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70-592: Fowlsheugh is a coastal nature reserve in Kincardineshire , northeast Scotland , known for its 70-metre-high (230 ft) cliff formations and habitat supporting prolific seabird nesting colonies. Designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) by Scottish Natural Heritage , the property is owned by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds . Fowlsheugh can be accessed by

140-534: A navy and some form of coast guard . Coasts, especially those with beaches and warm water, attract tourists often leading to the development of seaside resort communities. In many island nations such as those of the Mediterranean , South Pacific Ocean and Caribbean , tourism is central to the economy . Coasts offer recreational activities such as swimming, fishing, surfing, boating, and sunbathing . Growth management and coastal management can be

210-551: A peregrine falcon disturbs nesting kittiwakes as it swoops by the cliff edges. Lesser numbers of lesser black-backed gull ( Larus fuscus ), great black-backed gull ( Larus marinus ) and common shag ( Phalacrocorax aristotelis ) are also to be found. In the North Sea waters at the base of the cliffs can be found certain marine mammals, including the common seal ( Phoca vitulina ) and the grey seal ( Halichoerus grypus ). Seals can be observed in summer months hauling out on

280-478: A challenge for coastal local authorities who often struggle to provide the infrastructure required by new residents, and poor management practices of construction often leave these communities and infrastructure vulnerable to processes like coastal erosion and sea level rise . In many of these communities, management practices such as beach nourishment or when the coastal infrastructure is no longer financially sustainable, managed retreat to remove communities from

350-807: A moderate charge during the months of May to July, which reach the cliff bases of Fowlsheugh and even traverse some of the marine waterway caves . 56°54′45″N 2°11′45″W  /  56.912500°N 2.195833°W  / 56.912500; -2.195833 Coast Coasts are important zones in natural ecosystems , often home to a wide range of biodiversity . On land, they harbor important ecosystems such as freshwater or estuarine wetlands , which are important for bird populations and other terrestrial animals . In wave-protected areas, they harbor salt marshes , mangroves or seagrasses , all of which can provide nursery habitat for fin fish , shellfish , and other aquatic animals . Rocky shores are usually found along exposed coasts and provide habitat for

420-655: A much higher capacity for carbon sequestration than many terrestrial ecosystems , and as such can play a critical role in the near-future to help mitigate climate change effects by uptake of atmospheric anthropogenic carbon dioxide . However, the economic importance of coasts makes many of these communities vulnerable to climate change , which causes increases in extreme weather and sea level rise, as well as related issues like coastal erosion , saltwater intrusion , and coastal flooding . Other coastal issues, such as marine pollution , marine debris , coastal development, and marine ecosystem destruction, further complicate

490-653: A proper name to the coast of the Ligurian Sea , in the form riviera ligure , then shortened to riviera . Historically, the Ligurian Riviera extended from Capo Corvo (Punta Bianca) south of Genoa , north and west into what is now French territory past Monaco and sometimes as far as Marseilles . Today, this coast is divided into the Italian Riviera and the French Riviera , although

560-435: A provider of sediment for coastlines of tropical islands. Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. The Earth 's natural processes, particularly sea level rises , waves and various weather phenomena, have resulted in the erosion , accretion and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of continental shelves and drowned river valleys ( rias ). More and more of

630-452: A public clifftop trail, or by boats which usually emanate from the nearby harbour at the town of Stonehaven . Tens of thousands of pelagic birds return to the site every spring to breed, after wintering at sea or in more southern climates, principal species being puffins , razorbills , kittiwakes , fulmars and guillemots . Due to global warming , the planktonic species previously present that prefer cold water are not available in

700-456: A shoreline configuration. Swash is the shoreward flow after the break, backwash is the water flow back down the beach. The relative strength of flow in the swash and backwash determines what size grains are deposited or eroded. This is dependent on how the wave breaks and the slope of the shore. Depending on the form of the breaking wave, its energy can carry granular material up the beach and deposit it, or erode it by carrying more material down

770-425: A slightly different way in discussions of legal and economic boundaries (see territorial waters and international waters ) or when considering the geography of coastal landforms or the ecological systems operating through the continental shelf ( marine coastal ecosystems ). The research on coastal waters often divides into these separate areas too. The dynamic fluid nature of the ocean means that all components of

