanied by Cytisus purgans and another species of juniper ( J. communis subsp. hemisphaerica ). In the limestone mountains such as the Maestrazgo and Serranía de Cuenca, a shrubby formation of Savin juniper ( Juniperus sabina ) accompanied by Scots pine is characteristic. In the limestone mountains of Andalusia a detectable role is played by thickets pluvilunares and hummocks of common buckthorn ( Rhamnus cathartica ). From an ecological point of view, shrubby borders are fundamental in forest ecosystems to guarantee

2193-435: Is more frequent. Their natural range is usually covered by forests of Scots pine or maritime pine . In the groves, riparian forests, and valley floors, there are enclaves of deciduous forests that favor the moist ground, which is constant almost all year; this allows them to avoid the consequences of the summer drought so characteristic of a Mediterranean climate. There we see a characteristic pattern, as we move outward from

2322-563: Is necessary of the Monterey pine ( Pinus radiata ), because of its importance in reforestation and managed forests. The juniper groves of Spanish juniper ( Juniperus thurifera ) constitute a curious formation that occupies the high heaths and mesetas of the interior, nearly always above 900 metres elevation. The principal woodlands of this type are in the Serranía de Cuenca, Sistema Ibérico, Alcarria , Maestrazgo and other mountains of

2451-620: Is the Tajuña River with an area of 2,015 square kilometres, and the Ebro River , forming a basin area of 996 square kilometres. Other features of note are the Parque Natural del Alto Tajo , Hayedo de Tejera Negra , Lagunas de Puebla de Beleña , Cerros Margosos de Pastrana y Yebra , Cerros Volcánicos de La Miñosa and Prados Húmedos de Torremocha del Pinar . The province, given its wide and varied geographical features, has

2580-524: Is the most altered, as it is well suited to meadows and crops. Oaks are often accompanied by chestnut trees and birches . When these forests degrade, they are taken over by thorny plants, piornales, and in the final extreme heather and gorse. The pedunculate oak would have been indigenous to a large part of the area currently occupied by pine forests and eucalyptus . Along the Atlantic coast, birches ( Betula species) form small enclaves or copses at

2709-440: Is the typical pine of the Mediterranean coast, from sea level to an elevation of 800–1000 metres in the interior; these prefer limy soils. The stone pine ( Pinus pinea ), possibly the most characteristic of all, occupies sandy soils. It grows extensively both in the sandy areas of the lowlands in the provinces of Cádiz and Huelva , as well as points further inland ( Valladolid , Cuenca , and Madrid ). Finally, especial mention

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2838-444: The Balearic Islands . The principal characteristic of the region is the existence of a quite lengthy period of summer drought, which may last anywhere from 2 to 4 months, but which, regardless of length, is always quite distinct. Rainfall can range from 1500 mm to less than 350 mm. Temperatures range from regions that have no frost for many years to those that reach -20 °C, or even lower, every winter. If one ignores, for

2967-566: The Black Sea . In Persian, the name was translated as Baḥr-i Safīd , which was also used in later Ottoman Turkish . Similarly, in 19th century Greek, the name was Άσπρη Θάλασσα ( áspri thálassa ; "white sea"). According to Johann Knobloch, in classical antiquity , cultures in the Levant used colours to refer to the cardinal points: black referred to the north (explaining the name Black Sea ), yellow or blue to east, red to south (e.g.,

3096-544: The Cordillera Bética , Sistema Ibérico , and Pyrenees , also greatly increased the number of new environments to which it was possible to adapt, resulting in today's wide variety of flora. The "Eurosiberian" Atlantic zone extends through northern Portugal , the Galician Massif , Cantabrian Mountains and the western and central Pyrenees . It is characterized by a humid climate which is moderated by

3225-453: The Henares corridor. While new industries and improved communications brought prosperity to Guadalajara, Torrejón , Alcalá , Azuqueca and Yunquera de Henares , it also caused drastic decreases in population in rural areas. From 16 to 20 July 2005 the province was devastated by a forest fire , known as the incendio de Guadalajara . Eleven firefighters died after a blowup . The fire

3354-677: The Italian Lakes (Po). While the Mediterranean watershed is bordered by other river basins in Europe, it is essentially bordered by endorheic basins or deserts elsewhere. The following countries are in the Mediterranean drainage basin while not having a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea: The following countries have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea: Several other territories also border

3483-735: The Italian city-states like Amalfi and Genoa before the Crusades, according to the Cairo Geniza documents. A document dated 996 mentions Amalfian merchants living in Cairo . Another letter states that the Genoese had traded with Alexandria . The caliph al-Mustansir had allowed Amalfian merchants to reside in Jerusalem about 1060 in place of the Latin hospice . The Crusades led to

3612-665: The Knights Templar . Constructed of Alcarria limestone, the rectangular structure has three round towers and a cylindrical keep. In 1445, it was taken by the Navarran captain Juan de Puelles and was subsequently owned by Cardinal Pedro González de Mendoza (1428–1495). In the 19th century, it was occupied by the French under General Hugo, the father of Victor Hugo , until it was taken and destroyed by El Empecinado . Its restoration

3741-469: The Navarran Pyrenees, is one of the most important beech and fir forests in Europe. Oak forests, above all of pedunculate oak ( Quercus robur ), are the most common in the Atlantic zone. They represent the typical forest floor formation of basal trees, extending to an elevation of some 600 metres. In higher regions, as one ascends the mountains, they yield to beech forests; at the bottom of

