Foton (or Photon) is the project name of two series of Russian science satellite and reentry vehicle programs. Although uncrewed , the design was adapted from the crewed Vostok spacecraft capsule. The primary focus of the Foton project is materials science research, but some missions have also carried experiments for other fields of research including biology . The original Foton series included 12 launches from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome from 1985 to 1999.
49-604: The second series, under the name Foton-M, incorporates many design improvements over the original Foton, and is still in use. So far, there have been four launch attempts of the Foton-M. The first was in 2002 from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome , which ended in failure due to a problem in the launch vehicle. The last three were from the Baikonur Cosmodrome , in 2005, 2007, and 2014; all were successful. Both
98-404: A Vostok-2 rocket launched Kosmos 112 . In total, 308 orbital and two suborbital launches were conducted from the complex, using R-7A, Vostok-2, Vostok-2M , Voskhod and Soyuz-U rockets. The last launch to use the complex was of a Soyuz-U with Bion 9 on 15 September 1989. Since this launch, the pad has been disassembled. Site 43 , also known as SK-3 and SK-4 , is a launch complex at
147-555: A degree from one another in geosynchronous orbit . The first satellite navigation system, Transit , used by the United States Navy , was tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour. During the Cold War arms race , the nuclear threat was used to justify the cost of providing a more capable system. These developments led eventually to
196-778: A joint decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the USSR Council of Ministers created the "Research Proving Ground missile and space weapons USSR Ministry of Defense" near the Ilez railway station, Belsky District of Arkhangelsk Oblast. In the summer of 1963, the state leadership decided to use the Plesetsk launch facilities for launching spacecraft. In September 1963,
245-405: A missile base, it was converted for use as a space launch complex. The first orbital launch was of a Voskhod rocket with Kosmos 313 on 3 December 1969. Both pads were damaged by explosions in the 1980s. At 16:01 UTC on 18 March 1980, 48 people were killed when a Vostok-2M exploded during fueling operations at Pad 4. The disaster injured dozens more, while damaging the pad so severely that it
294-519: A new telemetry and telecommand unit for increased data flow rate, increased battery capacity, and a better thermal control system. It is produced by TsSKB-Progress in Samara . The launch of Foton-M1 failed because of a malfunction of the Soyuz-U launcher . The second launch (of Foton-M2 ) was a success. Foton-M3 was launched on 14 September 2007, carried by a Soyuz-U rocket lifting off from
343-536: A number of subsequent programs including Magnum and Trumpet , but these remain classified and therefore many details remain speculative. The Soviet Union began the Almaz ( Russian : Алмаз ) program in the early 1960s. This program involved placing space stations in Earth orbit as an alternative to satellites. Three stations were launched between 1973 and 1976: Salyut 2 , Salyut 3 and Salyut 5 . Following Salyut 5,
392-463: A rocket lost thrust and fell back into the flame trench seconds after launch. Instead, the parts were eventually used on Sea Launch 's Odyssey launch platform. When Russia began development of the Angara rocket, launch pads at both Plesetsk and Baikonur were planned. Several existing sites at Plesetsk were considered, including Site 41/1 , Site 16/2 , and Site 32 ; Site 35/1 was determined to be
441-570: A two launch pads, Site 32/1 and Site 32/2, which were used between 1977 and 2009. It has the GRAU index 11P868 . Site 32 is, along with Site 35 and Site 41 one of three sites under consideration for the Angara programme. In 1970, the building of a highly automated launch complex for Tsyklon-3 booster began at Site 32, which was designed by Omsk Transmash Design Bureau led by Chief Designer Vladimir Nikolayevich Chelomey . The first launch from Site 32
490-640: Is a Russian spaceport located in Mirny, Arkhangelsk Oblast , about 800 km north of Moscow and approximately 200 km south of Arkhangelsk . As of 2024, it is Europe's only operational orbital spaceport and the northernmost spaceport in the world. Originally developed as an ICBM site for the R-7 missile, it has also served for numerous satellite launches using the R-7 and other rockets. Its high latitude makes it useful only for certain types of launches, especially
539-789: Is a constellation of military satellites managed by the United States Space Force . Six spacecraft were launched between 1994 and 2003, of which five are operational, with the sixth lost in a launch failure. They are deployed in geostationary orbit and provide wideband, narrowband and protected military communication systems. Wideband systems support high-bandwidth transfers. Protected systems offer more sophisticated security protection like antijam features and nuclear survivability, while narrowband systems are intended for basic communications services that do not require high bandwidth. The United Kingdom also operates military communication satellites through its Skynet system. This
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#1732797779749588-593: Is a launch complex used by Russia 's Angara rocket. The complex has a single launch pad , Site 35/1, which was first used for the maiden flight of the Angara in July 2014. Site 35 was originally intended to support the Zenit rocket, which the Soviet Union saw as a replacement for the R-7 series . The construction of a Zenit launch complex at Plesetsk was authorised in 1976; however, development did not begin until
