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123-449: The Religious Society of Friends debated a number of issues in the early 19th century that led the various Friends Meetings to develop separate fellowships. The first major division dealt with Scriptural authority, among other issues. "Orthodox Quakers" emphasized Biblical sources while " Hicksite " and his followers believed the inward light was more important than scriptural authority. The Evangelical Friends Church, International grew out of

246-498: A disturbance and travelling without a pass. Quakers fell foul of irregularly enforced laws forbidding unauthorised worship, while actions motivated by belief in social equality – refusing to use or acknowledge titles, take hats off in court or bow to those who considered themselves socially superior – were seen as disrespectful. While imprisoned at Launceston, Fox wrote, "Christ our Lord and master saith 'Swear not at all, but let your communications be yea, yea, and nay, nay, for whatsoever

369-723: A fellow Quaker, Jemima Seaman, at the Westbury Meeting House and they had eleven children, only five of whom reached adulthood. Hicks eventually became a farmer, settling on his wife's parents' farm in Jericho, New York , in what is now known as the Elias Hicks House. There he and his wife provided, as did other Jericho Quakers, free board and lodging to any traveler on the Jericho Turnpike rather than have them seek accommodation in taverns for

492-457: A few fresh phrases of his own, [but] are generally characterized by an excess of scriptural language and today they seem dull and repetitious". Others point out that "Fox's sermons, rich in biblical metaphor and common speech, brought hope in a dark time." Fox's aphorisms found an audience beyond the Quakers, with many other church groups using them to illustrate principles of Christianity. Fox

615-422: A few private communications – were also published. Written from the 1650s onwards, with such titles as Friends, seek the peace of all men or To Friends, to know one another in the light , they give enormous insight into the detail of Fox's beliefs and show his determination to spread them. These writings, in the words of Henry Cadbury , Professor of Divinity at Harvard University and a prominent Quaker, "contain

738-412: A friend and associate of John Milton – with a preface by William Penn . Like most similar works of its time the journal was not written contemporaneously to the events it describes, but rather compiled many years later, much of it dictated. Parts of the journal were not in fact by Fox at all, but constructed by its editors from diverse sources and written as if by him. The dissent within the movement and

861-583: A judge challenged him to remove his hat, Fox replied by asking where in the Bible such an injunction could be found. The Society of Friends became increasingly organised towards the end of the decade. Large meetings were held, including a three-day event in Bedfordshire, the precursor of the present Britain Yearly Meeting system. Fox commissioned two Friends to travel around the country collecting

984-549: A judge mocked Fox's exhortation to "tremble at the word of the Lord", calling him and his followers "Quakers". After he refused to fight against the return of the monarchy (or to take up arms for any reason), his sentence was doubled. The refusal to swear oaths or take up arms came to be much more important in his public statements. Refusal to take oaths meant that Quakers could be prosecuted under laws compelling subjects to pledge allegiance and made testifying in court problematic. In

1107-473: A lady of high social position and one of his early converts, on 27 October 1669 at a meeting in Bristol. She was ten years his senior and had eight children (all but one of them Quakers) by her first husband, Thomas Fell, who had died in 1658. She was herself very active in the movement, and had campaigned for equality and the acceptance of women as preachers. As there were no priests at Quaker weddings to perform

1230-516: A letter of 1652 ( That which is set up by the sword ), he urged Friends not to use "carnal weapons" but "spiritual weapons", saying, "let the waves [the power of nations] break over your heads". In 1652, Fox preached for several hours under a walnut tree at Balby , where his disciple Thomas Aldham was instrumental in setting up the first meeting in the Doncaster area. In the same year Fox felt that God led him to ascend Pendle Hill , where he had

1353-414: A priest" but he was instead apprenticed to a local shoemaker and grazier , George Gee of Mancetter . This suited his contemplative temperament and he became well known for his diligence among the wool traders who had dealings with his master. A constant obsession for Fox was the pursuit of "simplicity" in life – humility and the abandonment of luxury. The short time he spent as a shepherd was important to

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1476-426: A primary source because of its wealth of detail on ordinary life in the 17th century, and the many towns and villages which Fox visited. A notable edition was published in 1852 by Quaker abolitionist Wilson Armistead annotated with historical and biographical footnotes which, according to Armistead, "must materially increase its interest". Hundreds of Fox's letters – mostly intended for wide circulation, along with

1599-579: A product of slavery, should cover him on his deathbed. Elias Hicks was interred in the Jericho Friends' Burial Ground as was earlier his wife, Jemima, who predeceased him on March 17, 1829. Samuel E. Clements a editor of the newspaper the Patriot aroused controversy when he and two friends attempted to dig up the corpse Elias Hicks to create a plaster mold of his head. George Fox George Fox (July 1624 O.S. – 13 January 1691 O.S. )

1722-466: A reference to Book of Miracles in the catalogue, which included the beginning and ending of each account of a miraculous cure. The book was then reconstructed based on this resource and journal accounts. According to Rufus M. Jones, the Book of Miracles "makes it possible for us to follow George Fox as he went about his seventeenth-century world, not only preaching his fresh messages of life and power, but as

1845-445: A remarkable healer of disease with the undoubted reputation of miracle-worker." The Book of Miracles was deliberately suppressed in favour of printing Fox's Journal and other writings. A sample from Book of Miracles : "And a young woman her mother ... had made her well. And another young woman was ... small pox ... of God was made well." Fox's journal was first published in 1694, after editing by Thomas Ellwood –

1968-424: A state of mental torment and confusion. The English Civil War had begun and troops were stationed in many towns through which he passed. In Barnet , he was torn by depression (perhaps from the temptations of the resort town near London). He alternately shut himself in his room for days at a time or went out alone into the countryside. After almost a year he returned to Drayton, where he engaged Nathaniel Stephens ,