3870-560: The Paleolithic as evidenced by stone tools found on the banks of the Henares and Linares rivers. There are also numerous prehistoric cave paintings in the Cueva de los Casares in Riba de Saelices while Megalithic tombs from the 4th millennium B.C. have been found at various sites in the province including Alcolea del Pinar . There are remains of several Bronze Age settlements along

3999-783: The Punic Wars in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the Roman Republic defeated the Carthaginians to become the preeminent power in the Mediterranean. When Augustus founded the Roman Empire , the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"). For the next 400 years, the Roman Empire completely controlled the Mediterranean Sea and virtually all its coastal regions from Gibraltar to

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4128-641: The Red Sea ) and white to west. That would explain the Bulgarian Byalo More , the Turkish Akdeniz , and the Arab nomenclature described above, lit. "White Sea". Major ancient civilizations were located around the Mediterranean. The sea provided routes for trade, colonization, and war, as well as food (from fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities throughout

4257-559: The Roman Empire , Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"). The term Mare Mediterrāneum appears later: Solinus apparently used this in the 3rd century, but the earliest extant witness to it is in the 6th century, in Isidore of Seville . It means 'in the middle of land, inland' in Latin , a compound of medius ("middle"), terra ("land, earth"), and -āneus ("having the nature of"). The modern Greek name Μεσόγειος Θάλασσα ( mesógeios ; "inland")

4386-557: The Sierra Morena and the Montes de Toledo, spurge appears, accompanied, in the warmest places, by oleanders and tamarisks. In the lowlands further inland, above all in the marls and clay soils, field elms ( Ulmus minor ) and poplar groves are more common, with occasional ashes and willows. At the bottom of granite valleys and on the siliceous riverbanks, there are very typical formations of ash with Pyrenean oak, especially at

4515-718: The Sistema Central , Serra da Estrela , the Sistema Ibérico of the region of Soria , and parts of the Cantabrian mountains, are covered by thickets of Cytisus purgans (variously known as "Andorra broom", "Provence broom", or "Spanish gold hardy broom") or Alpine juniper ( Juniperus communis subsp. alpina ). In the Sierra Nevada , on the other hand, under similar conditions, the Genista baetica ,

4644-689: The United Kingdom ( Akrotiri and Dhekelia , and Gibraltar ) also have coastlines along the Mediterranean Sea. The drainage basin encompasses a large number of other countries, the Nile being the longest river ending in the Mediterranean Sea. The Ancient Egyptians called the Mediterranean Wadj-wr/Wadj-Wer/Wadj-Ur. This term (literally "great green") was the name given by the Ancient Egyptians to

4773-824: The Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago. The Mediterranean Sea covers an area of about 2,500,000 km (970,000 sq mi), representing 0.7% of the global ocean surface, but its connection to the Atlantic via the Strait of Gibraltar —the narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates the Iberian Peninsula in Europe from Morocco in Africa —is only 14 km (9 mi) wide. The Mediterranean Sea encompasses

4902-478: The wild rose , blackberry bushes , blackthorn , hawthorn and other more or less thorny shrubs ; this role can also be filled by smaller thorny plants, los piornales , and clumps of broom . The major forests in this area are beech, oak, birch, and fir. Beech forests ( Fagus sylvatica ) are found in the mountain layer of the Iberian Eurosiberian region from 800 to 1500 metres up. The soil

5031-528: The "Syrian Sea". In ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew Bible , it was primarily known as the "Great Sea", הים הגדול HaYam HaGadol , ( Numbers ; Book of Joshua ; Ezekiel ) or simply as "The Sea" ( 1 Kings ). However, it has also been called the "Hinder Sea" because of its location on the west coast of the region of Syria or the Holy Land (and therefore behind a person facing

5160-523: The 16th century and also maintained naval bases in southern France (1543–1544), Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa , the Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza (1538). The Battle of Djerba (1560) marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the eastern Mediterranean. As the naval prowess of the European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in

5289-543: The 16th century, his namesake Íñigo López de Mendoza, 4th Duke of the Infantado , (1493–1566) went on to found an academy in the city, attracting additional writers. Pastrana also prospered during the Renaissance under the leadership of Ruy Gómez de Silva (1516–1573) with the establishment of Latin and choir schools. By the end of the 16th century, the town was famous for its tapestries and its Carmelite convents. With

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5418-472: The 1830s, it was devastated by fire and had to be abandoned. After being fully restored, the castle was opened as a Parador luxury hotel in 1976. Decorated with banners and suits of armour, the huge lounge is the castle's original dining room. The Castle of Molina de Aragón is located on a hill commanding the surrounding valley, and is formed by an external line of walls with four gates and six towers of which four are currently in good condition. Originally,

5547-565: The 6th and 7th centuries A.D., bringing Christianity and Germanic law into the region. In 578, King Leovigild founded Recópolis on the River Tagus with a basilica and a palace. The Moors arrived in the area in c. 711, establishing Islamic rule for some four centuries until the early 13th century. Their most important contribution was founding of the current-day provincial capital, Madinat-al-Faray ( Guadalajara , from Arabic وادي الحجارة wādi al-ħajāra , "streambed/valley of stones"), which

