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82-557: The Exxon Valdez oil spill was a major environmental disaster that occurred in Alaska 's Prince William Sound on March 24, 1989. The spill occurred when Exxon Valdez , an oil supertanker owned by Exxon Shipping Company , bound for Long Beach , California, struck Prince William Sound 's Bligh Reef , 6 mi (9.7 km) west of Tatitlek, Alaska at 12:04 a.m. The tanker spilled more than 10 million US gallons (240,000 bbl) (or 37,000 tonnes ) of crude oil over

164-477: A multi-lingual crew. At sea, the mate on watch has three fundamental duties: navigate the ship, safely avoid traffic, and respond to any emergencies that may arise. Mates generally stand watch with able seamen who act as helmsman and lookout . The helmsman executes turns and the lookout reports dangers such as approaching ships. These roles are often combined to a single helmsman/lookout and, under some circumstances, are eliminated. The ability to smartly handle

246-462: A cornerstone of safe watchkeeping. Safety requires that one live these rules and follows the principles of safe watchkeeping. Maximizing bridge teamwork, including the practice of Bridge Resource Management , is an emerging focus in watchkeeping. The main purpose for Radar and Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA) on a ship's bridge is to move safely among other vessels. These instruments help to accurately judge information about prominent objects in

328-411: A fair shake. Chemical dispersant, a surfactant and solvent mixture, was applied to the slick by a private company on March 24 with a helicopter, but the helicopter missed the target area. Scientific data on its toxicity were either thin or incomplete. In addition, public acceptance of new, widespread chemical treatment was lacking. Landowners, fishing groups, and conservation organizations questioned

410-514: A senior manager for the operations on board, as the Mate is in charge of a number of departmental functions. In modern cargo vessels, the Mate holds appointments like Head of Deck Department, Head of Cargo/Stowage Operations, Head of Safety/Fire Fighting, Head of On-Board Security (Ship Security Officer), Head of Environment and Quality, and so forth. As cargo officer, a chief mate oversees the loading, stowage, securing and unloading of cargoes. Moreover,

492-442: A ship is key to safe watchstanding. A ship's draught , trim, speed and under-keel clearance all affect its turning radius and stopping distance. Other factors include the effects of wind and current, squat, shallow water and similar effects. Shiphandling is key when the need arises to rescue a man overboard , to anchor, or to moor the ship. The officer must also be able to transmit and receive signals by Morse light and to use

574-536: A single tug for the passage through the Valdez Narrows – a journey of about 7 miles. The pilot left the bridge shortly after the vessel left the narrows, at 11:24   p.m. At this point, the captain was called to the bridge. Cousins helped the pilot disembark from the vessel, leaving the captain as the only officer on the bridge. At 11:25   p.m. Exxon Valdez reported that the pilot had left. The third mate advised traffic control and decided to deviate from

656-578: A spill of the size created by Exxon Valdez . Exxon filed claims in October 1990 against the Coast Guard, asking to be reimbursed for cleanup costs and damages awarded to plaintiffs in any lawsuits filed by the State of Alaska or the federal government against Exxon. The company claimed that the Coast Guard was "wholly or partially responsible" for the spill, because they had granted mariners' licenses to

738-630: A spill of this magnitude. In response to the spill, the United States Congress passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA). The legislation included a clause that prohibits any vessel that, after March 22, 1989, has caused an oil spill of more than 1 million US gallons (3,800 m) in any marine area, from operating in Prince William Sound. In April 1998, the company argued in a legal action against

820-482: A suit against the State of Alaska , claiming that the state had interfered with Exxon's attempts to clean up the spill by refusing to approve the use of dispersant chemicals until the night of the 26th. The State of Alaska disputed this claim, stating that there was a long-standing agreement to allow the use of dispersants to clean up spills, thus Exxon did not require permission to use them, and that, in fact, Exxon had not had enough dispersant on hand to effectively handle