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840-529: A wide range of sessile animals (e.g. mussels , starfish , barnacles ) and various kinds of seaweeds . In physical oceanography , a shore is the wider fringe that is geologically modified by the action of the body of water past and present, while the beach is at the edge of the shore, representing the intertidal zone where there is one. Along tropical coasts with clear, nutrient-poor water, coral reefs can often be found between depths of 1–50 m (3.3–164.0 ft). According to an atlas prepared by

910-541: Is a coastline that has experienced a fall in sea level, because of either a global sea-level change, or local uplift. Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastal landforms , which are above the high tide mark, such as raised beaches . In contrast, a submergent coastline is one where the sea level has risen, due to a global sea-level change, local subsidence , or isostatic rebound . Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or "drowned" landforms, such as rias (drowned valleys) and fjords According to

980-658: Is composed only of sandstone and volcanic material, any original overlying conglomerate material having been long eroded. There are also some volcanic sea stacks along the shoreline, vestiges of the harder rock formations surviving the erosion of surrounding softer rocks by millennia of wave action and salt spray. Historically there has been human recognition of Fowlsheugh as a unique bird area for at least five centuries, culminating in its present-day designations of Important Bird Area (IBA), Special Protection Area (SPA) and SSSI (as noted above). This historic interest has also translated into reasonably good bird counts over at least

1050-528: Is connected to marine pollution which can occur from a number of sources: Marine debris (garbage and industrial debris); the transportation of petroleum in tankers , increasing the probability of large oil spills ; small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush bilge water into the ocean. Marine pollution occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as industrial , agricultural and residential waste , particles , noise , excess carbon dioxide or invasive organisms enter

1120-415: Is extremely important to geologists. These provide vital clues for reconstructing the geography of ancient continents ( paleogeography ). The locations of these beds show the extent of ancient seas at particular points in geological time, and provide clues to the magnitudes of tides in the distant past. Sediments deposited in the shoreface are preserved as lenses of sandstone in which the upper part of

1190-408: Is more important. Macrotidal coasts lack barrier islands and lagoons , and are characterized by funnel-shaped estuaries containing sand ridges aligned with tidal currents. Wave action is much more important for determining bedforms of sediments deposited along mesotidal and microtidal coasts than in macrotidal coasts. Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger

1260-515: Is most readily accessed on foot from the hamlet of Crawton, which is situated and signposted about one kilometre east of the A92 coast highway . There is a small carpark near the trailhead , with limited turnaround capability for larger vehicles. There is no limitation as to time of access of the trail as of 2006 and there is no admission cost for using the trail. By boat, out of Stonehaven Harbour , there are regular small craft trips available for

1330-423: Is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast . Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located in the case of coastlines that have estuaries. Today, riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by causing it to be deposited inland. Coral reefs are

1400-577: Is not endowed with much fastening strength; however, these sandy loam soils are ideal for rabbit warrens that are time-shared by the puffins when the latter are in residence at Fowlsheugh. About the year 1900 the Crown leased fishing rights at the base of Fowlsheugh to private interests, who proceeded to fish the North Sea close to the cliff faces using extensive systems of nets. The resulting entrainment of guillemots led to such great bird mortality, as well as to public outcry, that fishing lets were abandoned

1470-433: Is replaced by picturesque conglomerate with roundish stones varying in diameter from two to thirty centimetres (historically known as puddingstone in this region of Kincardineshire). In other places more greenish volcanic extrusions are evident as harder veins within the sandstone bluffs. Where the rock faces meet the North Sea, there are several sea caves accessible only by small boat. The deepest cave known locally as

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1540-412: Is the counterintuitive observation that the coastline of a landmass does not have a well-defined length. This results from the fractal curve –like properties of coastlines; i.e., the fact that a coastline typically has a fractal dimension . Although the "paradox of length" was previously noted by Hugo Steinhaus , the first systematic study of this phenomenon was by Lewis Fry Richardson , and it

1610-452: Is the only host plant for the northern brown argus butterfly. Some of these species cling to the rough cliff verticals where patches of soil are found, while most of these species grow on the fertile blufftop soil tangent to the agricultural soils immediately west, which grow barley and other grains as well as afford pasture for sheep and cattle. Numerous species of butterfly are found at Fowlsheugh, including: The Fowlsheugh Nature Reserve