5676-524: The 7th century, and with it the religion of Islam , which soon swept across from the east; at its greatest extent, the Arabs, under the Umayyads , controlled most of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern and southern shores. A variety of foodstuffs, spices and crops were introduced to the western Mediterranean's Spain and Sicily during Arab rule, via the commercial networks of

5805-806: The Cordillera Mariánica. They are the most demanding as to temperature and humidity, and therefore do not usually stray too far from areas with a maritime climate; they prefer the cooler, shady northward slopes, damp meadows and the banks of streams of the lower ground. In general, they alternate with the Cork Oaks, which they displace in the coolest zones; both prefer siliceous soils. In the clearings and degraded stages of these forests los piornos ( Teline sp., Cytisus baeticus ), heather ( Erica arborea , Erica scoparia ), and rock rose ( Halimium lasianthum ) are common. Los quejigares of Portuguese oaks ( Quercus faginea subsp faginea ) are

5934-640: The Dukes of Medinaceli (Cogolludo) , Sigüenza Cathedral , Cueva de los Casares in La Riba de Saelices and Castillo de Pioz . The Co-cathedral of Santa María de la Fuente la Mayor in the city of Guadalajara was declared a Bien de Interés Cultural site in 1941. Standing high on a rock, Atienza Castle can be seen from miles around. It frequently changed hands between the Moors and the Christians until it

6063-612: The Hayedo de Montejo (in the autonomous community of Madrid ) and in the northernmost area of the province of Guadalajara , in the Parque Natural del Hayedo de Tejera Negra (Cantalojas), and Somosierra-Ayllón. The forests seek watercourses and shade, and so their reforestation is very difficult and they are being displaced by the Pyrenean Oak ( Quercus pyrenaica ). The Irati "rainforest", of some 170 square kilometres in

6192-655: The Islamic world. These include sugarcane, rice, cotton, alfalfa, oranges, lemons, apricots, spinach, eggplants, carrots, saffron and bananas. The Arabs also continued extensive cultivation and production of olive oil (the Spanish words for 'oil' and 'olive'— aceite and aceituna , respectively—are derived from the Arabic al-zait , meaning 'olive juice'), and pomegranates (the heraldic symbol of Granada) from classical Greco-Roman times. The Arab invasions disrupted

6321-411: The Levant, being the only state in history to ever do so, being given the nickname "Roman Lake". The Western Roman Empire collapsed around 476 AD. The east was again dominant as Roman power lived on in the Byzantine Empire formed in the 4th century from the eastern half of the Roman Empire . Though the Eastern Roman Empire would continue to hold almost all of the Mediterranean, another power arose in

6450-443: The Mediterranean Sea (from west to east): Guadalajara (province) Guadalajara ( Spanish: [ɡwaðalaˈxaɾa] ) is a province of Spain , belonging to the autonomous community of Castilla–La Mancha . As of 2019 it had a population of 258,890 people. The population of the province has grown in the last 10 years. It is located in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula . The province has been inhabited since

6579-405: The Mediterranean Sea is the Nile , which takes its sources in equatorial Africa. The basin of the Nile constitutes about two-thirds of the Mediterranean drainage basin and encompasses areas as high as the Ruwenzori Mountains . Among other important rivers in Africa, are the Moulouya and the Chelif , both on the north side of the Atlas Mountains . In Asia, are the Ceyhan and Seyhan , both on

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6708-450: The Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea without ship lock, because the water level is essentially the same. The westernmost point of the Mediterranean is located at the transition from the Alborán Sea to the Strait of Gibraltar, the easternmost point is on the coast of the Gulf of Iskenderun in southeastern Turkey. The northernmost point of the Mediterranean is on the coast of the Gulf of Trieste near Monfalcone in northern Italy while

6837-447: The Mediterranean and its marginal seas in clockwise order are Spain , France , Monaco , Italy , Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Montenegro , Albania , Greece , Turkey , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine ( Gaza Strip ), Egypt , Libya , Tunisia , Algeria , and Morocco ; Cyprus and Malta are island countries in the sea. In addition, Northern Cyprus ( de facto state ) and two overseas territories of

6966-411: The Mediterranean towards East Africa and Asia. This led to a preference for the Mediterranean countries and their ports like Trieste with direct connections to Central and Eastern Europe experienced a rapid economic rise. In the 20th century, the 1st and 2nd World Wars as well as the Suez Crisis and the Cold War led to a shift of trade routes to the European northern ports, which changed again towards

7095-403: The Mendozas, the city of Guadalajara prospered in the 15th and 16th centuries, attracting writers, historians and philosophers, bringing it the name la Atenas alcarreña (the Alcarrian Athens). Encouraged by the Renaissance , Íñigo López de Mendoza, 1st Marquis of Santillana , (1398–1458) not only built palaces, churches and monasteries but developed a large library of Greek and Latin volumes. In

7224-415: The Molina moorlands, bordering the provinces of Zaragoza and Teruel, rainfall may be below 400 mm. The province contains the comarcas of La Alcarria , La Campiña , La Serranía and Señorío de Molina-Alto Tajo . The historical population is given in the following chart: Landmarks of note include the castle and walls of Palazuelos , Palace of El Infantado , Ducal Palace of Pastrana , Palace of

7353-528: The North African spruce forests of the Jbala region in the western Rif of Morocco . They come into contact with Algerian oak ( Quercus canariensis ) and other oak trees and sometimes even form mixed communities with these. Among the woody species also found in these forests are the hawthorn , barberry , butcher's broom ( Ruscus aculeatus ), Viburnum tinus , ivy, and Daphne laureola . It forms dense and dark forests in very distinct enclaves, in areas with high rainfall (from 2,000 to 3,000 mm, due to