902-411: A traditional maritime college/academy to earn the officer license. A ship's hawsepipe is the pipe passing through the bow section of a ship that the anchor chain passes through. Hawsepiper refers to climbing up the hawsepipe, a nautical metaphor for climbing up the ship's rank structure. Hawsepiper is considered a positive term when said respectfully. Many hawsepipers are proud of their background and use

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984-641: Is a list of major environmental disasters: A 2013 report examined the relationship between disasters and poverty world-wide. It concludes that, without concerted action, there could be upwards of 325 million people living in the 49 countries most exposed to the full range of natural hazards and climate extremes in 2040. According to author Daniel Murphy, different groups can adapt to environmental disasters differently due to social factors such as age, race, class, gender, and nationality. Murphy argues that while developed countries with access to resources that can help mitigate environmental disasters often contribute

1066-477: Is also a constant concern. Knowing the classes and chemistry of fire, fire-fighting appliances, and systems prepares the officer to act fast in case of fire. An officer must be expert in the use of survival craft and rescue boats . Expertise includes the vessels' launching appliances and arrangements, and their equipment including radio life-saving appliances, satellite EPIRBs , SARTs , immersion suits and thermal protective aids. It's important to be expert in

1148-625: Is in charge of the firefighting and damage control teams. He is scene leader and reports via radio to the Captain who is in command and coordinates the larger response from the bridge. The officer must understand distress signals and know the IMO Merchant Ship Search and Rescue Manual. Understanding ship's stability, trim, stress, and the basics of ship's construction is a key to keeping a ship seaworthy. The mate must know what to do in cases of flooding and loss of buoyancy. Fire

1230-459: Is not funded by Exxon. Hence, the Exxon spill is often cited as shorthand for corporate responsibility for societal damage not being enforced adequately. A 1989 report by the Coast Guard's U.S. National Response Center summarized the event and made many recommendations, including that neither Exxon, Alyeska Pipeline Service Company , the State of Alaska, nor the federal government were prepared for

1312-552: The International Code of Signals . Celestial , terrestrial , electronic , and coastal navigation techniques are used to fix a ship's position on a navigational chart . The officer directs the helmsman to keep to track, accounting for effects of winds, tides , currents and estimated speed. The officer uses supplemental information from nautical publications , such as Sailing Directions , tide tables , Notices to Mariners , and radio navigational warnings to keep

1394-557: The Prudhoe Bay Oil Field , eventually affected 1,300 miles (2,100 km) of coastline, of which 200 miles (320 km) were heavily or moderately oiled. Exxon Valdez was carrying 53.1 million US gallons (1,260,000 bbl; 201,000 m) of oil, of which approximately 10.8 million US gallons (260,000 bbl; 41,000 m) were spilled into the Prince William Sound . The ship docked at

1476-592: The Seattle Seven for the disaster's effect on the Alaskan seafood industry. The agreement granted $ 63.75 million to the Seattle Seven, but stipulated that the seafood companies would have to repay almost all of any punitive damages awarded in other civil proceedings. The $ 5 billion in punitive damages was awarded later, and the Seattle Seven's share could have been as high as $ 750 million if

1558-514: The first mate or first officer , is a licensed mariner and head of the deck department of a merchant ship . The chief mate is customarily a watchstander and is in charge of the ship's cargo and deck crew. The actual title used will vary by ship's employment, by type of ship, by nationality, and by trade: for instance, chief mate is not usually used in the Commonwealth , although chief officer and first mate are; on passenger ships,

1640-448: The 1989 Exxon Valdez spill". It is now known that while 2-butoxyethanol is indeed a respiratory irritant that can be acutely toxic, animal studies did not find it to be mutagenic, and no studies suggest it to be a human carcinogen. Mechanical cleanup was started shortly afterward using booms and skimmers , but the skimmers were not readily available during the first 24 hours following the spill, and thick oil and kelp tended to clog

