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68-576: The term generally refers to a simple, tamper-proof, read-write memory device. The role of the EDR is limited compared to journey data recorders such as digital tachographs in Europe or electronic logging device in the USA, which may also be referred to as a black box or in-vehicle data recorder. In modern diesel trucks , EDRs are triggered by electronically sensed problems in the engine (often called faults), or

136-480: A mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving system. It is used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion, most often accomplished by means of friction. Most brakes commonly use friction between two surfaces pressed together to convert the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat , though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example, regenerative braking converts much of

204-416: A vacuum assisted brake system that greatly increases the force applied to the vehicle's brakes by its operator. This additional force is supplied by the manifold vacuum generated by air flow being obstructed by the throttle on a running engine. This force is greatly reduced when the engine is running at fully open throttle, as the difference between ambient air pressure and manifold (absolute) air pressure

272-402: A brake are eddy current brakes , and electro-mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically driven friction brakes, but nowadays are often just called "electromagnetic brakes" as well). Electromagnetic brakes slow an object through electromagnetic induction , which creates resistance and in turn either heat or electricity. Friction brakes apply pressure on two separate objects to slow

340-600: A brake would convert all the kinetic energy into heat, in practice a significant amount may be converted into acoustic energy instead, contributing to noise pollution . For road vehicles, the noise produced varies significantly with tire construction, road surface , and the magnitude of the deceleration. Noise can be caused by different things. These are signs that there may be issues with brakes wearing out over time. Railway brake malfunctions can produce sparks and cause forest fires . In some very extreme cases, disc brakes can become red hot and set on fire. This happened in

408-443: A complete view of the accident. There are many different patents related to various types of EDR features. The Eaton Vehicle Onboard Radar (VORAD) Collision Warning System is used by many commercial trucking firms to aid drivers and improve safety. The system includes forward and side radar sensors to detect the presence, proximity and movements of vehicles around the truck to then alert the truck driver. When sensors determine that

476-418: A court or judicial or administrative authority, subject to the standards for admission into evidence; (2) obtain the written, electronic or recorded audio consent of the vehicle owner or lessee; (3) be conducting an investigation or inspection authorized by federal law; (4) demonstrate it is necessary to facilitate medical care in response to a car accident; or (5) be conducting traffic safety research, so long as

544-1009: A data dictionary of 86 data elements and covers device survivability. Since 2006, the US has prescribed what data must be recorded in event data recorders, if a vehicle has an event data recorder, in American regulation 49 CFR 563. Since between 2008 and 2019, Korea has fitted vehicles with event data recorders, according to Korean regulation KMVSS Art. 56-2 (MOLIT Ord. 534/2018). Since between 2008 and 2015, Japan has fitted vehicles with event data recorders, according to Japanese regulation J-EDR (Kokujigi 278/2008), for passenger cars. Since between 2012 and 2015 Switzerland has fitted vehicles with event data recorders, according to regulation VTS Art. 102, applicable to vehicles with blue lights and sirens. Since between 2003 and 2005, Uruguay has fitted vehicles with event data recorders, according to Decree 560/003 Art. 11, for dangerous goods vehicles. China has drafted

612-450: A deployment file, a non-deployment file or both, depending on the circumstances of the collisions and the time interval between them, among other things. It is also possible that no data can be recovered from a data recorder. One situation where this might occur is a catastrophic loss of electrical power early in a collision event. In this situation, the power reserve in the restraint system control module capacitors may be completely spent by

680-410: A device called a brake caliper ) is forced mechanically , hydraulically , pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the machinery. For example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of

748-441: A fault-related event occurs, the data is written to memory. When an event triggered by a reduction in wheel speed is sensed, the data that is written to memory can include almost two minutes of data about vehicle speed, brake application, clutch application, and cruise control status. The data can be downloaded later using the computer software and cables for the specific engine involved. These software tools often allow monitoring of

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816-517: A feature for the conventional vehicle, & that an automated vehicle should instead have Data Storage System for Automated Driving (DSSAD). The EDR aims to analyze accidents, while the DSSAD should be used for research, monitoring, liability, & legal responsibility. Some forensic studies are underway regarding rules and regulations and warn automakers and crash investigators of privacy concerns and unintended use of retrieved EDR data. Beginning in

884-460: A regulation which would become mandatory for all passenger cars as of January 2021. In March 2021, the new UN Regulation 160 on Event Data Recorders is adopted by the World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations . In the US 49/563.5 regulatory framework, Event data recorder is defined as a a device or function in a vehicle that records the vehicle's dynamic time-series data during