7482-400: The Romans initiated their battles to conquer Spain which continued until 94 B.C. They brought agriculture, mining, and commerce to the region, facilitating communications with roads and bridges. The important Roman city was Segontia (Sigüenza), although they built a town wall around Luzaga and public buildings. The Visigoths , with their capital at Toledo , were dominant in the area around

7611-408: The Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Alexandretta , on the southeastern coast of Turkey , is about 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi). The north–south length varies greatly between different shorelines and whether only straight routes are considered. Also including longitudinal changes, the shortest shipping route between the multinational Gulf of Trieste and the Libyan coastline of the Gulf of Sidra

7740-442: The War of Independence, French troops caused extensive damage to towns in the province, especially Molina where over 600 buildings were destroyed by fire. When the city of Guadalajara was liberated in 1813, it was left in a devastated and poverty-stricken state. Conditions improved in 1840 with the establishment of the Academy of Military Engineering in the former textile factory. Further military installations followed, culminating at

7869-406: The ages. The earliest advanced civilizations in the Mediterranean were the Egyptians and the Minoans , who traded extensively with each other. Other notable civilizations that appeared somewhat later are the Hittites and other Anatolian peoples , the Phoenicians , and Mycenean Greece . Around 1200 BC the eastern Mediterranean was greatly affected by the Bronze Age Collapse , which resulted in

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7998-407: The area as generic Mediterranean Sea, in the Western Basin. It does not recognize the label Sea of Sardinia . Note 2: Thracian Sea and Myrtoan Sea are seas that are part of the Aegean Sea . Note 3: The Black Sea is not considered part of it. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows: Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in

8127-439: The beginning of Christian conquest of the region in 1085. By the early 12th century, Molina, La Serrania, Sigüenza and the Tagus Valley were retrieved leading to the establishment of the Bishopric of Sigüenza. Under Alfonso VII and Alfonso VIII, the region was repopulated with people from other parts of Castile. With the conquest of Cuenca and Alarcón at the end of the 12th century and the victory at Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212,

8256-442: The black pine ( Pinus nigra subsp salzmannii ) plays an important role in many of the mountain ranges in the centre, east and south of the Peninsula; in limy soil, and at the same elevation, it usually displaces the former. Both are displaced at higher elevations by the Scots pine. The warmest of all the pine forests are those of Aleppo pine ( Pinus halepensis ), which are situated on rocky crests and sunny hillsides. Aleppo pine

8385-462: The case of leafy forests, are the following: Mediterranean Sea For other countries, click here . The Mediterranean Sea ( / ˌ m ɛ d ɪ t ə ˈ r eɪ n i ən / MED -ih-tə- RAY -nee-ən ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean , surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia , on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern Europe , on

8514-401: The city of Guadalajara and the province's main towns all suffered considerable damage. In 1719, a royal textile factory was established in Guadalajara, bringing workers not only from across Spain but from the rest of Europe, especially the Netherlands. The factory prospered throughout the 18th century but was closed in the early 19th century as a result of the War of Spanish Independence . During

8643-409: The clearings of these forests and dominate their regressive phases. In western Andalusia, other common components of the ecosystem are the areas of common broom, genus Cytisus . The term quejigar refers to forests of many different characteristics. Forests of Algerian oaks ( Quercus canariensis ) are well represented in western Andalusia and very patchily by hybridizations in Catalonia and

8772-420: The coast do they manage to form woodlands of any importance. The high Mediterranean mountains above 1700 metres present some special characteristics. Winters are very harsh and long; the thickness of the snow and strong frosts prevent almost any type of biological activity. Once the snow has disappeared, the soil dries quickly due to the strong sun and high temperatures reached in summer. The period suitable for

8901-426: The continental characteristics of the climate become stronger, the species most sensitive to cold become steadily more scarce. The continental groves, on soils lacking lime ( calcium oxide ), tend to be rich in junipers ( Juniperus oxycedrus ) and are superseded at higher elevations and on cooler slopes by Pyrenean Oaks. This phenomenon is apparent in the Sierra de Guadarrama : when the oak forests have been destroyed,

9030-443: The damp oak forests and cork oak ; on the high ground they give way to Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ) forests or to los piornales serranos with creeping juniper. In areas where the influence of the Atlantic is more evident, they are taken over by heather and Erica australis ; in the remainder, in clearings and in more degraded phases, rock rose ( Cistaceae ) mixed with laurel leaf and Spanish lavender ( Lavandula stoechas )

9159-412: The death of Ruy's widow, Ana de Mendoza in 1592, the nobility moved to Madrid, causing the province to lose the high status it had achieved. While the Spanish Golden Age developed in central Spain during the 17th century, Guadalajara experienced an extended period of decline as the Habsburgs brought about increased centralization. In the early 18th century, under the War of the Spanish Succession ,

9288-412: The decomposition of the needles of evergreens. At higher elevations they are often replaced by black pine ( Pinus uncinata ). These fir forests sometimes contain maples ( Acer pseudoplatanus ) and their undergrowth is very similar to that of the beech forest. Like these, they are distinctly Euro-Iberian. The Mediterranean region occupies the rest of the peninsula (the greater part of it), as well as