2091-555: A technicality. Fox remained at Swarthmoor until the summer of 1653, then left for Carlisle , where he was arrested again for blasphemy. It was even proposed to put him to death, but Parliament requested his release rather than have "a young man ... die for religion". Further imprisonments came in London in 1654, Launceston in 1656, Lancaster in 1660, Leicester in 1662, Lancaster again and Scarborough in 1664–1666 and Worcester in 1673–1675. Charges usually included causing

2214-485: A thought – the thought that wakes in silent hours – perhaps the deepest, most eternal thought latent in the human soul. This is the thought of God, merged in the thoughts of moral right and the immortality of identity. Great, great is this thought – aye, greater than all else." George is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 13 January. Various editions of Fox's journal have been published since

2337-603: A thousand Friends in prison by 1657 – hardened Fox's opinions of traditional religious and social practices. In his preaching, he often emphasised the Quaker rejection of baptism by water; this was a useful way of highlighting how the focus of Friends on inward transformation differed from what he saw as the superstition of outward ritual. It was also a deliberate provocation of adherents of those practices, so providing opportunities for Fox to argue with them on matters of scripture. The same pattern appeared in his court appearances: when

2460-644: A traditional Protestant church. Friends in line with Gurney became known as Gurneyites. Those Orthodox Friends who did not agree with the practices of the Gurneyites, led by John Wilbur of Rhode Island, branched off to form the Wilburite branch of Conservative, Primitive and Independent yearly meetings. Those Hicksite Friends who did not agree with the lessened discipline within the Hicksite yearly meetings founded Congregational, or Progressive groups. In 1828,

2583-411: A vision of many souls coming to Christ. From there he travelled to Sedbergh , where he had heard a group of Seekers was meeting, and preached to over a thousand people on Firbank Fell , convincing many, including Francis Howgill , to accept that Christ might speak to people directly. At the end of the month he stayed at Swarthmoor Hall , near Ulverston , the home of Thomas Fell , vice-chancellor of

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2706-568: A voice which said, "There is one, even Christ Jesus, that can speak to thy condition"; and when I heard it my heart did leap for joy. Then the Lord let me see why there was none upon the earth that could speak to my condition, namely, that I might give Him all the glory; for all are concluded under sin, and shut up in unbelief as I had been, that Jesus Christ might have the pre-eminence who enlightens, and gives grace, and faith, and power. Thus when God doth work, who shall let (i. e. prevent) it? And this I knew experimentally. He thought intensely about

2829-457: A voyage of seven weeks, during which dolphins were caught and eaten, the party arrived in Barbados on 3 October 1671. From there, Fox sent an epistle to Friends spelling out the role of women's meetings in the Quaker marriage ceremony, a point of controversy when he returned home. One of his proposals suggested that the prospective couple should be interviewed by an all-female meeting prior to

2952-638: Is also a member of the World Evangelical Alliance , the largest interdenominational association in the world. In connection with their shared Quaker roots, they are also a member of the Friends World Committee for Consultation . Elias Hicks Elias Hicks (March 19, 1748 – February 27, 1830) was a traveling Quaker minister from Long Island , New York . In his ministry he promoted doctrines deemed unorthodox by many which led to lasting controversy, and caused

3075-542: Is attributed to that body, I acknowledge and give to that body, in its place, according as the Scripture attributeth it, which is through and because of that which dwelt and acted in it. "But that which sanctified and kept the body pure (and made all acceptable in him) was the life, holiness, and righteousness of the Spirit. 'And the same thing that kept his vessel pure, it is the same thing that cleanseth us." "In reply to

3198-526: Is composed of the various Yearly Meetings and mission fields within its bounds. Evangelical Friends Mission (EFM) recruits and sends missionaries to various parts of the world. It exists as the international sending agency and global church planting arm of EFCI-NA. As of 2022 over 2,000 Evangelical Friends churches representing more than 200,000 Friends in 35 countries are associated with EFCI. The majority of Evangelical Friends are located in Africa. As of 2010,

3321-486: Is described by Ellwood as "graceful in countenance, manly in personage, grave in gesture, courteous in conversation". Penn says he was "civil beyond all forms of breeding". We are told that he was "plain and powerful in preaching, fervent in prayer", "a discerner of other men's spirits, and very much master of his own", skilful to "speak a word in due season to the conditions and capacities of most, especially to them that were weary, and wanted soul's rest"; "valiant in asserting

3444-598: Is more than these cometh of evil.' ... the Apostle James saith, 'My brethren, above all things swear not, neither by heaven, nor by earth, nor by any other oath. Lest ye fall into condemnation.'" In prison George Fox continued writing and preaching, feeling that imprisonment brought him into contact with people who needed his help—the jailers as well as his fellow prisoners. In his journal, he told his magistrate, "God dwells not in temples made with hands." He also sought to set an example by his actions there, turning

3567-420: Is not recorded how this came to be; Richard Bauman asserts that "speaking was an important feature of the meeting for worship from the earliest days of Quakerism." Fox complained to judges about decisions he considered morally wrong, as he did in a letter on the case of a woman due to be executed for theft. He campaigned against paying the tithes intended to fund the established church, which often went into

3690-578: Is only one element in the larger service. These services are often led by an ordained (recognized) Pastor. A key doctrinal issue that sets Evangelical Friends apart from other Quakers is their view of salvation. Evangelical Friends believe that all people are in need of salvation, and that salvation comes to a person by putting his faith in Jesus Christ . Other Friends have a wide range of views on salvation, up to and including beliefs such as religious pluralism . Evangelical Friends support their views on

3813-711: Is the one that is most similar to other evangelical Christian denominations and differs some from other branches of Quakerism . Many of the distinctives found in the EFCI originate from the Richmond Declaration of 1887. Evangelical Friends may refer to a local congregation as a church, while some other Friends call it a monthly meeting . EFCI holds programmed (i.e. planned) services, while many other Friends hold silent services in which people speak as they feel led by God. Programmed services may incorporate silent worship, known as semi-programmed or mixed, but it