952-468: A result of EDR evidence; following are a few noteworthy examples, though all of the former. On 12 April 2007, N.J. Governor Jon Corzine was seriously injured in an automobile accident. According to the superintendent of state police, an event data recorder in the SUV he was traveling in recorded he was traveling at about 91mph five seconds before the crash. The speed limit on the road is 65mph. The Governor

1020-460: A rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly called a " drum brake ", although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating disc, commonly called a " disc brake ". Other brake configurations are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches

1088-606: A rotating drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and expand laterally. A drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused by a set of brake shoes that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is connected to the rotating roadwheel hub. Drum brakes generally can be found on older car and truck models. However, because of their low production cost, drum brake setups are also installed on

1156-436: A software, and without any other physical processes. The related storage type RAM means something different; it refers to memory that can access any memory location in a constant amount of time. The term might also refer to memory locations having both read and write permissions. In modern computer systems using memory segmentation , each segment has a length and set of permissions associated with it. Read–write memory

1224-409: A sudden change in wheel speed. One or more of these conditions may occur because of an accident. Information from these devices can be collected after a crash and analyzed to help determine what the vehicles were doing before, during and after the crash or event. In its efforts to establish the uniform scientific crash data needed to make vehicle and highway transportation safer and reduce fatalities,

1292-412: A working fluid and do not explicitly wear. Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction. Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake ;

1360-401: Is "off-brake drag", or drag that occurs when the brake is not intentionally actuated. After a braking event, hydraulic pressure drops in the system, allowing the brake caliper pistons to retract. However, this retraction must accommodate all compliance in the system (under pressure) as well as thermal distortion of components like the brake disc or the brake system will drag until the contact with

1428-676: Is applicable to new car models sold in the European Union and in the European economic area but this move has been met with criticism as this standard is not stringent enough. In 2020, talks were ongoing to draft and define global and/or UNECE vehicle regulation for event data recorder. In March 2021, regulation 160 was adopted. European UN regulations include regulation 160 for cars (M1 and N1 categories) and regulation 169 for heavy vehicles (M2, M3, N2 and N3categories)  · . Some EDRs continuously record data, overwriting

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1496-730: Is composed of either volatile or non-volatile types of storage. Volatile memory is usually in the form of a microchip or other hardware that requires an external power source to enable data to persist. Non-volatile memory is considered static, or storage-type memory. This means that you can write data to it, and that information will persist even in the absence of a power source. Typically read-write speeds are limited to its bandwidth or have mechanical limitations of either rotation speeds and arm movement delays for storage types such as Cloud Storage , Hard Disk Drive or CD-RWs , DVD-RWs , SD cards , Solid State Drive , SRAM , and DRAM , or other integrated circuitry . San Francisco in 1956, IBM

1564-440: Is not perfectly efficient . Therefore, a good metric of efficient energy use while driving is to note how much one is braking. If the majority of deceleration is from unavoidable friction instead of braking, one is squeezing out most of the service from the vehicle. Minimizing brake use is one of the fuel economy-maximizing behaviors . While energy is always lost during a brake event, a secondary factor that influences efficiency

1632-423: Is reduced, and therefore available vacuum is diminished. However, brakes are rarely applied at full throttle; the driver takes the right foot off the gas pedal and moves it to the brake pedal - unless left-foot braking is used. Because of low vacuum at high RPM, reports of unintended acceleration are often accompanied by complaints of failed or weakened brakes, as the high-revving engine, having an open throttle,

1700-460: Is unable to provide enough vacuum to power the brake booster. This problem is exacerbated in vehicles equipped with automatic transmissions as the vehicle will automatically downshift upon application of the brakes, thereby increasing the torque delivered to the driven-wheels in contact with the road surface. Heavier road vehicles, as well as trains, usually boost brake power with compressed air , supplied by one or more compressors. Although ideally

1768-552: The IEEE launched IEEE 1616 in 2004. It was the first universal standard for MVEDRs, much like those that monitor crashes on aircraft and trains. The new standard specifies minimal performance characteristics for onboard tamper- and crash-proof memory devices for all types and classes of highway and roadway vehicles. This international protocol will help manufacturers develop what is commonly called "black boxes" for autos, trucks, buses, ambulances, fire trucks and other vehicles. It includes

1836-403: The drum brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake . When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed against the master cylinder , ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as

1904-484: The undercarriage . Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples include gliders and some World War II -era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber and Vought F4U Corsair fighter used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake. Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in