9417-519: The depression of the Ebro , Hoya de Baza and the chalky marls further inland. Of all the oaks, the Pyrenean oak ( Quercus pyrenaica ) is the most resistant to drought and the continental-style climate. These forests, of a sub-Atlantic character, often represent the shift from Mediterranean vegetation to Atlantic vegetation. They cover a wide area of the peninsula and are of great importance, above all on

9546-673: The destruction of many cities and trade routes. The most notable Mediterranean civilizations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians , both of which extensively colonized the coastlines of the Mediterranean. Darius I of Persia , who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Red Sea to the Nile, and thus the Mediterranean. Darius's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended and required four days to traverse. Following

9675-519: The development of elevated brush. In their regressive stages, they tend toward hummocky thickets of cambrones ( Genista pumila ) or tomillares y prados de diente dominados por dwarf shrubs and dog's tooth grass . At lower elevations these groves can also alternate with espliego y aliaga . The Phoenicean juniper ( Juniperus phoenicea ) habitually plays a secondary part and does not often form dense woods. Only on some rocky shelves or in special environments such as fixed dunes and sandy areas near

9804-596: The east), which is sometimes translated as "Western Sea". Another name was the "Sea of the Philistines ", ( Book of Exodus ), from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites . In Modern Hebrew , it is called הים התיכון HaYam HaTikhon 'the Middle Sea'. In Classic Persian texts was called Daryāy-e Šām (دریای شام) "The Western Sea" or "Syrian Sea". In Modern Standard Arabic , it

9933-424: The edge of the riverbed, so that the woodlands that are most dependent on the aquifer are on the riverbank, that is, ( alders and willow groves) and those less dependent on water are located further away, such as the ( ash , elm , and poplar groves). These woodlands are formed by willows, poplars, alder, ash, elm and sometimes by Pyrenean oak ( Quercus pyrenaica ), lime trees , birches and hazel trees. When

10062-506: The end of the century in the establishment of the Airship Regiment which led to a range of early exploits and experiments. The finding of silver in the mining district of Hiendelaencina in 1844 lead to a silver rush in the area. The military facilities continued to provide Guadalajara with financial relief during the first 30 years of the 20th century. The population increased slightly, while further improvements resulted from

10191-608: The entire Mediterranean. Once, most of the trade between Western Europe and the East was passing through the region , but after the 1490s the development of a sea route to the Indian Ocean allowed the importation of Asian spices and other goods through the Atlantic ports of western Europe. The sea remained strategically important. British mastery of Gibraltar ensured their influence in Africa and Southwest Asia. Especially after

10320-608: The entire territory of Guadalajara was again in the hands of the Castilian Christians. The modern age began with the Catholic Monarchs , Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon whose marriage in Valladolid in 1469 united the crowns of Castile and Aragón . They centralized the authority which had developed in the church, the military and the nobility ostensibly to earn income for fighting

10449-402: The first phases of deterioration of the forest. The degradation caused by burning or felling leads to thickets of Scorpion's thorn ( Genista scorpius ), thyme and common lavender ( Lavandula angustifolia ). Cork oak forests occupy around 10,000 square kilometres on the peninsula, more than half of the world's extension of this kind of forest. The cork oak forest needs siliceous soils of

10578-672: The flourishing of trade between Europe and the outremer region. Genoa, Venice and Pisa created colonies in regions controlled by the Crusaders and came to control the trade with the Orient. These colonies also allowed them to trade with the Eastern world. Though the fall of the Crusader states and attempts at banning of trade relations with Muslim states by the Popes temporarily disrupted

10707-406: The foot of rocky cliff edges or in the clearings of beech forests, on poor or acidic soils, accompanied by aspen ( Populus tremula ) and mountain ash ( Sorbus aucuparia ). Birch may also grow in pure stands near the beech forests, in the mountainous areas on siliceous bedrock; these areas are typically of only small extent and generally quite patchy with sessile oak ( Quercus petraea ) and trees of

10836-513: The foot of thin interior mountain ranges. The sheltered gorges of the Serranía de Cuenca have mixed riparian forests of lime and hazel trees, with ashes, willows and Wych elm ( Ulmus glabra ). Because these woods occupied some of the most fertile lands, where people have planted orchards since ancient times, they have not been well preserved. The Spanish fir ( Abies pinsapo ) is a true relic which has remained preserved in some mountain ranges around Málaga and Cádiz . Spanish firs are related to

10965-576: The genus Sorbus . The silver fir ( Abies alba ) is found on the cool, deep-soiled slopes of the flanks of the Pyrenees , from Navarre to Montseny , forming pure fir woods or, more often, mixed forests with beech trees. The most important areas are in Lleida (Lérida), with 170 square kilometres. It extends from 700 to 1700 meters elevation, but its main areas are localized in more humid and dark valleys; these forests are dark, with acidic soil, due to

11094-402: The growth of vegetation is therefore very short and for the above-mentioned reasons, the land is dry most of the time. Under such conditions, the forest enters a state of crisis, being replaced by piornales (ciste and broom formations) and thickets pluvinulares accompanied at lower levels by Scots pine , often isolated individuals twisted and deformed by the snow. Siliceous mountains such as

11223-509: The humidity starts to diminish in barren areas of the Ebro valley, the Levante and the southern half of the peninsula, the dryness is often accompanied by an increase of salts in the ground; under such conditions one can find formations of tamarisk shrubs, oleanders and giant reeds ( Saccharum ravennae ), sometimes accompanied by heather. In soils rich in silica but not in salts, such as those of