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3936-578: Is the primary focus of an individual’s faith over creed or doctrine, which follows George Fox and early Quaker concepts of inward light as “the presence of Christ in the heart,” God’s presence in each person, and the Holy Spirit speaking through each person. (The interchangeable use of Jesus, God, and the Holy Spirit is due to his and early Quaker rejection of the Trinity .) As a consequence,

4059-491: The Bible was to Hicks a secondary source of faith and understanding of God, as it is written entirely and divinely inspired by the Holy Spirit. He wrote I confirm my doctrine abundantly from their testimony: and I have always endeavored sincerely to place them [the scriptures] in their true place and station, but never dare exalt them above what they themselves declare; and as no spring can rise higher than its fountain, so likewise

4182-567: The Byberry Friends Meeting in 1824 that: He gave us passions—if we may call them passions—in order that we might seek after those things which we need, and which we had a right to experience and know. Hicks taught that all wrongdoing and suffering occurred in the world as the consequence of "an excess in the indulgence of propensities. Independent of the regulating influence of God's light." This first split in Quakerism

4305-639: The Duchy of Lancaster , and his wife, Margaret . Around that time, the ad hoc meetings of Friends began to be formalised and a monthly meeting was set up in County Durham . Margaret became a Quaker, and although Thomas did not convert, his familiarity with the Friends proved influential when Fox was arrested for blasphemy in October. Fell was one of three presiding judges, and the charges were dismissed on

4428-639: The Temptation of Christ , which he compared to his own spiritual condition, but he drew strength from his conviction that God would support and preserve him. In prayer and meditation he came to a greater understanding of the nature of his faith and what it required from him; this process he called "opening". He also came to what he deemed a deep inner understanding of standard Christian beliefs. Among his ideas were: In 1647 Fox began to preach publicly: in market-places, fields, appointed meetings of various kinds or even sometimes in "steeple-houses" (churches) after

4551-400: The colonies . Fox was unable to travel there immediately: he was imprisoned again in 1664 for his refusal to swear the oath of allegiance, and on his release in 1666 was preoccupied with organizational matters – he normalised the system of monthly and quarterly meetings throughout the country, and extended it to Ireland. Visiting Ireland also gave him a chance to preach against what he saw as

4674-515: The "peace testimony", committing themselves to oppose all outward wars and strife as contrary to the will of God. Not all his followers accepted this commitment; Isaac Penington , for example, dissented for a time, arguing that the state had a duty to protect the innocent from evil, if necessary by using military force. Despite the testimony, persecution against Quakers and other dissenters continued. Penington and others such as John Perrot and John Pennyman were uneasy at Fox's increasing power within

4797-774: The EFA was superseded by the Evangelical Friends International (EFI), covering four geographic regions (Africa, Asia, Latin America, and North America). In 2007, Europe was added as a fifth region. In 2004 the name was changed to the Evangelical Friends Church, International (EFCI). Friends, especially in the United States, are divided today as a result of divisions that took place mostly in the 19th century. The Evangelical branch

4920-533: The EFCI had over 34,000 members in over 300 congregations in the United States, making it the largest Quaker branch in the US, surpassing the centrist Friends United Meeting . Evangelical Friends Church International of North America is part of the National Association of Evangelicals , a large body of Christian denominations and groups in the United States that share evangelical beliefs. The EFCI globally

5043-656: The Five Years Meeting. In 1926, Oregon Yearly Meeting (now Northwest Yearly Meeting) withdrew from the organization. They were joined in their departure by several other yearly meetings and scattered monthly meetings in the coming years. In 1947, the Association of Evangelical Friends was formed, with triennial meetings which lasted until 1970. In turn, this led to the formation of the Evangelical Friends Alliance (EFA) in 1965. In 1989

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5166-662: The Friends, along the same lines as he had done in Britain. He also preached to many non-Quakers, some but not all of whom were converted. After extensive travels round the various American colonies, George Fox returned to England in June 1673 confident that his movement was firmly established there. Back in England, however, he found his movement sharply divided among provincial Friends (such as William Rogers, John Wilkinson and John Story) who resisted establishment of women's meetings and

5289-487: The Holy Spirit occurred at two points of Jesus’ life, his divine conception and his baptism by John the Baptist . Regarding salvation , Hicks firstly rejected the concept of original sin . Because of this, he did not argue that the sacrifice of Jesus’ body or his blood provided salvation, nor that faith in him does so. Rather that salvation came through living as Jesus exemplified, that is, in accordance and unity with

5412-532: The Holy Spirit/Inward Light. Consequently Hicks implicitly refutes doctrines of salvation such as penal substitution , or predestination . In the year 1829, "Six Queries" were proposed by Thomas Leggett, Jr., of New York, and answered by Elias Hicks. The last was as follows: Sixth Query. What relation has the body of Jesus to the Saviour of man? Dost thou believe that the crucifixion of

5535-545: The Inner Light before Scripture, Quaker elders decided to visit each meeting house in the city to examine the doctrinal soundness of all ministers and elders. This caused great resentment that culminated at the following Philadelphia Yearly Meeting in 1827. Hicks was not present when the differences between the meeting houses ended in acrimony and division, precipitated by the inability of the Meeting to reach consensus on

5658-584: The Ohio Yearly Meeting (Damascus) joined the Evangelical Friends Alliance. In 1971 Ohio Yearly Meeting (Damascus) became Evangelical Friends Church – Eastern Region . Most of the Gurneyite Friends formed the Five Years Meeting (renamed Friends United Meeting in 1965) as an association of yearly meetings following the adoption of the Richmond Declaration in 1877. After World War I , the modernist-fundamentalist debate began to divide