1972-656: The 1890s, Wooden block brakes became obsolete when Michelin brothers introduced rubber tires. During the 1960s, some car manufacturers replaced drum brakes with disc brakes. In 1966, the ABS was fitted in the Jensen FF grand tourer. In 1978, Bosch and Mercedes updated their 1936 anti-lock brake system for the Mercedes S-Class . That ABS is a fully electronic, four-wheel and multi-channel system that later became standard. In 2005, ESC — which automatically applies

2040-725: The August 2006 ruling, NHTSA set a timetable for all vehicle manufacturers to be in compliance with the new EDR standards. The compliance date was originally set for all vehicles manufactured after September 1, 2010. But in 2008, NHTSA pushed the date back to September 1, 2012. In 2014, it was working on another rule update to give vehicle manufacturers until September 1, 2014, but that rule was never issued. In 2020, an NTSB communication revealed that an ADAS system could collect information useful for crash analysis and risk assessment, but that federal regulators failed to standardize it. Some regulators though, consider Event Data Recorder (EDR) to be

2108-451: The Tool is a collection of components including cables and adapters which, with proper training and minimal difficulty, are used to "retrieve" data from supported vehicles. Another 11% of model year 2016 and newer vehicles are supported by other EDR tools. The limited need to cover less commonly supported vehicles may make the initial investment in software and equipment unnecessary for many in

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2176-569: The Tuscan GP, when the Mercedes car, the W11 had its front carbon disc brakes almost bursting into flames, due to low ventilation and high usage. These fires can also occur on some Mercedes Sprinter vans, when the load adjusting sensor seizes up and the rear brakes have to compensate for the fronts. A significant amount of energy is always lost while braking, even with regenerative braking which

2244-499: The United States, at least 17 states have statutes specific to EDRs. Generally, these state statutes restrict access to the EDR or limit the use of recovered EDR information. The U.S. federal Driver Privacy Act of 2015 was enacted on December 4, 2015. It stated that the owner or lessee of a motor vehicle is the owner of the data collected by the EDR. In order to access that data, an investigator would need to (1) be authorized by

2312-553: The accident reconstruction or related industries. From 1998 to 2001, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) sponsored a working group specifically tasked with the study of EDRs. After years of evaluation, NHTSA released a formal Notice of Proposed Rulemaking in 2004. This notice declared NHTSA's intent to standardize EDRs. It was not until August 2006 that NHTSA released its final ruling (49 CFR Part 563). The ruling

2380-492: The brakes to avoid a loss of steering control — become compulsory for carriers of dangerous goods without data recorders in the Canadian province of Quebec. Since 2017, numerous United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) countries use Brake Assist System (BAS) a function of the braking system that deduces an emergency braking event from a characteristic of the driver's brake demand and under such conditions assist

2448-477: The cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down. Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics. One brake may use several principles: for example, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to create friction: Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into " shoe " or " pad " brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes, which use friction in

2516-619: The data they collect. As of 2004, an estimated 40 million passenger vehicles are equipped with the devices. In the UK many police and emergency service vehicles are fitted with a more accurate and detailed version that is produced by one of several independent companies. Both the Metropolitan police and the City of London police are long-term users of EDRs and have used the data recovered after an incident to convict both police officers and members of

2584-403: The deployment (or non-deployment) decisions are made, and if there is still power available, the data are written to memory. Data downloaded from older EDRs usually contain 6 to 8 pages of information, though many newer systems include a lot more data elements and require more pages, depending on the make/model/year of the vehicle being evaluated. Depending on the type of EDR, it may contain either

2652-707: The deployment of the air bags, leaving insufficient power to write data to the EEPROM. There are other circumstances where a module may fail to record a data file as well. Most EDRs in heavy trucks are part of the engine electronic control module (ECM), which controls fuel injection timing and other functions in modern heavy-duty diesel engines. The EDR functions are different for different engine manufacturers, but most recognize engine events such as sudden stops, low oil pressure, or coolant loss. Detroit Diesel , Caterpillar Inc. , Mercedes-Benz , Mack Trucks , and Cummins engines are among those that may contain this function. When

2720-641: The disc, for example, knocks the pads and pistons back from the rubbing surface. During this time, there can be significant brake drag. This brake drag can lead to significant parasitic power loss, thus impacting fuel economy and overall vehicle performance. Since traditional manufacturing technology is too expensive for brake pad production and requires a lot of development time and production time, including multiple finishing processes, etc. In order to overcome these limitations, 3D printing technology can be used to manufacture brake pads. This method can improve some economic costs and improve environmental protection. In