637-406: Is a major concern in satellite communications, so geographic and meteorological factors play an important role in choosing teleports. Since some of the major military activities of the U.S. army are in foreign territories, the U.S. government needs to subcontract satellite services to foreign carriers headquartered in areas with favorable climate. Military Strategic and Tactical Relay, or Milstar ,
686-520: Is currently operated with support from Astrium Services and provides near worldwide coverage with both X band and Ultra high frequency services. Skynet 5 is the United Kingdom's most recent military communications satellite system. There are four Skynet satellites in orbit, with the latest launch completed in December 2012. The system is provided by a private contractor, Astrium, with
735-606: Is used especially for military satellites placed into high inclination and polar orbits since the range for falling debris is clear to the north which is largely uninhabited Arctic and polar terrain. It is situated in a region of taiga , or flat terrain with boreal pine forests. The Soyuz rocket , Cosmos-3M , Rokot , Tsyklon , and Angara are launched from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome. The heavy Proton and Zenit rockets can only be land-launched from Baikonur (Zenit may also be launched at sea). Plesetsk Cosmodrome
784-522: The Baikonur Cosmodrome following the explosion of a Soyuz-U rocket. Work to rebuild the complex began in 1979, and was completed in 1981. The first launch from Site 16 was conducted by a Molniya-M with an Oko satellite on 19 February 1981. Site 16 has been used for Soyuz-U and Molniya-M launches, and is still in service as of 2012. Site 32 at the Cosmodrome is a launch complex formerly used by Tsyklon-3 carrier rockets . It consists of
833-524: The Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan with Nadezhda , a cockroach that became the first Earth creature to produce offspring that had been conceived in space. It returned successfully to Earth on 26 September 2007, landing in Kazakhstan at 7:58 GMT. The Foton capsule has limited thruster capability. As such, the reentry path and orientation can not be controlled after the capsule has separated from
882-566: The Centre Spatial Guyanais at 5° north or the Kennedy Space Center at 28° 31' north). In addition, the high latitude means that lift capacity for boosters launched from Plesetsk is slightly lower than Baikonur launches. By the 2000s, Russia had completely phased out military launches from Baikonur. The new all-Russian Angara rocket was designed to be launched primarily from Plesetsk (and also eventually from
931-634: The Molniya orbits , so for much of the site's history it functioned as a secondary location, with most orbital launches taking place from Baikonur , in the Kazakh SSR . With the end of the Soviet Union , Baikonur became a foreign territory, and Kazakhstan charged $ 115 million usage fees annually. Consequently, Plesetsk has seen considerably more activity since the 2000s. Plesetsk ( 62°55′32.32″N 40°34′40.36″E / 62.9256444°N 40.5778778°E / 62.9256444; 40.5778778 )
980-558: The Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS). In the United States, research into satellite based weapons was initiated by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in the 1950s. In 1958, the United States initiated Project Defender to develop an anti- ICBM solution launched from satellites. The satellites would have deployed a huge wire mesh to disable ICBMs during their early launch phase. The project floundered due to
1029-534: The Vostochny Cosmodrome ). In May 2007, a new ICBM, called the RS-24 has been tested and launched there, and is seen as eventually replacing the aging RS-18/ UR-100Ns (SS-19 Stiletto) and RS-20/ R-36Ms (SS-18 Satan) that are the backbone of Russia's missile forces. In September 2011, Space Forces spokesman Colonel Alexei Zolotukhin said Russia will spend over 5 billion rubles (US$ 170 million) on
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#17327977797491078-585: The Angara A5 took place almost six years later, on 14 December 2020. Site 41 , also known as Lesobaza and SK-1 , was a launch complex at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in Russia . It consisted of a single pad, Site 41/1, and was used by R-7 derived rockets between 1959 and 1989. Site 41 was originally built for use by R-7A Semyorka missiles. During the Cuban Missile Crisis , an armed missile
1127-435: The Cosmodrome. It consists of a single pad, Site 16/2 , and has been used by R-7 derived rockets since 1960. It has launched a total of 136 rockets across its lifespan. Site 16 was originally built for use by R-7A Semyorka missiles, however no launches were conducted from the complex whilst it was operational. After its retirement from service in 1966, it was cannibalised for parts which were needed to repair Site 31/6 at
1176-514: The Council of Ministers of the USSR 3rd ALM and NIIP converted to "53 minutes Research Proving Ground". Three test management, employees of combat duty, tests of rocket and space complexes, holding and processing of telemetry and trajectory measurements. And from 1964, on the basis of rocket connection started the establishment of research proving ground missiles and space weapons. Such conversion were
1225-659: The Foton and Foton-M series used Soyuz-U (11A511U and 11A511U2) rockets as launch vehicles. Starting with the Foton-7 mission, the European Space Agency has been a partner in the Foton program. Foton-M is a new generation of Russian robotic spacecraft for research conducted in the microgravity environment of Earth orbit . The Foton-M design is based on the design of the Foton , with several improvements including