5781-523: The Orthodox branch that held to the primacy of scriptural authority. The next major controversy led to separation in the Orthodox branch. "Gurneyite" Friends, were deeply influenced by the evangelical movement (as were other Protestant denominations of the era), especially the ideas of John Wesley . John Wilbur led a group known as "Wilburites" or " Conservative Friends ", who preferred a quietist approach and disavowed Biblical inerrancy as understood by

5904-626: The Protector's worsening illness – Fox even wrote that "he looked like a dead man". Cromwell died in September of that year. One early Quaker convert, the Yorkshireman James Nayler , arose as a prominent preacher in London around 1655. A breach began to form between Fox's and Nayler's followers. As Fox was held prisoner at Launceston, Nayler moved south-westwards towards Launceston intending to meet Fox and heal any rift. On

6027-562: The Regulating things , but the year was so chaotic that it never considered these; the document was not reprinted until the 21st century. With the restoration of the monarchy , Fox's dreams of establishing the Friends as the dominant religion seemed at an end. He was again accused of conspiracy, this time against Charles II , and fanaticism – a charge he resented. He was imprisoned in Lancaster for five months, during which he wrote to

6150-561: The Scriptures can only direct to the fountain from whence they originated - the spirit of truth: as saith the apostle, 'The things of God knoweth no man, but the Spirit of God;' therefore when the Scriptures have directed and pointed us to this light within, or Spirit of Truth, there they must stop - it is their ultimatum - the top stone of what they can do And no other external testimony of men or books can do any more. Hicks sparked great controversy for writing in letters to his friends that

6273-450: The Scriptures? and by which so many cruel and bloody wars have been promulgated [promoted]. And yet at the same time, may it not be one of the best books, if rightly used under the guidance of the Holy Spirit? But, if abused, like every other blessing, it becomes a curse. Therefore to these it always does more hurt than good; and thou knowest that these comprehend far the greatest part of Christendom! Regarding Jesus Christ , Hicks wrote that

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6396-484: The age of 19 he was looking down on their behaviour, in particular their consumption of alcohol. At prayer one night after leaving two acquaintances at a drinking session, Fox heard an inner voice saying, "Thou seest how young people go together into vanity, and old people into the earth; thou must forsake all, young and old, keep out of all, and be as a stranger unto all." Driven by his "inner voice", Fox left Drayton-in-the-Clay in September 1643 and moved towards London in

6519-652: The appointment of a new clerk required to record its discernment. Though the initial separation was intended to be temporary, by 1828, there were two independent Quaker groupings in the city, both claiming to be the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting. Other yearly meetings split along similar lines during subsequent years, including those in New York, Baltimore, Ohio , and Indiana . Those who followed Hicks became termed Hicksites and his critics termed Orthodox Friends, each faction considering itself to be

6642-460: The beliefs of the earliest Friends, such as George Fox (other Friends assert the same about their own beliefs and practices). Evangelical Friends also generally adhere to most, if not all, of the testimonies (core beliefs and values) of Friends (see "Testimonies" under Religious Society of Friends ). The Evangelical Friends Church, International is divided into several geographical areas called "Regions". Each region has its own director. A region

6765-458: The ceremony, the union took the form of a civil marriage approved by the principals and the witnesses at a meeting. Ten days after the marriage, Margaret returned to Swarthmoor to continue her work there, while George went back to London. Their shared religious work was at the heart of their life together, and they later collaborated on much of the administration the Society required. Shortly after

6888-446: The clergyman of his home town, in long discussions on religious matters. Stephens considered Fox a gifted young man, but the two disagreed on so many issues that he later called Fox mad and spoke against him. Over the next few years Fox continued to travel around the country, as his particular religious beliefs took shape. At times he actively sought the company of clergy, but found no comfort from them as they seemed unable to help with

7011-591: The contributions of others to the development of Quakerism are largely excluded from the narrative. Fox portrays himself as always in the right and always vindicated by God's interventions on his behalf. As a religious autobiography, Rufus Jones compared it to such works as Augustine's Confessions and John Bunyan 's Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners . It is, though, an intensely personal work with little dramatic power that only succeeds in appealing to readers after substantial editing. Historians have used it as

7134-693: The controversy respecting the doctrines of Elias Hicks in 1824 in which she depicted Hicks as a radical eccentric. Hicks felt obliged to respond and in the same year published a letter to his ally in Philadelphia Meeting, Dr. Edwin Atlee, in The Misrepresentations of Anna Braithwaite . This in turn was replied to by Braithwaite in A Letter from Anna Braithwaite to Elias Hicks, On the Nature of his Doctrines in 1825. Neither party

7257-447: The country despite a harsh reception from some listeners, who would whip and beat them to drive them away. As his reputation spread, his words were not welcomed by all. As an uncompromising preacher, he hurled disputation and contradiction to the faces of his opponents. The worship of Friends in the form of silent waiting punctuated by individuals speaking as the Spirit moved them seems to have been well-established by this time, though it

7380-543: The course of 1656 to alleviate the persecution of Quakers. Later that year, they met for a second time at Whitehall. On a personal level, the meeting went well; despite disagreements between the two men, they had a certain rapport. Fox invited Cromwell to "lay down his crown at the feet of Jesus" – which Cromwell declined to do. Fox met Cromwell again twice in March 1657. Their last meeting was in 1658 at Hampton Court , though they could not speak for long or meet again because of

7503-467: The divine inspiration of the Bible and that it is the foundation for any church doctrines. The Inner Light must be in agreement with the scriptures or else it is to be deemed as "mere delusion." Similar to other branches of Friends, the Evangelical Friends Church affirms baptism and Communion as spiritual realities. These realities are realized in Jesus Christ through the Holy Spirit. Unlike most of

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7626-458: The established church, but he fell out with one group, for example, because he maintained that women had souls: as I had forsaken the priests, so I left the separate preachers also, and those esteemed the most experienced people; for I saw there was none among them all that could speak to my condition. And when all my hopes in them and in all men were gone, so that I had nothing outwardly to help me, nor could tell what to do, then, oh, then, I heard