2788-419: The driver to improve braking. In July 2013 UNECE vehicle regulation 131 was enacted. This regulation defines Advanced Emergency Braking Systems (AEBS) for heavy vehicles to automatically detect a potential forward collision and activate the vehicle braking system. On 23 January 2020 UNECE vehicle regulation 152 was enacted, defining Advanced Emergency Braking Systems for light vehicles. From May 2022, in

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2856-409: The driver's hours of service , fuel economy, idle time, average travel speeds, and other information related to the maintenance and operation of the vehicle. Some EDRs only keep track of the car's speed along its length and not the speed going sideways. Analysts generally look at the momentum, energy, and crush damage, and then compare their speed estimates to the number coming out of the EDR to create

2924-450: The electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake . Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a generator with an internal short circuit. Related types of such

2992-457: The energy to electrical energy , which may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring

3060-641: The energy to a rotating flywheel. Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing. Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity ( K = m v 2 / 2 {\displaystyle K=mv^{2}/2} ), an object moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of

3128-427: The engine create some braking. Some engines use a valve override called a Jake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy as heat, or can be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a hydraulic accumulator . Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use

3196-457: The event of an accident. The recorded data can be used by accident investigators and forensic engineers to show the movement and speed of the host vehicle plus the position and speeds of other vehicles prior to the incident. In accident reconstruction, the VORAD system is a step above the EDR systems in that VORAD monitors other vehicles relative to the host vehicle, while EDR's only record data about

3264-484: The host vehicle. Event data recorders were introduced to American open-wheel championship CART in the 1993 season , and the Formula One World Championship in 1997. Data collected by the recorders was used to improve safety and design factors in race vehicles and racetracks. EDRs are not mandated on new vehicles, however, if they are installed, they must meet US DOT requirements governing

3332-434: The issue of 'who owns the data' has not yet been fully resolved ubiquitously, and there has been some controversy over the use of recorded data as evidence in court cases (see next section) and for insurance claims against the driver of a crashed vehicle. But the use of EDR data in civil and criminal court cases is on the rise as they become more accepted as a source of reliable empirical evidence in accident reconstruction. In

3400-410: The late 90s light vehicle manufacturers included electronic data recorders (EDR) in most vehicles; they were commonly referred to as 'Black Boxes'. Despite alerts and warnings in the owner's manual, many drivers are not aware of their vehicle's recording capability. Global civil liberty and privacy groups have raised concerns about the implications of data recorders 'spying' on car users, particularly as

3468-465: The period shortly before, during and immediately after a collision shall include the vehicle's speed , braking , position and tilt of the vehicle on the road, the state and rate of activation of all its safety systems, 112-based eCall in-vehicle system, brake activation and relevant input parameters of the on-board active safety and accident avoidance systems , with high level of accuracy and ensured survivability of data Since 6 July 2022 EDR regulation

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3536-434: The personal information of the owner/lessee is not disclosed. In Canada, it is considered that there is no expectation of privacy since the information contained in the EDR did not contain "intimate details of the driver’s biological core … that could be said to directly compromise his dignity, integrity, and autonomy.". There have been a number of trials worldwide involving EDRs. Drivers have been convicted and exonerated as

3604-460: The previous few minutes until a crash stops them, and others are activated by crash-like events (such as sudden changes in velocity) and may continue to record until the accident is over, or until the recording time is expired. EDRs may record a wide range of data elements, potentially including whether the brakes were applied, the speed at the time of impact, the steering angle, and whether seat belt circuits were shown as "Buckled" or "Unbuckled" at

3672-554: The public. Downloading an airbag module in most vehicles is best accomplished by connecting the appropriate scanning tool to the Diagnostic Link Connector (DLC) usually found under the vehicle's dashboard near the driver's knees. Alternately, some modules can be downloaded "on the bench" after removal from the vehicle. Over 88% of model year 2016 and newer vehicles are supported by the Bosch CDR tool, enabling

3740-424: The rear of some low-cost newer vehicles. Compared to modern disc brakes, drum brakes wear out faster due to their tendency to overheat. The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a road wheel. A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English), usually made of cast iron or ceramic , is connected to the wheel or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads (mounted in