1680-462: The Aegean Sea . The following articles describe some coastal landforms: "Coastal waters" (or "coastal seas") is a rather general term used differently in different contexts, ranging geographically from the waters within a few kilometers of the coast, through to the entire continental shelf which may stretch for more than a hundred kilometers from land. Thus the term coastal waters is used in

1750-456: The US EPA considers this region to extend much further offshore. "Coastal waters" has specific meanings in the context of commercial coastal shipping , and somewhat different meanings in the context of naval littoral warfare . Oceanographers and marine biologists have yet other takes. Coastal waters have a wide range of marine habitats from enclosed estuaries to the open waters of

1820-617: The United Nations , about 44% of the human population lives within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea as of 2013 . Due to its importance in society and its high population concentrations, the coast is important for major parts of the global food and economic system, and they provide many ecosystem services to humankind. For example, important human activities happen in port cities. Coastal fisheries (commercial, recreational, and subsistence) and aquaculture are major economic activities and create jobs, livelihoods, and protein for

1890-686: The Western Interior Seaway , a shallow sea that flooded central North America during the late Cretaceous Period (about 100 to 66 million years ago). These are beautifully exposed along the Book Cliffs of Utah and Colorado . The following articles describe the various geologic processes that affect a coastal zone: Larger animals that live in coastal areas include puffins , sea turtles and rockhopper penguins , among many others. Sea snails and various kinds of barnacles live on rocky coasts and scavenge on food deposited by

1960-457: The nests are constructed on precarious perches nestled in the virtually vertical cliffs of the basalt and conglomerate. During breeding season the bluffs are dense in birds arriving, departing and feeding in the waters below. Sound levels from birds have been measured as high as 69 dBA for a one-hour interval. As of 2005 about 18,000 breeding pairs of kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla ) return to Fowlsheugh each year, making their nests on some of

2030-469: The ocean and cause harmful effects there. The majority of this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although marine transportation significantly contributes as well. It is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide. Since most inputs come from land, either via

2100-596: The ocean . Floating oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and on coastlines, frequently washing aground, when it is known as beach litter or tidewrack. Deliberate disposal of wastes at sea is called ocean dumping . Naturally occurring debris, such as driftwood and drift seeds , are also present. With the increasing use of plastic , human influence has become an issue as many types of (petrochemical) plastics do not biodegrade quickly, as would natural or organic materials. The largest single type of plastic pollution (~10%) and majority of large plastic in

2170-444: The rivers , sewage or the atmosphere, it means that continental shelves are more vulnerable to pollution. Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off iron, carbonic acid, nitrogen , silicon, sulfur, pesticides or dust particles into the ocean. The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff , wind-blown debris , and dust. These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters

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2240-773: The French use the term "Riviera" to refer to the Italian Riviera and call the French portion the "Côte d'Azur". As a result of the fame of the Ligurian rivieras, the term came into English to refer to any shoreline, especially one that is sunny, topographically diverse and popular with tourists. Such places using the term include the Australian Riviera in Queensland and the Turkish Riviera along

2310-546: The United Nations has declared 2021–2030 the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration , but restoration of coastal ecosystems has received insufficient attention. Since coasts are constantly changing, a coastline's exact perimeter cannot be determined; this measurement challenge is called the coastline paradox . The term coastal zone is used to refer to a region where interactions of sea and land processes occur. Both

2380-571: The average sea level rose by 15–25 cm (6–10 in), with an increase of 2.3 mm (0.091 in) per year since the 1970s. This was faster than the sea level had ever risen over at least the past 3,000 years. The rate accelerated to 4.62 mm (0.182 in)/yr for the decade 2013–2022. Climate change due to human activities is the main cause. Between 1993 and 2018, melting ice sheets and glaciers accounted for 44% of sea level rise , with another 42% resulting from thermal expansion of water . International attention to address

2450-417: The average wind wave and swell conditions are relatively mild. Low energy coasts typically change slowly, and tend to be depositional environments. High energy coasts are exposed to the direct impact of waves and storms, and are generally erosional environments. High energy storm events can make large changes to a coastline, and can move significant amounts of sediment over a short period, sometimes changing

2520-419: The blufftop trail. (Off shore winds commonly attain mean velocities of 80 kilometres per hour here, especially in winter months.) The underlying rock formation is known as Old Red Sandstone , which occurs from Dunnottar Castle five kilometres north to the town of Catterline seven kilometres south. This sandstone formation may be as thick as 2700 metres. In places the fissured red-and-green-coloured sandstone