7749-686: The established church, leading to the release of about 1,500 Friends. Though the Quakers lost influence after the Glorious Revolution , which deposed James II, the Act of Toleration 1689 put an end to the uniformity laws under which Quakers had been persecuted, permitting them to assemble freely. Two days after preaching as usual at the Gracechurch Street Meeting House in London, George Fox died between 9 and 10 p.m. on 13 January 1690 O.S. (23 January 1691 N.S.). He

7872-709: The evangelical group. The Ohio Yearly Meeting was originally based in Friends Meetinghouse (Mount Pleasant, Ohio) . Following the separation over evangelical teachings, there were two Ohio Yearly Meetings: "Wilburite" and "Gurneyite". The current Wilburite Ohio Yearly Meeting is often distinguished by the addition of "Conservative" to its name and is a member of the Conservative Friends . The "Gurneyite" group relocated to Damascus, Ohio in 1917, becoming Ohio Yearly Meeting (Damascus). Later, they relocated again, this time to Canton, Ohio . In 1965

7995-551: The excesses of the Roman Catholic Church , in particular the use of ritual. More recent Quaker commentators have noted points of contact between the denominations: both claim the actual presence of God in their meetings, and both allow the collective opinion of the church to augment Biblical teaching. Fox, however, did not perceive this, brought up as he had been in a wholly Protestant environment hostile to "Popery". Fox married Margaret Fell of Swarthmoor Hall ,

8118-644: The existence of an external Devil . He never spoke of eternal Hell but he expressed the importance of the soul's union "now" in preparation for the "realms of eternity" and how the soul's condemnation is elected through our free agency, not by God's foreordination. Hicks rejected of the notion of an outward Devil as the source of evil, but rather emphasized that it was the human 'passions' or 'propensities'. Hicks stressed that basic urges, including all sexual passions, were neither implanted by an external evil, but all were aspects of human nature as created by God. Hicks claimed, in his sermon Let Brotherly Love Continue at

8241-533: The first in New York to do so and, gradually following their example, all Westbury Quaker slaves were freed by 1799. In 1794, Hicks was a founder of the Charity Society of Jericho and Westbury Meetings, established to give aid to local poor African Americans and provide their children with education. In 1811, Hicks wrote Observations on the Slavery of Africans and Their Descendants and in it he linked

8364-674: The first reunified Monthly Meetings in the 1920s until finally resolved with the reunification of Baltimore Yearly Meeting in 1968. On June 24, 1829, at the age of 81, Elias Hicks went on his final traveling ministry to western and central New York State, arriving home in Jericho on November 11, 1829. There, in January 1830, he suffered a stroke that left him partially paralyzed and on February 14, 1830, he suffered an incapacitating secondary stroke. He died some two weeks later on February 27, 1830, his dying concern being that no cotton blanket,

8487-717: The first schism within Quakerism, the 1827-1828 Hicksite-Orthodox split. The central doctrinal focus of the Hicksite-Orthodox split was the role of the Bible and Jesus Christ. Both Hicksites and Orthodox Quakers viewed their positions as continuations of the original Quakers views. Though historians such as Glen Crothers argues that the schism resulted from the Second Great Awakening in the United States leading to Orthodox Quakers adopting more Biblical views as influenced by American Evangelicals . Elias Hicks argued that Inward Light in each individual

8610-594: The formation of educational institutions. To wit, Orthodox Quakers founded Haverford College and Hicksites Swarthmore College . Both the Orthodox and Hicksite Friends experienced further schisms. The main following of the Orthodox Friends followed the practices of the English Quaker Joseph John Gurney who possessed an evangelical position. As time went on, a majority of the meetings endorsed forms of worship much like those of

8733-401: The formation of this view. Toward the end of his life he wrote a letter for general circulation pointing out that Abel , Noah , Abraham , Jacob , Moses and David were all keepers of sheep or cattle and so a learned education should not be seen as a necessary qualification for ministry. George Fox knew people who were " professors " (followers of the standard Church of England ), but by

8856-471: The government remained uncertain about the group's links with other, more violent, movements. A revolt by the Fifth Monarchists in January 1661 led to the suppression of that sect and the repression of other Nonconformists , including Quakers. In the aftermath of this attempted coup, Fox and eleven other Quakers issued a broadside proclaiming what became known among Friends in the 20th century as

8979-487: The king for his release, which was granted, but Fox felt too weak to take up his travels immediately. Recuperating at Swarthmoor, he began dictating what would be published after his death as his journal and devoted his time to his written output: letters, both public and private, as well as books and essays. Much of his energy was devoted to the topic of oaths, having become convinced of its importance to Quaker ideas. By refusing to swear, he felt that he could bear witness to

9102-508: The king offering advice on governance: Charles should refrain from war and domestic religious persecution, and discourage oath-taking, plays, and maypole games. These last suggestions reveal Fox's Puritan leanings, which continued to influence Quakers for centuries after his death. Once again, Fox was released after demonstrating that he had no military ambitions. At least on one point, Charles listened to Fox. The 700 Quakers who had been imprisoned under Richard Cromwell were released, though

9225-572: The late 1820s, he argued in favor of raising funds to buy slaves and settle them as free people in the American Southwest. Hicks influenced the abolition of slavery in his home state, from the partial abolition of the 1799 Gradual Abolition Act to the 1817 Gradual Manumission in New York State Act which led to the final emancipation of all remaining slaves within the state on July 4, 1827. Hicks ministry would be part of

9348-409: The letter B (for blasphemer), bored through the tongue with a red-hot iron and imprisoned in solitary confinement with hard labour. Nayler was released in 1659, but he was a broken man. On meeting Fox in London, he fell to his knees and begged Fox's forgiveness. Shortly afterward, Nayler was attacked by thieves while travelling home to his family, and died. The persecutions of these years – with about