1722-473: The 9th Circuit Court of Appeals denied ExxonMobil's request for a third hearing and let stand its ruling that Exxon owed $ 2.5 billion in punitive damages. Exxon then appealed to the Supreme Court, which agreed to hear the case. On February 27, 2008, the Supreme Court heard oral arguments. Justice Samuel Alito , who at the time owned between $ 100,000 and $ 250,000 in Exxon stock, recused himself from

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1804-467: The US government force ExxonMobil to pay the final $ 92 million (£57 million) still owed from the court settlement. The major part of the money would be spent to finish cleaning up oiled beaches and attempting to restore the crippled herring population. As of 2012, the indirect and long-term sublethal effects of oil on shorebirds had been measured in relatively few studies. In October 1989, Exxon filed

1886-501: The United States Coast Guard. Similarly, one must have worked as a third mate for 365 days to have become a second mate. There are many special cases in license upgrades at the individual level, as licensing regulations change from time to time. A sizable portion of mates still working received their licenses before current laws went into effect. There are two methods to attain an unlimited third mate's license in

1968-481: The United States: to attend a specialized training institution, or to accumulate "sea time" and take a series of training classes and examinations. Training institutions that can lead to a third mate's license include the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy (deck curriculum), the U.S. Coast Guard Academy and U.S. Naval Academy with qualification as an underway officer in charge of a navigational watch , any of

2050-621: The Valdez Marine Terminal at 11:30 p.m. on March 22, 1989. Loading of crude oil was completed late in the day on the 23rd. The tanker left the terminal at 9:12 p.m., March 23, 1989 (the deck log shows that it was clear of the dock at 9:21   p.m.), loaded with 53,094,510 gallons (1,264,155 barrels) of crude oil. Captain Joseph Hazelwood retired to his cabin at 9:25   p.m. Harbor pilot William Murphy and Third Mate Gregory Cousins were accompanied by

2132-457: The area. The village of Chenega was transformed into an emergency base and media outlet. The local villagers had to cope with a tripling of their population from 80 to 250. When asked how they felt about the situation, a village councilor noted that they were too shocked and busy to be depressed; others emphasized the human costs of leaving children unattended while their parents worked to clean up. Many Alaska Natives were worried that too much time

2214-426: The case. In a decision issued June 25, 2008, written by Justice David Souter , the court vacated the $ 2.5 billion award and remanded the case back to the lower court, finding that the damages were excessive with respect to maritime common law . Exxon's actions were deemed "worse than negligent but less than malicious." The punitive damages were further reduced to an amount of $ 507.5 million. The Court's ruling

2296-467: The chief mate is accountable for the care of cargo during the voyage. This includes a general responsibility for the ship's stability and special care for cargoes that are dangerous, hazardous or harmful. Even under the best of conditions, a ship is balanced precariously upon the water and is subject to a number of forces, such as wind, swells, and storms, which could capsize it. The cargo officer uses tools like ballasting and load balancing to optimize

2378-520: The coast are built a few feet off of the ground in order to decrease the damage caused by rising tides due to rising sea-levels. Although mitigation efforts such as those found in Miami might be effective in the short-term, many environmental groups are concerned with whether or not mitigation provides long-term solutions to the consequences of environmental disaster. First Mate A chief mate ( C/M ) or chief officer , usually also synonymous with

2460-432: The corporation of making him a scapegoat . In a 1990 trial he was charged with criminal mischief, reckless endangerment, and piloting a vessel while intoxicated, but was cleared of the three charges. He was convicted of misdemeanor negligent discharge of oil. 21 witnesses testified that he did not appear to be under the influence of alcohol around the time of the accident. Journalist Greg Palast stated in 2008: Forget

2542-453: The crew of the Valdez, and because they had given Exxon Valdez permission to leave regular shipping lanes to avoid ice. They also reiterated the claim that the Coast Guard had delayed cleanup by refusing to give permission to immediately use chemical dispersants on the spill. Also, in 1991, Exxon made a quiet, separate financial settlement of damages with a group of seafood producers known as