3808-628: The required data, NHTSA also set standards for 30 other types of data to be recorded if EDRs were voluntarily configured. For example, if a manufacturer configured an EDR to record engine RPMs or ABS activity, then the EDR would have to record 5 seconds of those pre-crash data in half-second increments. Besides the requirement that all data be able to survive a 30mph barrier crash and be measured with defined precision, NHTSA also required that all manufacturers make their EDR data publicly available. As of October 2009, only General Motors, Ford and Daimler Chrysler had released their EDR data to be publicly read. In

3876-419: The retrieval of event data recorder (EDR) data from a vehicle that has been involved in a crash. This tool is made up of hardware and software which provides the ability to "image", "download", or "retrieve" EDR data that may be stored in the control modules of passenger cars, light trucks and SUVs. The software component is a single, standalone program designed to run in a Windows environment. The hardware part of

3944-474: The same mass moving at 1 m/s, and consequently the theoretical braking distance , when braking at the traction limit, is up to 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quickly with speed. Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp . Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on

4012-535: The time of the crash. Current EDRs store the information internally on an EEPROM until recovered from the module. Some vehicles have communications systems (such as GM 's OnStar system) that may transmit some data, such as an alert that the airbags have been deployed or location data if remote territory is entered. Most EDRs in automobiles and light trucks are part of the restraint system control module, which senses impact accelerations and determines what restraints (airbags and/or seatbelt tensioners) to deploy. After

4080-421: The time period just prior to a crash event (e.g., vehicle speed vs. time) or during a crash event (e.g., delta-V vs. time), intended for retrieval after the crash event. For the purposes of this definition, the event data do not include audio and video data. In an EU parliament text adopted in 2019, event data recorder requirements assume: the data that they are capable of recording and storing with respect of

4148-475: The trend did not continue, the agency would revisit their decision and possibly make installation a requirement. The mandate did, however, provide a minimum standard for the type of data that EDRs would be required to record, consisting of at least 15 types of crash data, including pre-crash speed, engine throttle, brake use, measured changes in forward velocity (Delta-V), driver safety belt use, airbag warning lamp status and airbag deployment times. In addition to

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4216-439: The truck is closing on a vehicle ahead too quickly or that a nearby vehicle is potentially hazardous, the VORAD system gives the driver both a visual and audible warning. The VORAD system also monitors various parameters of the truck including vehicle speed and turn rate plus the status of vehicle systems and controls. The monitored data is captured and recorded by the VORAD system. This monitored data can be extracted and analyzed in

4284-502: The vehicle in a controlled manner. Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including: Foundation components are the brake-assembly components at the wheels of a vehicle, named for forming the basis of the rest of the brake system. These mechanical parts contained around the wheels are controlled by the air brake system. The three types of foundation brake systems are “S” cam brakes, disc brakes and wedge brakes. Most modern passenger vehicles, and light vans, use

4352-475: Was driving into a Jeep in 2006. The accident left a baby girl paralyzed and the driver, who was aged 19 at the time of the incident, was sentenced to 21 months in prison. The EDR evidence allowed investigators to determine the driver was speeding at 72mph in a 30mph zone. Read-write memory Read–write memory , or RWM is a type of computer memory that can be easily written to as well as read from using electrical signaling normally associated with running

4420-502: Was lengthy (207 pages), consisting of not only definitions and mandatory EDR standards, but also acted as a formal reply to the dozens of petitions received by NHTSA after the 2004 notice. Since there was already an overwhelming trend for voluntary EDR installation, the ruling did not require manufacturers to install EDRs in vehicles produced for North America. Based on its analysis, NHTSA estimated that by 2010, over 85% of vehicles would already have EDRs installed in them, but warned that if

4488-501: Was not the driver of the vehicle. On November 2, 2011, Mass. Lt. Governor Tim Murray crashed a government-owned vehicle on a stretch of Interstate 190 . Initially, police investigating did not issue any citations. Murray initially claimed he simply lost control on the ice, wasn't speeding, was wearing a seat belt and braked. But those claims were all later disproven when the Crown Victoria black box data recorder information

4556-593: Was released. The data revealed the car was traveling 108 miles per hour, accelerated, and the Lt. Governor was not wearing a seat belt at the time the vehicle collided with a rock ledge and flipped over. Murray was unhurt in the accident. The first such use of EDR evidence in the United Kingdom was at Birmingham Crown Court during the trial of Antonio Boparan-Singh who crashed the Range Rover Sport he

4624-453: Was the first company to develop and sell the first commercial Hard Disk Drive (HDD) . The drive was the Model 350 disk storage unit, which was 3.75 Megabytes of data storage capacity and had fifty 24-inch diameter disks stacked on a spindle and sold to Zellerbach paper . This computer hardware article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Brake A brake is

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