9471-417: The marriage to determine whether there were any financial or other impediments. Though women's meetings had been held in London for the last ten years, this was an innovation in Bristol and the north-west of England, which many there felt went too far. Fox wrote a letter to the governor and assembly of the island in which he refuted charges that Quakers were stirring up the slaves to revolt and tried to affirm

9594-657: The marriage, Margaret was imprisoned in Lancaster; George remained in the south-east of England, becoming so ill and depressed that for a time he lost his sight. By 1671 Fox had recovered and Margaret had been released by order of the King. Fox resolved to visit the English settlements in North America and the West Indies, remaining there for two years, possibly to counter any remnants of Perrot's teaching there. After

9717-518: The matters troubling him. One, in Warwickshire , advised him to take tobacco (which Fox disliked) and sing psalms ; another, in Coventry , lost his temper when Fox accidentally stood on a flower in his garden; a third suggested bloodletting . Fox became fascinated by the Bible, which he studied assiduously. He hoped to find among the " English Dissenters " a spiritual understanding absent from

9840-571: The meeting. Fox was impressed by their general demeanour, which he saw as "courteous and loving". He resented the suggestion (from a man in North Carolina ) that "the Light and Spirit of God ... was not in the Indians", a proposition which Fox rejected. Fox left no record of encountering slaves on the mainland. Elsewhere in the colonies, Fox helped to establish organizational systems for

9963-470: The miracles Jesus performed were meant to prove the existence of God. He argued that Jesus was the savior of the Jewish people by replacing the law put forth by Moses. He also argued that Jesus provided the path to salvation for all people exemplified by his life, which was perfectly and entirely guided and united with the Holy Spirit through his inward light. To Hicks, Jesus divinity by being united with God and

10086-538: The moral issue of emancipation to the Quaker Peace Testimony , by stating that slavery was the product of war. He identified economic reasons for the perpetuation of slavery: Q. 10. By what class of the people is the slavery of the Africans and their descendants supported and encouraged? A. Principally by the purchasers and consumers of the produce of the slaves' labour; as the profits arising from

10209-538: The movement, and many Friends, including women and children, were jailed over the next quarter-century. Meanwhile, Quakers in New England had been banished (and some executed ), and Charles was advised by his councillors to issue a mandamus condemning this practice and allowing them to return. Fox was able to meet some of the New England Friends when they came to London, stimulating his interest in

10332-650: The movement. Like Nayler before them, they saw no reason why men should remove their hats for prayer, arguing that men and women should be treated as equals, and if, as according to the apostle Paul, women should cover their heads, then so could men. Perrot and Penington lost the argument. Perrot emigrated to the New World, and Fox retained leadership of the movement. Parliament enacted laws which forbade non-Anglican religious meetings of more than five people, essentially making Quaker meetings illegal. Fox counselled his followers to violate openly laws that attempted to suppress

10455-466: The necessity of salvation as being more in line with the meaning of the Bible. Due to Evangelical Friends' origins within the Gurneyite faction during the 19th century series of schisms that divided the Society, some Evangelical Friends rely relatively less on the authority of the Inner Light and more on their belief in the authority of a literal reading of the Scripture. The Richmond Declaration states

10578-470: The night. In 1778, Hicks helped to build the Friends meeting house in Jericho , which remains a place of Quaker worship. Hicks preached actively in Quaker meeting, and by 1778 he was acknowledged as a recorded minister . Hicks was regarded as a gifted speaker with a strong voice and dramatic flair. He drew large crowds when he was said to be attending meetings, sometimes in the thousands. In November 1829,

10701-584: The orthodoxy of Quaker beliefs. After a stay in Jamaica , Fox's first landfall on the North American continent was at Maryland , where he participated in a four-day meeting of local Quakers. He remained there while various of his English companions travelled to the other colonies, because he wished to meet some Native Americans who were interested in Quaker ways—though he relates that they had "a great dispute" among themselves about whether to participate in

10824-429: The other branches of Friends, the Evangelical Friends Church allows for individual freedom of conscience in regards to participating in water baptism or in offering and receiving Communion within their churches. The issue that sets Evangelical Friends apart from other evangelical Christians is that they consider themselves part of the larger Friends movement. They also feel that their particular beliefs are consistent with

10947-418: The other cheek when being beaten and refusing to show his captors any dejected feelings. Parliamentarians grew suspicious of monarchist plots and fearful that the group travelling with Fox aimed to overthrow the government: by this time his meetings were regularly attracting crowds of over a thousand. In early 1655 he was arrested at Whetstone, Leicestershire and taken to London under armed guard. In March he

11070-489: The other'; adding that he wished [Fox] no more ill than he did to his own soul." This episode was later recalled as an example of "speaking truth to power", a preaching technique by which subsequent Quakers hoped to influence the powerful. Although not used until the 20th century, the phrase is related to the ideas of plain speech and simplicity which Fox practised, but motivated by the more worldly goal of eradicating war, injustice and oppression. Fox petitioned Cromwell over

11193-472: The outward body of Jesus Christ was an atonement for our sins? Hicks Answered. "In reply to the first part of this query, I answer, I believe, in unison with our ancient Friends, that it was the garment in which he performed all his mighty works, or as Paul expressed it, 'Know ye not that your body is the temple of the Holy Ghost, which is in you,' therefore he charged them not to defile those temples. What

11316-534: The paid labor of free people. Though the free produce movement was not intended to be a religious response to slavery, most of the free produce stores were Quaker in origin, as with the first such store, that of Benjamin Lundy in Baltimore in 1826. Hicks supported Lundy's scheme to assist the emigration of freed slaves to Haiti and in 1824, he hosted a meeting on how to facilitate this at his home in Jericho. In

11439-485: The period from 1821 to 1827 to denounce his views. Their presence severely exacerbated the differences among American Quakers, differences that had been underscored by the 1819 split between the American Unitarians and Congregationalists . The influence of Anna Braithwaite was especially strong. She visited the United States between 1823 and 1827 and published her Letters and observations relating to