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2624-463: The damages award had held. Other plaintiffs have objected to this secret arrangement, and when it came to light, Judge Holland ruled that Exxon should have told the jury at the start that an agreement had already been made, so the jury would know exactly how much Exxon would have to pay. In the case of Exxon v. Baker , an Anchorage jury awarded $ 287 million for actual damages and $ 5 billion for punitive damages . To protect itself in case

2706-612: The damages to $ 4 billion, which he concluded was justified by the facts of the case and was not grossly excessive. Exxon appealed again and the case returned to Holland to be reconsidered in light of a recent Supreme Court ruling in a similar case. Holland increased the punitive damages to $ 4.5 billion, plus interest. After more appeals, in December 2006 the damages award was cut to $ 2.5 billion. The court of appeals cited recent Supreme Court rulings relative to limits on punitive damages. Exxon appealed again. On May 23, 2007,

2788-696: The disaster, evidence of negative oil spill effects on marine birds was found in the following species: cormorants , goldeneyes , mergansers , murres and pigeon guillemots . Although the volume of oil has declined considerably, with oil remaining only about 0.14–0.28% of the original spilled volume, studies suggest that the area of oiled beach has changed little since 1992. A study by the National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA in Juneau , determined that by 2001 approximately 90 tonnes of oil remained on beaches in Prince William Sound in

2870-499: The disasters. For example, when Hurricane Katrina hit Louisiana in 2005, many scientists argued that climate change had increased the severity of the hurricane. Although the majority of the U.S. emissions that can contribute to climate change come from industry and transport, the people who were hit hardest by Katrina were not the heads of large companies within the country. Rather, the poor Black communities within Louisiana were

2952-945: The drunken skipper fable. As to Captain Joe Hazelwood, he was below decks, sleeping off his bender. At the helm, the third mate may never have collided with Bligh Reef had he looked at his RAYCAS radar. But the radar was not turned on. In fact, the tanker's radar was left broken and disabled for more than a year before the disaster, and Exxon management knew it. It was just too expensive to fix and operate. Other factors, according to an MIT course entitled "Software System Safety" by Professor Nancy G. Leveson, included: This disaster resulted in International Maritime Organization introducing comprehensive marine pollution prevention rules ( MARPOL ) through various conventions. The rules were ratified by member countries and, under International Ship Management rules,

3034-404: The equipment. Despite civilian insistence for a complete cleanup, only 10% of total oil was actually completely cleaned. Exxon was widely criticized for its slow response to cleaning up the disaster and John Devens, the mayor of Valdez , said his community felt betrayed by Exxon's inadequate response to the crisis. More than 11,000 Alaska residents, along with some Exxon employees, worked throughout

3116-447: The federal government that the ship should be allowed back into Alaskan waters. Exxon claimed OPA was effectively a bill of attainder , a regulation that was unfairly directed at Exxon alone. In 2002, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against Exxon. As of 2002, OPA had prevented 18 ships from entering Prince William Sound. OPA also set a schedule for the gradual phase-in of a double hull design, providing an additional layer between

3198-408: The first officer may be a separate position from that of the chief officer that is junior to the latter. The chief mate answers to the captain for the safety and security of the ship. Responsibilities include the crew's welfare and training in areas such as safety, firefighting, search and rescue. The Chief Mate, who is the second in command of the vessel, is often equated, in corporate terms, to

3280-405: The grounding of Exxon Valdez . As of December 15, 2009, Exxon had paid the entire $ 507.5 million in punitive damages, including lawsuit costs, plus interest, which were further distributed to thousands of plaintiffs. This amount was one-tenth of the original punitive damages, Exxon remained hugely profitable, the process of payment was drawn out over decades, and long term damage continues and