11352-510: The infidels by reselling the territories they had gained. In the 16th century, this practice was reinforced by Charles I and Philip II . In Guadalajara, this was particularly the case with areas that had belonged to the military orders of Calatrava and Pastrana . The Mendozas who succeeded in acquiring substantial territories built a fortified palace in Pastrana and extended their influence over Sayatón , Escopete and Albalate . Under

11481-464: The influence of the ocean, with somewhat cold winters and the lack of a distinct dry season. The mainland extends to the north of Portugal, the greater part of Galicia , Asturias , Cantabria , the Basque Country , northwest of Navarre , and western Pyrenees. However, its influence in the form of communities or defined species extends inwards, especially in the north and west. The vegetation

11610-536: The influence of the wealthy landowner and politician Count of Romanones who was the representative for Guadalajara from 1886 to 1936. After fighting on the Republican side during the Spanish Civil War , the province was given little attention by the successive governments of Francisco Franco until the late 1950s when plans for moving industrial development out of Madrid began to favour Guadalajara and

11739-467: The interior. They do not usually form dense forests, but rather parkland or small woods in meadows. They prefer soils developed over limestone , especially those of an ochre or reddish color and rich in clay , de carácter relicto (Terra rosa, Terra fusca); on occasions, as in the region of Tamajón (Guadalajara), they also colonize siliceous terrain. They are adapted to an exceptionally harsh continental climate, where practically no other species of tree

11868-465: The latter sometimes forming part of the shrubby stratum. The fact that these are to be found mainly in areas which have been exposed for a large part of the Tertiary and over soils considered relictos , supposes a great antiquity for such groves. The harsh climatological conditions, with the surface of the ground undergoing processes of alternate freezing and thawing ( cryoturbation ), makes difficult

11997-417: The line of towers included a village. The castle originated as a Moorish fortress (10th-11th century), built over a pre-existing Celtiberian castle. The fortress was used as residence of the lords of the taifa of Molina . El Cid resided here when he was exiled from Castile . In 1129 it was conquered from the Moors by Alfonso I of Aragon . The impressive Torija Castle was built in the 11th century by

12126-691: The major ranges bordering Southern Europe. Total annual precipitation is significantly higher on the European part of the Mediterranean basin, especially near the Alps (the 'water tower of Europe') and other high mountain ranges. As a consequence, the river discharges of the Rhône and Po are similar to that of the Nile, despite the latter having a much larger basin. These are the only three rivers with an average discharge of over 1,000 m /s (35,000 cu ft/s). Among large natural fresh bodies of water are Lake Victoria (Nile basin), Lake Geneva (Rhône), and

12255-521: The migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants. In 2015, more than one million migrants crossed the Mediterranean Sea into Europe. Italy was particularly affected by the European migrant crisis . Since 2013, over 700,000 migrants have landed in Italy, mainly sub-Saharan Africans. The Mediterranean Sea connects: The 163 km (101 mi) long artificial Suez Canal in the southeast connects

12384-401: The moment, the influence of the mountains, the typical Mediterranean peninsular forest is made up of evergreen trees: oak forests, cork oaks, wild olives, juniper, and so on. These are accompanied or replaced in the warmer regions and eroded by forests of Aleppo pine ( Pinus halepensis ) and in areas of sandy ground and fixed sand dunes by juniper and stone pine forests. Exceptions to

12513-497: The most moisture and is least resistant to cold. It is found principally in the southwest quadrant and prefers siliceous soils, somewhat cool. More frequently than in pure concentrations, it is found mixed with cork oaks and Holm oaks. The most characteristic natural pine forests are those of pino negro ( Pinus uncinata ) and Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ). The former is often associated with Rhododendron ferrugineum , blueberries, Salix pyrenaica and other shrubby species on

12642-521: The most typical and common of the peninsula, since they are found from the Serranía de Ronda in Andalusia to the lower slopes of the Pyrenees. They are much more resistant to the cold and damp than Q. canariensis ; on the other hand, they need cooler and deeper soils than the Holm oaks with which they come into contact. Although they can grow in any type of soil , in siliceous soils the usually play

12771-500: The mountain ranges in the centre of the peninsula; from the interior of Galicia and extending south of the Cordillera Cantábrica they extend throughout the Sistema Central , reaching, to the south, (though scarce by the time they reach this region) the Sierra Nevada and Cádiz . They usually extend from 700 to 800 metres to 1500 to 1600 m elevation. They prefer siliceous soil and, as elevation increases, they replace

12900-421: The natural regeneration of the woods, as well as to provide food and refuge for the associated fauna. They are made up of spiny shrubs, depending on the forest and climate, such as gorse , box , thyme, and so on. It is possible to identify successive stages in the process of degradation of these various forest formations, from an optimum state to the final phase of desertification. These regressive states, in

13029-490: The naval battles of Abukir (1799, Battle of the Nile ) and Trafalgar (1805), the British had for a long time strengthened their dominance in the Mediterranean. Wars included Naval warfare in the Mediterranean during World War I and Mediterranean theatre of World War II . With the opening of the lockless Suez Canal in 1869, the flow of trade between Europe and Asia changed fundamentally. The fastest route now led through