11562-421: The pockets of absentee landlords or religious colleges distant from the paying parishioners. In his view, as God was everywhere and anyone could preach, the established church was unnecessary and a university qualification irrelevant for a preacher. Conflict with civil authority was inevitable. Fox was imprisoned several times, the first at Nottingham in 1649. At Derby in 1650 he was imprisoned for blasphemy ;

11685-419: The power of those who resided in or near London. With William Penn and Robert Barclay as allies of Fox, the challenge to Fox's leadership was eventually put down. But in the midst of the dispute, Fox was imprisoned again for refusing to swear oaths after being captured at Armscote , Worcestershire. His mother died shortly after hearing of his arrest and Fox's health began to suffer. Margaret Fell petitioned

11808-412: The produce of their labour, is the only stimulus or inducement for making slaves. and he advocated a consumer boycott of slave-produced goods to remove the economic reasons for their existence: Q. 11. What effect would it have on the slave holders and their slaves, should the people of the United States of America and the inhabitants of Great Britain, refuse to purchase or make use of any goods that are

11931-501: The product of Slavery? A. It would doubtless have a particular effect on the slave holders, by circumscribing their avarice, and preventing their heaping up riches, and living in a state of luxury and excess on the gain of oppression … Observations on the Slavery of Africans and Their Descendents gave the free produce movement its central argument. This movement promoted an embargo of all goods produced by slave labor, which were mainly cotton cloth and cane sugar, in favor of produce from

12054-433: The pure and genuine principles of Christianity in their original simplicity, though he afterward showed great prowess as a religious organiser in the structure he gave to the new society. There were a great many rival Christian denominations holding very diverse opinions in that period; the atmosphere of dispute and confusion gave Fox an opportunity to put forward his own beliefs through his personal sermons. Fox's preaching

12177-400: The religion inside of man's very own nature. This he incessantly labors to kindle, nourish, educate, bring forward and strengthen." Elias Hicks was one of the early Quaker abolitionists . In 1778 on Long Island, he joined with fellow Quakers who had begun manumitting their slaves as early as March 1776 (James Titus and Phebe Willets Mott Dodge ). The Quakers at Westbury Meeting were amongst

12300-418: The same period. Not all of his beliefs were welcome to all Quakers: his Puritan-like opposition to the arts and rejection of theological study, forestalled development of these practices among Quakers for some time. The George Fox room at Friends House , London, UK is named after him. Walt Whitman , who was raised by parents inspired by Quaker principles, later wrote: "George Fox stands for something too –

12423-503: The scriptures created more harm than good, because different factions of Christians held the Bible in too high a regard and without using the inward light as the primary source of understanding with which to interpret the Bible. In a personal letter he wrote For it is my candid belief, that those that hold and believe the Scriptures to be the only rule of faith and practice, to these it does much more hurt than good. And has anything tended more to divide Christendom into sects and parties than

12546-579: The second major schism within the Religious Society of Friends (the first caused by George Keith in 1691). Elias Hicks was the older cousin of the painter Edward Hicks . Elias Hicks was born in Hempstead, New York , in 1748, the son of John Hicks (1711–1789) and Martha Hicks (née Smith; 1709–1759), who were farmers. He was a carpenter by trade and in his early twenties he became a Quaker like his father. On January 2, 1771, Hicks married

12669-522: The second part of this query, I would remark that I 'see no need of directing men to the type for the antitype, neither to the outward temple, nor yet to Jerusalem, neither to Jesus Christ or his blood [outwardly], knowing that neither the righteousness of faith, nor the word of it doth so direct." "The new and second covenant is dedicated with the blood, the life of Christ Jesus, which is the alone atonement unto God, by which all his people are washed, sanctified, cleansed, and redeemed to God." Hicks rejected

12792-467: The service. His powerful preaching began to attract a small following. It is not clear at what point the Society of Friends was formed, but there was certainly a group of people who often travelled together. At first, they called themselves "Children of the Light" or "Friends of the Truth", and later simply "Friends". Fox seems initially to have had no desire to found a sect, but only to proclaim what he saw as

12915-749: The split in American Quakerism also spread to the Quaker community in Canada that had immigrated there from New York, the New England states and Pennsylvania in the 1790s. This resulted in a parallel system of Yearly Meetings in Upper Canada, as in the United States. The eventual division between Hicksites and the evangelical Orthodox Friends in the US was both deep and long-lasting. Full reconciliation between them took decades to achieve, from

13038-765: The testimonies of imprisoned Quakers, as evidence of their persecution; this led to the establishment in 1675 of Meeting for Sufferings , which has continued to the present day. The 1650s, when the Friends were at their most confrontational, was one of the most creative periods of their history. Under the Commonwealth, Fox had hoped that the movement would become the major church in England. Disagreements, persecution and increasing social turmoil, however, led Fox to suffer from severe depression, which left him deeply troubled at Reading, Berkshire , for ten weeks in 1658 or 1659. In 1659, he sent parliament his most politically radical pamphlet, Fifty nine Particulars laid down for

13161-459: The true expression of the legacy of the founder of the Friends, George Fox . The split was also based on marked socioeconomic factors with Hicksite Friends being mostly poor and rural and with Orthodox Friends being mostly urban and middle-class. Many of the rural country Friends kept to Quaker traditions of "plain speech" and " plain dress ", both long-abandoned by Quakers in the towns and cities. Both Orthodox and Hicksite factions were active in

13284-516: The truth, bold in defending it, patient in suffering for it, immovable as a rock". Fox had a tremendous influence on the Society of Friends and his beliefs have largely been carried forward. Perhaps his most significant achievement, other than his predominant influence in the early movement, was his leadership in overcoming the twin challenges of government prosecution after the Restoration and internal disputes that threatened its stability during