3362-564: The harbor after $ 30 million of repairs. In 1993, owned by SeaRiver Maritime, it was named S/R Mediterranean , then in 2005 Mediterranean . In 2008 the vessel was acquired by a Hong Kong company that operated her as Dong Fang Ocean , then in 2011 renamed her Oriental Nicety . In August 2012, she was beached at Alang , and dismantled. In the aftermath of the spill, Alaska governor Steve Cowper issued an executive order requiring two tugboats to escort every loaded tanker from Valdez out through Prince William Sound to Hinchinbrook Entrance. As

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3444-470: The judgment was affirmed, Exxon obtained a $ 4.8 billion credit line from J.P. Morgan & Co. , who created the first modern credit default swap so that they would not have to hold as much money in reserve against the risk of Exxon's default. Meanwhile, Exxon appealed the ruling, and the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ordered the trial judge, Russel Holland , to reduce the punitive damages. On December 6, 2002, Holland announced that he had reduced

3526-457: The limitations of the radar/ARPA suite. Under the best conditions, the radar operator must be able to optimize system settings and detect divergences between an ARPA system and actual conditions. Information obtained from radar and ARPA must be treated with scrutiny: over reliance on these systems has sunk ships. The officer must understand system performance, limitations and accuracy, tracking capabilities and limitations, and processing delays, and

3608-474: The long hours that the second mate had worked, Cousins was reluctant to wake him, and remained on duty. Cousins was the only officer on the bridge for most of the night, in violation of company policy. At around midnight on March 24 Cousins began to maneuver the vessel into the traffic lanes. At the same time, the lookout reported that the Bligh Reef light appeared far off the starboard bow at 45 degrees – this

3690-583: The mariner can apply to the United States Coast Guard for a Third Mate's license. A master of 1,600 ton vessels can, under certain circumstances, begin the application process for an unlimited third mate's license. If approved the applicant must then successfully pass a comprehensive license examination before being issued the license. Hawsepiper is an informal maritime industry term used to refer to an officer who began his or her career as an unlicensed merchant seaman and did not attend

3772-454: The microbial populations on the shoreline; many of these organisms (e.g. plankton ) are the basis of the coastal marine food chain, and others (e.g., certain bacteria and fungi) are capable of facilitating the biodegradation of oil. At the time, both scientific advice and public pressure was to clean everything, but since then, a much greater understanding of natural and facilitated remediation processes has developed, due somewhat in part to

3854-419: The most devastated by the hurricane. There have been many attempts throughout recent years to mitigate the impact of environmental disasters. Environmental disaster is caused by human activity, so many believe that such disasters can be prevented or have their consequences reduced by human activity as well. Efforts to attempt mitigation are evident in cities such as Miami, Florida , in which houses along

3936-410: The most to factors that can increase the risk of said disasters, developing countries experience the impacts of environmental disasters more intensely than their wealthier counterparts. It is often the case that the populations that do not contribute to climate change are not only in geographic locations that experience more environmental disasters, but also have fewer resources to mitigate the impact of

4018-478: The next few days. The Exxon Valdez spill is the second largest in U.S. waters, after the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill , in terms of volume of oil released. Prince William Sound's remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, or boat, made government and industry response efforts difficult and made existing response plans especially hard to implement. The region is a habitat for salmon , sea otters , seals , and seabirds . The oil, extracted from

4100-416: The oil does not appear to have biodegraded at all. A USGS scientist who analyses the remaining oil along the coastline states that it remains among rocks and between tide marks. "The oil mixes with seawater and forms an emulsion...Left out, the surface crusts over but the inside still has the consistency of mayonnaise – or mousse." Alaska state senator Berta Gardner is urging Alaskan politicians to demand that

4182-419: The oil off of animals and rocks on a beach in Prince William Sound. Environmental disaster Environmental disasters show how the impact of humans' alteration of the land has led to widespread and/or long-lasting consequences. These disasters have included deaths of wildlife, humans and plants, or severe disruption of human life or health, possibly requiring migration . Some environmental disasters are