1274-401: The Plesetsk Cosmodrome in Russia . It consists of a two pads, Sites 43/3 and 43/4, and has been used by R-7 derived rockets since the early 1960s. The site was originally built for use by R-7A Semyorka missiles. The first launch to use the complex was an R-7A test on 21 December 1965, from Site 43/3. The first launch from 43/4 followed on 25 July 1967. After its retirement from service as
1323-648: The Soviet Ministry of Defence judged in 1978 that the time consumed by station maintenance outweighed the benefits relative to automatic reconnaissance satellites. In 2015, United States military space units and commercial satellite operator Intelsat became concerned about apparent reconnaissance test maneuvers by the Russian satellite Olymp-K , launched in September 2014, when it maneuvered between Intelsat 7 and Intelsat 901 , which are located only half
1372-485: The completion of Site 45 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome , which was also constructed for Zenit. Construction at Site 35 began in the mid-1980s, but the programme was abandoned following the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Following the cancellation of Zenit launches from Plesetsk, Russia had originally planned to use parts constructed for Site 35 to repair one of the Zenit pads at Baikonur that had been heavily damaged when
1421-841: The deployment of the Global Positioning System (GPS). The US Navy required precise navigation to enable submarines to get an accurate fix of their positions before they launched their SLBMs. The USAF had requirements for a more accurate and reliable navigation system, as did the United States Army for geodetic surveying for which purpose they had developed the SECOR system. SECOR used ground-based transmitters from known locations that sent signals to satellite transponder in orbit. A fourth ground-based station, at an undetermined position, could then use those signals to fix its location precisely. The last SECOR satellite
1470-466: The development and expansion of the cosmodrome in 2011. This includes the reconstruction of a local motorway and modernising the energy supply system. New facilities will be built, including a dormitory and hospital. PL-19 Nudol anti-ballistic missile systems are located at the Cosmodrome, at the former launch site of the Tsyklon-2 rocket. Site 16 , also known as SK-2 , is a launch complex at
1519-572: The engine system. This means that the capsule has to be protected from reentry heat on all sides, thus explaining the spherical design (as opposed to Project Mercury's conical design), which allows for maximum volume while minimizing the external surface. However, the lack of lift means the capsule experiences high forces on reentry, up to 8 to 9g. Plesetsk Cosmodrome Download coordinates as: Plesetsk Cosmodrome (Russian: Космодром «Плесецк» , romanized : Kosmodrom "Plesetsk" , IPA: [kəsmɐˈdrom plʲɪˈsʲet͡sk] )
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1568-399: The existence of Plesetsk Cosmodrome until 1983. The use of the cosmodrome will likely increase in the future since there are concerns with security in operating the Baikonur Cosmodrome in now-independent Kazakhstan , which demands rent for its continued use. Plesetsk is not ideally suited for low inclination or geostationary launches because of its high latitude of 62° north (as compared to
1617-428: The favourable geographical location and a significant number of systems already deployed by the end of 1964 were on duty, four launchers R-7A, seven PU P-16U, and three PU R-9A. Since then, the landfill has developed in two directions: rocket and space. 17 March 1966 was the space birthday of Plesetsk. That day was the first missile launching of the rocket booster Vostok with space vehicle Kosmos 112 . Since that time,
1666-539: The lack of any mechanism to protect the satellites from attack resulting in the cancellation of Defender in 1968. Since October 1967 satellite based weapons systems have been limited by international treaty to conventional weapons only. Art.IV of the Outer Space Treaty specifically prohibits signatories from installing weapons of mass destruction in Earth orbit. The treaty became effective on 10 October 1967 and, as of May 2013, 102 countries are parties to
1715-502: The military's secure Precise Positioning Service (PPS). A number of nations have developed satellite based early warning systems designed to detect ICBMs during different flight phases. In the United States these satellites are operated by the Defense Support Program (DSP). The first launch of a DSP satellite was on 6 November 1970 with the 23rd and last launched 10 November 2007. This program has been superseded by
1764-410: The most suitable. Construction began in 2004 but was not completed until April 2014. The Angara made its maiden flight—in the one-off Angara-1.2pp configuration—from Site 35/1 on 9 July 2014, flying a successful suborbital test mission. The first orbital launch from the site was the inaugural launch of the Angara A5 on 23 December 2014, which carried a mass simulator. A second orbital test flight of
1813-544: The orbit of the Kosmos 112 satellite in 1966 and deduced it had not been launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome . Meteor 1-2 satellite launch from Plesetsk on 6 October 1969 was one of the earliest launches observed and photographed from Finland . After the end of the Cold War , it was learned that the CIA had begun to suspect the existence of an ICBM launch site at Plesetsk in the late 1950s. The Soviet Union did not officially admit