13158-439: The non-coastal valleys of Galicia . They often alternate with the oaks, which occupy the drier slopes and with the quejigares of Algerian oak ( Quercus canariensis ), that occupy the ravines and cool, shady northward slopes. The cork oak forests often contain wild olives, and like some of the cool groves, are often accompanied by strawberry trees ( Arbutus unedo ) with mock privet ( Phillyrea angustifolia ) which grow in

13287-428: The number of drowned refugees in the region as a direct result of the policies. An Azerbaijani official described the sea as "a burial ground ... where people die". Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck , the Italian government decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising " Operation Mare Nostrum ", a military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue

13416-602: The province's population lives. There are 288 municipalities in Guadalajara, of which more than three-quarters are villages with populations less than 200. Guadalajara is a mountainous region, the eastern side of the province is in the Sistema Ibérico area, while the Sistema Central rises in the western part. The Sistema Ibérico occupies the northeastern part, with the Sierras de Somosierra, Ayllón , Sierra del Ocejón , Alto Rey, Bodera Barahona, and Radona mountains in

13545-687: The province. The seasonal distribution of rainfall is influenced by the relief, the most rainfall occurring in the mountainous areas of the Sistema Ibérico with between 700 and 900 mm per year, and in the headwaters of the Jarama and Sorbe rivers in the Sierra de Ayllon , with more than 800 mm. The Henares and Tajuña valleys, and the northern area of moorland in Sigüenza have less than 600 mm annually on average, and in some areas such as

13674-613: The region when the Battle of Lepanto (1571) checked the power of the Ottoman Navy . This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between galleys . The Barbary pirates of Northwest Africa preyed on Christian shipping and coastlines in the Western Mediterranean Sea. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves. The development of oceanic shipping began to affect

13803-634: The river banks in the area, notably that in Loma del Lomo in Cogolludo as well as a late Bronze Age settlement in Mojares . The Celtiberians occupied the territory during the late Iron Age between the 6th and 3rd centuries B.C. in Sigüenza , Atienza , and Termancia in the north and further south around Molina . In addition to raising livestock and breeding horses, they created many fortified towns and villages as well as castles. Between 143 and 133 B.C.,

13932-412: The rule are the more arid region in the southeast, the lower regions of the provinces of Murcia and Almeria , where the only vegetation is the European fan palm ( Chamaerops humilis ), and thorny thickets of blackthorn and at higher elevations, Kermes oak groves and mastic ( Pistacia lentiscus ). The same can be said of the salty or endorheic zones, with great differences in temperature, such as

14061-619: The semi-solid, semi-aquatic region characterized by papyrus forests to the north of the cultivated Nile delta, and, by extension, the sea beyond. The Ancient Greeks called the Mediterranean simply ἡ θάλασσα ( hē thálassa ; "the Sea") or sometimes ἡ μεγάλη θάλασσα ( hē megálē thálassa ; "the Great Sea"), ἡ ἡμετέρα θάλασσα ( hē hēmetérā thálassa ; "Our Sea"), or ἡ θάλασσα ἡ καθ’ ἡμᾶς ( hē thálassa hē kath’hēmâs ; "the sea around us"). The Romans called it Mare Magnum ("Great Sea") or Mare Internum ("Internal Sea") and, starting with

14190-463: The soil is so poor and the environmental conditions so unfavourable, that it leads to ragged thickets dominated by common rock rose, Spanish lavender and rosemary . On limy soils something similar takes place, above all at elevations of over 900 metres, oaks are accompanied by Spanish juniper ( Juniperus thurifera ) and the scarcity of shrubs is such that the same Holm oak ( Q. ilex subsp. rotundifolia or ballota ) dominates almost entirely on its own

14319-534: The south by North Africa , and on the west almost by the Morocco–Spain border . The Mediterranean has played a central role in the history of Western civilization . Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago, the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000 years during the Messinian salinity crisis before being refilled by

14448-630: The south side of the Taurus Mountains . In Europe, the largest basins are those of the Rhône , Ebro , Po , and Maritsa . The basin of the Rhône is the largest and extends up as far north as the Jura Mountains , encompassing areas even on the north side of the Alps . The basins of the Ebro, Po, and Maritsa, are respectively south of the Pyrenees , Alps, and Balkan Mountains , which are

14577-584: The southern ports through European integration, the activation of the Silk Road and free world trade. In 2013, the Maltese president described the Mediterranean Sea as a "cemetery" due to the large number of migrants who drowned there after their boats capsized. European Parliament president Martin Schulz said in 2014 that Europe's migration policy "turned the Mediterranean into a graveyard", referring to

14706-702: The southernmost point is on the coast of the Gulf of Sidra near the Libyan town of El Agheila . Large islands in the Mediterranean include: The Alpine arc , which also has a great meteorological impact on the Mediterranean area, touches the Mediterranean in the west in the area around Nice . The typical Mediterranean climate has hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include olives , grapes , oranges , tangerines , carobs and cork . The Mediterranean Sea includes 15 marginal seas : Note 1: The International Hydrographic Organization defines

14835-446: The subalpine slopes of the Pyrenees . Over less washed limestone soils it is usually accompanied by Savin juniper ( Juniperus sabina L. ), common juniper ( Juniperus communis subsp. hemisphaerica ), and common bearberry ( [Arctostaphylos uva-ursi] ). Such forests make up the tree line in most of the Pyrenees, reaching 2400 metres. The Scots pine plays the same part in the other peninsular mountains, both siliceous and limy. It