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4264-501: The oil tanks and the ocean. While a double hull would likely not have prevented the Exxon Valdez disaster, a Coast Guard study estimated that it would have cut the amount of oil spilled by 60 percent. Exxon Valdez was towed to San Diego, arriving on July 10. Repairs began on July 30. Approximately 1,600 short tons (1,500  t ) of steel were removed and replaced. In June 1990, the tanker, renamed Exxon Mediterranean , left

4346-399: The opportunity presented for study by the Exxon Valdez spill. Both long-term and short-term effects of the oil spill have been studied. Immediate effects include the deaths of between 100,000 and 250,000 seabirds, at least 2,800 sea otters , approximately 12 river otters , 300 harbor seals , 247 bald eagles , and 22 orcas , and an unknown number of salmon and herring. Nine years after

4428-637: The plan evolved in the 1990s, one of the two routine tugboats was replaced with a 210-foot (64 m) Escort Response Vehicle (ERV). Tankers at Valdez are no longer single-hulled. Congress enacted legislation requiring all tankers to be double-hulled as of 2015. In 1991, following the collapse of populations of local marine species (particularly clams, herring, and seals), the Chugach Alaska Corporation , an Alaska Native Corporation , filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection . It has since recovered. According to several studies funded by

4510-520: The predetermined traffic lane to avoid small icebergs; a common occurrence since the Columbia Glacier calved such icebergs nearby. The vessel was placed on a due south course and set on autopilot. At 11:47   p.m. the vessel left the traffic lane's eastern boundary. Third Mate Cousins had been on duty for 6 hours and was scheduled to be relieved by Second Mate Lloyd LeCain Jr. However, due to

4592-478: The reef despite being informed by First Mate James Kunkel that the vessel was not structurally sound without the reef supporting it. Multiple factors have been identified as contributing to the incident: Captain Hazelwood, who was widely reported to have been drinking heavily that night, was not at the controls when the ship struck the reef. Exxon blamed Hazelwood for the grounding of the tanker, but he accused

4674-512: The region to try to restore the environment. Though the clean-up effort was diligent it failed to contain the majority of the oil that had spilled and that has been blamed heavily upon Exxon. On November 26, 1984, Ronald A. Kreizenbeck (Director, Alaska Operations Office) informed the Coast Guard that the EPA suspected, due to a recent site-visitation during an 'Annual Marine Drill' that the Port of Valdez

4756-473: The remaining oil, stating that they anticipated the remaining fraction would not cause long-term ecological impacts. According to the conclusions of ExxonMobil 's study: "We've done 350 peer-reviewed studies of Prince William Sound, and those studies conclude that Prince William Sound has recovered, it's healthy and it's thriving." On March 24, 2014, the twenty-fifth anniversary of the spill, NOAA scientists reported that some species seem to have recovered, with

4838-463: The same way, a second officer usually holds a chief officer's certificate. To become a chief mate (unlimited) in the United States, one must first accumulate at least 365 days of service while holding a second mate 's license. Then, the candidate must attend approximately 13 weeks of classes or complete the assessments from NMC Policy Letter 04-02 and pass a series of examinations given by

4920-644: The sandy soil of the contaminated shoreline, with annual loss rates declining from 68% per year prior to 1992, to 4% per year after 2001. The remaining oil lasting far longer than anticipated has resulted in more long-term losses of species than had been expected. Laboratory experiments found that at levels as low as one part per billion, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are toxic for salmon and herring eggs. Species as diverse as sea otters, harlequin ducks, and orcas suffered immediate and long-term losses. Oiled mussel beds and other tidal shoreline habitats may take up to 30 years to recover. ExxonMobil denied concerns over

5002-431: The sea otter the latest creature to return to pre-spill numbers. Scientists who have monitored the spill area for the last 25 years report that concern remains for one of two pods of local orca whales, with fears that one pod may eventually die out. Federal scientists estimate that between 16,000 and 21,000 US gallons (61 to 79 m) of oil remains on beaches in Prince William Sound and up to 450 miles (725 km) away. Some of