2590-489: The cliff overhangs above, it is easy to view the parent feeding of these chicks by regurgitation. Under the 1992 bird count there were 40,140 breeding pairs of guillemot ( Uria aalge ), representing at least 1.8 percent of this breeding East Atlantic seabird population. Smaller numbers of other seabirds nest at Fowlsheugh, including Atlantic puffin ( Fratercula Arctica ), razorbill ( Alca torda ), herring gull ( Larus argentatus ), and fulmar ( Fulmarus glacialis ). Occasionally

2660-543: The clifftops are found a variety of flowering plants and grasses that offer additional biota infrastructure for the extensive butterfly populations resident at Fowlsheugh. Most of the blooming species flower in the period April through August. Representative flowering plants that occur at Fowlsheugh are: Achillea millefolium , Achillea ptarmica , Carex spicata , Carlina vulgaris , Festuca arundinacea , Salix viminalis , Sambucus nigra , Helianthemum nummularium (common rock-rose) and viola . Common rock-rose

2730-461: The coast of Wales and other countries. Coastal fish , also called inshore fish or neritic fish, inhabit the sea between the shoreline and the edge of the continental shelf . Since the continental shelf is usually less than 200 metres (660 ft) deep, it follows that pelagic coastal fish are generally epipelagic fish , inhabiting the sunlit epipelagic zone . Coastal fish can be contrasted with oceanic fish or offshore fish , which inhabit

2800-812: The coast. Estuarine and marine coastal ecosystems are both marine ecosystems . Together, these ecosystems perform the four categories of ecosystem services in a variety of ways: The provisioning services include forest products, marine products, fresh water , raw materials, biochemical and genetic resources. Regulating services include carbon sequestration (contributing to climate change mitigation ) as well as waste treatment and disease regulation and buffer zones. Supporting services of coastal ecosystems include nutrient cycling , biologically mediated habitats and primary production . Cultural services of coastal ecosystems include inspirational aspects, recreation and tourism , science and education. According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline

2870-567: The continental shelf. Similarly, the term littoral zone has no single definition. It is the part of a sea , lake , or river that is close to the shore . In coastal environments, the littoral zone extends from the high water mark , which is rarely inundated, to shoreline areas that are permanently submerged . Coastal waters can be threatened by coastal eutrophication and harmful algal blooms . The identification of bodies of rock formed from sediments deposited in shoreline and nearshore environments (shoreline and nearshore facies )

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2940-555: The deep seas beyond the continental shelves. Many coastal areas are famous for their kelp beds. Kelp is a fast-growing seaweed that can grow up to half a meter a day in ideal conditions. Mangroves , seagrasses , macroalgal beds, and salt marsh are important coastal vegetation types in tropical and temperate environments respectively. Restinga is another type of coastal vegetation. Coasts also face many human-induced environmental impacts and coastal development hazards . The most important ones are: The pollution of coastlines

3010-413: The following year. In 1920 fulmars arrived at Fowlsheugh to breed from St. Kilda. International recognition of Fowlsheugh has been established primarily due to the large and productive seabird colonies present. On August 31, 1992 Special Protection Area (SPA) status was conferred with .EU code designation of UK9002271. The Fowlsheugh extent has been recorded as an area of only 10.15 hectares in size, making

3080-789: The human uses of the coast and threaten coastal ecosystems. The interactive effects of climate change, habitat destruction , overfishing , and water pollution (especially eutrophication ) have led to the demise of coastal ecosystem around the globe. This has resulted in population collapse of fisheries stocks, loss of biodiversity , increased invasion of alien species , and loss of healthy habitats. International attention to these issues has been captured in Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water", which sets goals for international policy focused on preserving marine coastal ecosystems and supporting more sustainable economic practices for coastal communities. Likewise,

3150-471: The last century. As a glimpse into Fowlsheugh in early Victorian times, James Anderson wrote: "a remarkable rock of the conglomerate or plum pudding species called Fowls Heugh, about a mile long and two hundred feet high, quite perpendicular and in some places overhanging, often visited by sportsmen on account of innumerable sea fowl , of the kittiwake species, which resort to it in the breeding season; finding convenient places for depositing their eggs in