14964-443: The sudden cooling, with elevation, of humid winds), at elevations of over 1,000 metres. The forest has abundant moss and lichens, but very few shrubs and herbaceous plants. In all cases, Spanish fir occupies high mountain zones (such as the Sierra de las Nieves , Sierra Bermeja, and Sierra de Grazalema ). Forests of Holm oak ( Quercus rotundifolia ) form natural forests in most of the Mediterranean region as well as penetrating into

15093-660: The term was later extended to the whole Mediterranean, it was also called Baḥr al-Maghrib ( بحر المغرب ) ("the Sea of the West"). A name that was used mainly for the western basin. In Turkish , it is the Akdeniz 'the White Sea'; in Ottoman, ﺁق دڭيز , which sometimes means only the Aegean Sea . The origin of the name is not clear, as it is not known in earlier Greek, Byzantine or Islamic sources. It may be to contrast with

15222-672: The trade in western Europe and brought it to a halt. However, the Norsemen developed the trade from Norway to the White Sea , while also trading in luxury goods from Spain and the Mediterranean. The Byzantines in the mid-8th century retook control of the area around the north-eastern part of the Mediterranean. Venetian ships from the 9th century armed themselves to counter the harassment by Arabs while concentrating trade of Asian goods in Venice. The Fatimids maintained trade relations with

15351-600: The trade relations between Western and Eastern Europe while disrupting trade routes with Eastern Asian Empires. This, however, had the indirect effect of promoting trade across the Caspian Sea . The export of grains from Egypt was re-routed towards the Eastern world . Products from East Asian empires, like silk and spices, were carried from Egypt under the Arab rule to ports like Venice and Constantinople by sailors and Jewish merchants. The Viking raids further disrupted

15480-649: The trade with the Orient, it however continued. Europe started to revive, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century . Ottoman power based in Anatolia continued to grow, and in 1453 extinguished the Byzantine Empire with the Conquest of Constantinople . Ottomans gained control of much of the eastern part sea in

15609-421: The valleys they are replaced by ash trees and hazel tree groves. There are two main types of oak: the pedunculate oak and the sessile oak ( Quercus petraea ). The latter extends furthest into the interior and highest in elevation, but plays a secondary part; in general, when the climate begins to show its continental character, these oak forests are replaced by Pyrenean oak. The land on which these oaks stood

15738-482: The vicinity. The mountains are mainly limestone, eroded by the gorges of the rivers, such as the Henares (with a basin area of 3,735 square kilometres), and Jarama (with a basin area of 782 square kilometres) rivers. The Tagus (Tajo), one of Spain's main rivers, is a major river of the eastern part of the province, forming a basin with an area of 4,686 square kilometres, part of the wider Madrid basin. Also of note

15867-508: The warmer sun-exposed areas and hillsides of the Atlantic region; they extend from sea level, with the subspecies ilex , to an elevation of 1400 metres, in some mountains and high plains of the interior; in the continental zone, the oak found is the subspecies rotundifolia , more resistant to such a climate. The holm oak can also be found at higher elevations, but as isolated trees, not forming forests. Coastal oak forests and those of sublittoral mountains are extraordinarily rich and varied, with

15996-657: The west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa, and Asia and is divided into two deep basins: The drainage basin of the Mediterranean Sea is particularly heterogeneous and extends much further than the Mediterranean region. Its size has been estimated between 4,000,000 and 5,500,000 km (1,500,000 and 2,100,000 sq mi), depending on whether non-active parts (deserts) are included or not. The longest river ending in

16125-440: Was an important route for merchants and travellers of ancient times, facilitating trade and cultural exchange between the peoples of the region. The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. The Roman Empire maintained nautical hegemony over the sea for centuries and is the only state to have ever controlled all of its coast. The countries surrounding

16254-406: Was caused by hikers barbecuing. The Province of Guadalajara is located in eastern-central Spain, the northeast of the autonomous community of Castile-La Mancha , covering an area of 12.190 km (4.707 sq mi), 3.42% of the area of Spain. It is bordered by the provinces of Cuenca , Madrid , Segovia , Soria , Zaragoza , and Teruel . Its capital is Guadalajara , where nearly 35% of

16383-515: Was completed in 1962. Jadraque Castle overlooking the River Henares , sometimes known as the Castle of El Cid, has four round towers and one rectangular tower. Today's perfectly proportioned palatial structure was built by Juan Guas in the 15th century but it stands on the site of a fortress used for centuries by the Moors. The outer fabric has been substantially restored but the interior

16512-807: Was established by the Berber captain al-Faray , remembered for overcoming the Christians in the 9th century. The territory now covered by the Province of Guadalajara was part of the Middle March of Al-Andalus . Generally sparsely populated, the most important towns were Atienza, Guadalajara, Jadraque , Hita and Sigüenza. Following the dismemberment of the Caliphate of Córdoba , Toledo gained independence in 1018, reaching its zenith under Yahya-al-Mamun who reigned from 1043 to 1075. Following his death, pressure from King Alfonso VI of León and Castile led to

16641-475: Was finally retaken by Alfonso VI in 1085. With foundations dating back to the 5th century, Sigüenza Castle was extended by the Moors and retaken for the Christians by Bernard of Agen in 1123. In the late 18th century, Bishop Juan Díaz de la Guerra changed the appearance of the fortress into that of an episcopal palace but during the War of Spanish Independence it was taken by the French who seriously damaged it. In

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