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5084-604: The ship clear of danger in transit. Safety demands the mate be able to quickly solve steering control problems and to calibrate the system for optimum performance. Since magnetic and gyrocompasses show the course to steer, the officer must be able to determine and correct for compass errors. Weather 's profound effect on ships requires the officer be able to interpret and apply meteorological information from all available sources. This requires expertise in weather systems, reporting procedures and recording systems. The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea are

5166-422: The ship ended up perched on its middle on a pinnacle of rock. 8 out of 11 cargo holds were punctured. 5.8 million gallons of oil drained from the ship within 3 hours and 15 minutes. 30 minutes after numerous attempts to dislodge the ship under her own power, Captain Hazelwood radioed the Coast Guard informing them of the grounding. For more than 45 minutes after the grounding, the captain attempted to maneuver free of

5248-564: The ship's performance for the expected type of environment. Traditionally, the chief mate stands a "4-8" watch : from 4 AM until 8 AM and 4 PM until 8 PM, in port and at sea, the chief mate is responsible to the captain for keeping the ship, crew, and cargo safe. On watch, the mate must enforce all applicable regulations, such as the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea and pollution regulations . In port,

5330-421: The ships are being operated with a common objective of "safer ships and cleaner oceans." In 2009, Captain Hazelwood offered a "heartfelt apology" to the people of Alaska, suggesting he had been wrongly blamed for the disaster: "The true story is out there for anybody who wants to look at the facts, but that's not the sexy story and that's not the easy story," he said. Hazelwood said he felt Alaskans always gave him

5412-465: The spill resulted from an accident, and because Exxon spent an estimated $ 2 billion cleaning up the spill and a further $ 1 billion to settle related civil and criminal charges. Attorneys for the plaintiffs contended that Exxon bore responsibility for the accident because the company "put a drunk in charge of a tanker in Prince William Sound." Exxon recovered a significant portion of clean-up and legal expenses through insurance claims associated with

5494-621: The state maritime colleges, the Great Lakes Maritime Academy , or a three-year apprentice mate training program approved by the Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard. A seaman may start the process of attaining a license after three years of service in the deck department on ocean steam or motor vessels, at least six months of which as able seaman , boatswain , or quartermaster . Then the seaman takes required training courses, and completes on-board assessments. Finally,

5576-420: The state of Alaska, the spill had both short-term and long-term economic effects. These included the loss of recreational sports , fisheries, reduced tourism, and an estimate of what economists call " existence value ", which is the value to the public of a pristine Prince William Sound. The economy of the city of Cordova , Alaska was adversely affected after the spill damaged stocks of salmon and herring in

5658-633: The symptoms being reported in the Gulf states are the same ones that hit workers in Alaska. And just like then, people with their backs against the wall financially are flocking to the take jobs with the cleanup... I'm feeling like BP is forcing them into this situation where BP holds all the cards, and BP is letting these workers get sick In 1992, Exxon released a video titled Scientists and the Alaska Oil Spill for distribution to schools. Critics said

5740-414: The techniques for survival at sea techniques in case it's necessary to abandon ship. Officers are trained to perform medical tasks, and follow instructions given by radio or obtained from guides. This training includes what to do in case of common shipboard accidents and illnesses. It is usual for a chief/first officer to hold a master's certificate so that he can take over from the master if necessary. In

5822-399: The term to describe themselves. Several merchant seamen's unions offer their membership the required training for career advancement. Similarly, some employers offer financial assistance to pay for the training for their employees. Otherwise, the mariner is responsible for the cost of the required training. Since the requirements of STCW '95 have been enacted, there have been complaints that