3220-410: The majority of coastal human populations. Other coastal spaces like beaches and seaside resorts generate large revenues through tourism . Marine coastal ecosystems can also provide protection against sea level rise and tsunamis . In many countries, mangroves are the primary source of wood for fuel (e.g. charcoal ) and building material. Coastal ecosystems like mangroves and seagrasses have

3290-673: The margins of the continental shelves , make up about 7 percent of the Earth's oceans, but at least 85% of commercially harvested fish depend on coastal environments during at least part of their life cycle. As of October 2010, about 2.86% of exclusive economic zones were part of marine protected areas . The definition of coasts varies. Marine scientists think of the "wet" (aquatic or intertidal ) vegetated habitats as being coastal ecosystems (including seagrass, salt marsh etc.) whilst some terrestrial scientists might only think of coastal ecosystems as purely terrestrial plants that live close to

3360-587: The microplastics go through the water filtration system and into the ocean, but because of their small size they are likely to escape capture by the preliminary treatment screens on wastewater plants. These beads are harmful to the organisms in the ocean, especially filter feeders, because they can easily ingest the plastic and become sick. The microplastics are such a concern because it is difficult to clean them up due to their size, so humans can try to avoid using these harmful plastics by purchasing products that use environmentally safe exfoliates. Between 1901 and 2018,

3430-507: The more resistant rocks erode more slowly, remaining as headlands or outcroppings . Parts of a coastline can be categorised as high energy coast or low energy coast. The distinguishing characteristics of a high energy coast are that the average wave energy is relatively high so that erosion of small grained material tends to exceed deposition, and consequently landforms like cliffs, headlands and wave-cut terraces develop. Low energy coasts are generally sheltered from waves, or in regions where

3500-556: The most vertical parts of the landscape from muck, seaweed and local grasses. This population level significantly decreased from the 1992 kittiwake count of 34,870 breeding pairs of this seabird. The 1992 value represented 1.1 percent of all North Atlantic breeding pairs of kittiwakes. This population level caused the site to qualify under Article 4.2 of the European Union Directive 79/409 by supporting populations of European importance of this migratory species. From

3570-441: The ocean through rivers, but wind-blown debris and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle into waterways and oceans. Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, ship pollution , bilge pollution , atmospheric pollution and, potentially, deep sea mining . Marine debris , also known as marine litter, is human-created solid material that has deliberately or accidentally been released in seas or

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3640-485: The oceans is discarded and lost nets from the fishing industry. Waterborne plastic poses a serious threat to fish , seabirds , marine reptiles , and marine mammals , as well as to boats and coasts. A growing concern regarding plastic pollution in the marine ecosystem is the use of microplastics. Microplastics are beads of plastic less than 5 millimeters wide, and they are commonly found in hand soaps, face cleansers, and other exfoliators. When these products are used,

3710-560: The quantity required to support the historically large sandeel population. Added to the problem has been overfishing of the Scottish sandeel, further reducing the numbers of this dietary staple for puffins and other local seabirds. The sheer cliffs of Fowlsheugh are actually undercut in some places by erosive force of the North Sea wave action and associated strong marine winds, giving rise to cliff overhangs in numerous stretches of

3780-401: The recesses formed by the vacant beds of pebbles " It is documented that in the 19th century not only did hunters journey to Fowlsheugh to shoot seabirds, but rock climbers would rappel down the steep cliffs in search of the prized seabird eggs, much in the manner described of Saint Kilda . The rappelers would likely have anchored their pitons in the rock itself, as the loose soil above

3850-522: The rugged rock formation of Craiglethy Skerry . Further offshore are frequently sighted dolphins . Bony fishes found in the offshore waters include Atlantic shad ( Aosa sapidissima ), Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar ), and brown trout ( Salmo trutta ). Marine algae occurring immediately offshore at the Fowlsheugh Nature Reserve include Dudresnaya verticillata , Sauvageaugloia griffithsiana , and Streblonema infestans . On

3920-416: The sandstone is coarser than the lower part (a coarsening upwards sequence ). Geologists refer to these are parasequences . Each records an episode of retreat of the ocean from the shoreline over a period of 10,000 to 1,000,000 years. These often show laminations reflecting various kinds of tidal cycles. Some of the best-studied shoreline deposits in the world are found along the former western shore of