1862-506: The rocket base "Angara" has become Plesetsk Cosmodrome. Construction started in 1957 and it was declared operational for R-7 rockets in December 1959. The urban-type settlement of Plesetsk in Arkhangelsk Oblast had a railway station, essential for the transport of missile components. A new town for the support of the facility was named Mirny , Russian for "peaceful". By 1997, more than 1,500 launches to space had been made from
1911-488: The site, more than from any other launch facility, although the usage has declined significantly since the break-up of the Soviet Union. Because Plesetsk was used primarily for military launches, especially Zenit photo reconnaissance satellites , which were launched in large numbers during the 1970s-80s, the USSR did not admit to its existence, but it was discovered by British physics teacher Geoffrey Perry and his students at Kettering Grammar School , who carefully analysed
1960-576: The sky, half of which are owned by the US, followed by Russia, China and India. The first military use of satellites was for reconnaissance. In the United States the first formal military satellite programs, Weapon System 117L, was developed in the mid-1950s. Within this program a number of sub-programs were developed including Corona . Satellites within the Corona program carried different code names. The first launches were code named Discoverer. This mission
2009-465: The treaty with a further 27 pending full ratification. Communications satellites are used for military communications applications. Typically military satellites operate in the UHF , SHF (also known as X-band ) or EHF (also known as K a band ) frequency bands. The US Armed Forces maintains international networks of satellites with ground stations located in various continents. Signal latency
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2058-517: Was a series of reconnaissance satellites , designed to enter orbit, take high-resolution photographs and then return the payload to Earth via parachute. Discoverer 1 , the first mission, was launched on 28 February 1959 although it didn't carry a payload being intended as a test flight to prove the technology. Corona was followed by other programs including Canyon (seven launches between 1968 and 1977 ), Aquacade and Orion (stated by US Government sources to be extremely large ). There have also been
2107-468: Was conducted from pad 2 on 24 June 1977, with the first from Site 32/1 following on 23 January 1980. The last launch from Site 32/1 occurred on 28 December 2001. Site 32/2 was retired on 30 January 2009, along with the Tsyklon-3. All 122 Tsyklon-3 launches were conducted from the site. 57 launches were recorded as having been from pad 1 and 65 were recorded from pad 2. Site 35 at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome
2156-499: Was halted in 1967 following the ratification of international treaties banning the deployment of weapons of mass destruction in orbit. As of 2013, there are 950 satellites of all types in Earth orbit. It is not possible to identify the exact number of these that are military satellites partly due to secrecy and partly due to dual purpose missions such as GPS satellites that serve both civilian and military purposes. As of December 2018 there are 320 known military or dual-use satellites in
2205-549: Was launched in 1969. In 1978, the first experimental Block-I GPS satellite was launched and by December 1993, GPS achieved initial operational capability (IOC), indicating a full constellation (24 satellites) was available and providing the Standard Positioning Service (SPS). Full Operational Capability (FOC) was declared by Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) in April 1995, signifying full availability of
2254-476: Was named after the town of Plesetsk . The first Soviet Combat formation of intercontinental ballistic missiles R-7 of general designer Sergei Korolev had to be located in that place, in thick northern taiga to the south of Arkhangelsk. The official birthday of the proving ground was 15 July 1957. That day Colonel Gregorjev assumed his post as the missile unit commander. By 15 July 1961, four missile complexes for R-7 ICBMs were at combat status. In January 1963,
2303-507: Was not used again until 1984. On 18 June 1987, a Soyuz-U rocket exploded at liftoff on Pad 3. Both were rebuilt, and are in service as of 2009. Military satellite A military satellite is an artificial satellite used for a military purpose. The most common missions are intelligence gathering, navigation and military communications . The first military satellites were photographic reconnaissance missions. Some attempts were made to develop satellite based weapons but this work
2352-537: Was originally developed by the Soviet Union as a launch site for intercontinental ballistic missiles under the leadership and supervision of lieutenant general Galaktion Alpaidze . On 11 January 1957, the Soviet government passed the resolution about the foundation of a special military object with the secret name "Angara". This secret object had to be situated in Plesetsk District , Arkhangelsk Oblast. It
2401-433: Was placed on Site 41. It would have had a response time of 8–12 hours should an order have been given to launch it. No launches were conducted from Site 41 whilst it was operational. In 1963, the complex was converted for use by carrier rockets . The first launch from the complex was a suborbital test of an R-7A Semyorka missile, on 14 December 1965. The first orbital launch from the complex occurred on 17 March 1966, when
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