5904-509: The trigger source of more expansive environmental conflicts , where effected groups try to socially confront the actors responsible for the disaster. Environmental disasters have historically affected agriculture , wildlife biodiversity , the economy, and human health . The most common causes include pollution that seeps into groundwater or a body of water , emissions into the atmosphere , and depletion of natural resources , industrial activity, and agricultural practices. The following

5986-459: The use of chemicals on hundreds of miles of shoreline when other alternatives might have been available." According to a report by David Kirby for TakePart , the main component of the Corexit formulation used during cleanup, 2-butoxyethanol , was identified as "one of the agents that caused liver , kidney , lung , nervous system , and blood disorders among cleanup crews in Alaska following

6068-466: The use of operational warnings and system tests. Emergencies can happen at any time. The officer must be equipped to safeguard passengers and crew. The officer must be able to take initial action after a collision or a grounding. Responsibilities include performing damage assessment and control, understanding the procedures for rescuing persons from the sea, assisting ships in distress, and responding to any emergency which may arise in port. The Chief Mate

6150-598: The vicinity, such as: These factors help the officer apply the COLREGS to safely maneuver in the vicinity of obstructions and other ships. Unfortunately, radar has a number of limitations, and ARPA inherits those limitations and adds a number of its own. Factors such as rain, high seas, and dense clouds can prevent radar from detecting other vessels. Further, dense traffic and course and speed changes can confuse ARPA units. Finally, human errors such as inaccurate speed inputs and confusion between true and relative vectors add to

6232-537: The video misrepresented the clean-up process. In December 1994, the Unabomber assassinated Burson-Marsteller executive Thomas J. Mosser , accusing him of having "helped Exxon clean up its public image after the Exxon Valdez incident". Several weeks after the spill, Saturday Night Live aired a pointed sketch featuring Kevin Nealon , Phil Hartman , and Victoria Jackson as cleanup workers struggling to scrub

6314-492: The watch focuses on duties such as cargo operations, fire and security watches, monitoring communications and the anchor or mooring lines. IMO regulations require the officer be fluent in English. This is required for a number of reasons, such as ability to use nautical charts and nautical publications , to understand weather and safety messages, communicate with other ships and coast stations, and to be able to work with

6396-497: Was able to inspect, despite access to the records being controlled by Exxon. Exxon denied this in a statement to CNN : After 20 years, there is no evidence suggesting that either cleanup workers or the residents of the communities affected by the Valdez spill have had any adverse health effects as a result of the spill or its cleanup. Environmental activists and State officials became concerned that BP would use similar techniques to minimize liability and de-emphasize health impacts:

6478-491: Was not prepared to "efficiently respond to a major spill event". In the letter, he stated that "[it] appears that the Vikoma boom and/or deployment vessels used may not be adequate to handle the harsh environmental conditions of Port Valdez". Because Prince William Sound contained many rocky coves where the oil was collected, the decision was made to displace it with high-pressure hot water. However, this also displaced and destroyed

6560-495: Was problematic given that the light should have been off the port side. Cousins ordered a course change as the ship was in danger. Captain Hazelwood was phoned by Cousins, but before their conversation could finish, the ship grounded. At 12:04   a.m., accompanied by what the helmsman and Cousins described as "a bumpy ride" and "six very sharp jolts" respectively, the ship ran aground on Bligh Reef. Carried by its own momentum,

6642-475: Was spent on the fishery and not enough on the land that supports subsistence hunting. In 2010, CNN reported on studies concluding that many oil spill cleanup workers involved in the Exxon Valdez response had subsequently become sick, and warned those exposed to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill to take heed. Anchorage lawyer Dennis Mestas found that this was true for 6,722 of 11,000 worker files he

6724-438: Was that maritime punitive damages should not exceed the compensatory damages, supported by a precedent dating from 1818. Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Patrick J. Leahy has decried the ruling as "another in a line of cases where this Supreme Court has misconstrued congressional intent to benefit large corporations." Exxon's official position was that punitive damages greater than $ 25 million were not justified because

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