3990-579: The sea. Some coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as dolphins and seagulls who eat food thrown for them by tourists. Since the coastal areas are all part of the littoral zone , there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast, including sessile animals such as corals , sponges, starfish, mussels, seaweeds, fishes, and sea anemones . There are many kinds of seabirds on various coasts. These include pelicans and cormorants , who join up with terns and oystercatchers to forage for fish and shellfish. There are sea lions on

4060-641: The seabird density one of the greatest in Europe. In excess of 170,000 birds inhabit Fowlsheugh at the peak breeding season between April and late July. This value places Fowlsheugh as the second largest seabird colony in Britain and surpasses the criterion of 20,000 birds to qualify as a protected area of international seabird importance under European Union Directive 79/409. Bird species present are primarily auks and gulls , which feed in nearby offshore waters as well as more distant North Sea reaches. Most of

4130-401: The seashore (see also estuaries and coastal ecosystems ). While there is general agreement in the scientific community regarding the definition of coast, in the political sphere, the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to jurisdiction . Government authorities in various countries may define coast differently for economic and social policy reasons. The coastline paradox

4200-427: The second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock types run parallel to the shore. These rock types are usually of varying resistance , so the coastline forms distinctive landforms, such as coves. Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the rocks are eroded by the ocean waves . The less resistant rocks erode faster, creating inlets or bay ;

4270-404: The slope than up it. Steep waves that are close together and break with the surf plunging down onto the shore slope expend much of their energy lifting the sediment. The weak swash does not carry it far up the slope, and the strong backwash carries it further down the slope, where it either settles in deeper water or is carried along the shore by a longshore current induced by an angled approach of

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4340-758: The terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region located on a coastline (e.g., New Zealand's West Coast , or the East , West , and Gulf Coast of the United States .) Coasts with a narrow continental shelf that are close to the open ocean are called pelagic coast , while other coasts are more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay . A shore , on the other hand, may refer to parts of land adjoining any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake shore). The Earth has approximately 620,000 kilometres (390,000 mi) of coastline. Coastal habitats, which extend to

4410-501: The threats of coasts has been captured in Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water" which sets goals for international policy focused on preserving marine coastal ecosystems and supporting more sustainable economic practices for coastal communities. Likewise, the United Nations has declared 2021–2030 the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration , but restoration of coastal ecosystems has received insufficient attention. Pebble Too Many Requests If you report this error to

4480-487: The wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas, the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and

4550-476: The wave-front to the shore. These waves which erode the beach are called destructive waves. Low waves that are further apart and break by spilling , expend more of their energy in the swash which carries particles up the beach, leaving less energy for the backwash to transport them downslope, with a net constrictive influence on the beach. Riviera is an Italian word for "shoreline", ultimately derived from Latin ripa ("riverbank"). It came to be applied as

4620-407: The waves surge up the river estuaries from the ocean. Geologists classify coasts on the basis of tidal range into macrotidal coasts with a tidal range greater than 4 m (13 ft); mesotidal coasts with a tidal range of 2 to 4 m (6.6 to 13 ft); and microtidal coasts with a tidal range of less than 2 m (7 ft). The distinction between macrotidal and mesotidal coasts

4690-469: The whole ocean system are ultimately connected, although certain regional classifications are useful and relevant. The waters of the continental shelves represent such a region. The term "coastal waters" has been used in a wide variety of different ways in different contexts. In European Union environmental management it extends from the coast to just a few nautical miles while in the United States

4760-482: The world's people live in coastal regions. According to a United Nations atlas, 44% of all people live within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea. Many major cities are on or near good harbors and have port facilities. Some landlocked places have achieved port status by building canals . Nations defend their coasts against military invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants. Fixed coastal defenses have long been erected in many nations, and coastal countries typically have

4830-596: The “Gallery” intrudes a full hundred metres westward beneath the fertile barley fields high above. In the northern extremity of the Fowlsheugh is an offshore skerry named Craiglethy , and slightly further a skerry called Gull Craig. These lower lying rocky outcrops are an integral part of the Fowlsheugh Preserve, hosting seabird nests as well as a few harbour seals on Craiglethy, who can be seen hauling out or sunbathing on summer afternoons. Craiglethy

4900-441: Was expanded upon by Benoit Mandelbrot . Tides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deposition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as

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