13407-478: The value of truth in everyday life, as well as to God, whom he associated with truth and the inner light . For three months in 1677 and a month in 1684, Fox visited the Friends in the Netherlands , and organised their meetings for discipline. The first trip was the more extensive, taking him into what is now Germany, proceeding along the coast to Friedrichstadt and back again over several days. Meanwhile, Fox

13530-498: The way he was arrested himself and held at Exeter . After Fox was released from Launceston gaol in 1656, he preached throughout the West Country . Arriving at Exeter late in September, Fox was reunited with Nayler. Nayler and his followers refused to remove their hats while Fox prayed, which Fox took as both a personal slight and a bad example. When Nayler refused to kiss Fox's hand, Fox told Nayler to kiss his foot instead. Nayler

13653-510: The young Walt Whitman heard Hicks preach at Morrison's Hotel in Brooklyn , and later said, "Always Elias Hicks gives the service of pointing to the fountain of all naked theology, all religion, all worship, all the truth to which you are possibly eligible—namely in yourself and your inherent relations. Others talk of Bibles, saints, churches, exhortations, vicarious atonements—the canons outside of yourself and apart from man—Elias Hicks points to

13776-735: Was a churchwarden and relatively wealthy. He left his son a substantial legacy when he died in the late 1650s. Fox was of a serious, religious disposition from childhood. There is no record of any formal schooling but he learnt to read and write. "When I came to eleven years of age," he said, "I knew pureness and righteousness; for, while I was a child, I was taught how to walk to be kept pure. The Lord taught me to be faithful, in all things, and to act faithfully two ways; viz., inwardly to God, and outwardly to man." Known as an honest person, he also proclaimed, "The Lord taught me to be faithful in all things ... and to keep to Yea and Nay in all things." As he grew up, Fox's relatives "thought to have made me

13899-552: Was an English Dissenter , who was a founder of the Religious Society of Friends , commonly known as the Quakers or Friends. The son of a Leicestershire weaver , he lived in times of social upheaval and war. He rebelled against the religious and political authorities by proposing an unusual, uncompromising approach to the Christian faith. He travelled throughout Britain as a dissenting preacher, performed hundreds of healings, and

14022-478: Was brought before the Lord Protector , Oliver Cromwell . After affirming that he had no intention of taking up arms, Fox was able to speak to Cromwell for most of the morning about the Friends. He advised him to listen to God's voice and obey it, so that as Fox left, Cromwell "with tears in his eyes said, 'Come again to my house; for if thou and I were but an hour of a day together, we should be nearer one to

14145-463: Was grounded in scripture but was mainly effective because of the intense personal experience he was able to project. He was scathing about immorality, deceit and the exacting of tithes and urged his listeners to lead lives without sin, avoiding the Ranter 's antinomian view that a believer becomes automatically sinless. By 1651 he had gathered other talented preachers around him and continued to roam

14268-570: Was interred three days later in the Quaker Burying Ground , in the presence of thousands of mourners. George Fox performed hundreds of healings throughout his preaching ministry, the records of which were collected in a notable but now lost book titled Book of Miracles . This book was listed in the catalogue of George Fox's work maintained by the Library of the Society of Friends at Friends House, London. In 1932, Henry Cadbury found

14391-607: Was not entirely due to Hicks' ministry and internal divisions. It was, in part, also a response within Quakerism to the influences of the Second Great Awakening , the revival of Protestant evangelism that began in the 1790s as a reaction to religious skepticism , deism , and the liberal theology of Rational Christianity. However, doctrinal tensions among Friends due to Hicks' teachings had emerged as early as 1808 and as Hicks' influence grew, prominent visiting English evangelical public Friends, including William Forster and Anna Braithwaite , were prompted to travel to New York State in

14514-495: Was offended and the two parted acrimoniously. Fox wrote that "there was now a wicked spirit risen amongst Friends". After Nayler's own release later the same year he rode into Bristol triumphantly playing the part of Jesus Christ in a re-enactment of Palm Sunday . He was arrested and taken to London, where Parliament defeated a motion to execute him by a vote of 96–82. Instead, they ordered that he be pilloried and whipped through both London and Bristol, branded on his forehead with

14637-511: Was often persecuted by the disapproving authorities. In 1669, he married Margaret Fell , widow of a wealthy supporter, Thomas Fell ; she was a leading Friend. His ministry expanded and he made tours of North America and the Low Countries . He was arrested and jailed numerous times for his beliefs. He spent his final decade working in London to organise the expanding Quaker movement. Despite disdain from some Anglicans and Puritans , he

14760-448: Was participating in a dispute among Friends in Britain over the role of women in meetings, a struggle which took much of his energy and left him exhausted. Returning to England, he stayed in the south to try to end the dispute. He followed with interest the foundation of the colony of Pennsylvania , where Penn had given him over 1,000 acres (4.0 km ) of land. Persecution continued, with Fox arrested briefly in October 1683. Fox's health

14883-464: Was persuaded by this exchange. In 1819, Hicks had devoted much energy into influencing the meeting houses in Philadelphia and this was followed by years of intense organizational turmoil. Eventually, due to both external influences and constant internal strife, matters came to a head there in 1826. After the 1826 Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, at which Hicks' sermon had stressed the importance of

15006-510: Was viewed with respect by the Quaker convert William Penn and the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell . Fox was born in the strongly Puritan village of Drayton-in-the-Clay, Leicestershire, England (now Fenny Drayton ), 15 miles (24 km) west-south-west of Leicester , as the eldest of four children of Christopher Fox, a successful weaver , called "Righteous Christer" by his neighbours, and his wife, Mary née Lago. Christopher Fox

15129-529: Was worsening, but he continued his activities – writing to leaders in Poland , Denmark , Germany and elsewhere about his beliefs and their treatment of Quakers. In the last years of his life, Fox continued to participate in the London Meetings, and still made representations to Parliament about the sufferings of Friends. The new King, James II , pardoned religious dissenters jailed for failure to attend

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