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53-735: The Fox controlled the Fox River system. This river was vital for the fur trade between French Canada and the North American interior, because it allowed river travel from Green Bay in Lake Michigan to the Mississippi River . The French wanted the rights to use the river system to gain access to both the Mississippi and trade contacts with tribes to the west. The wars claimed thousands of lives and initiated

106-696: A Native American people of the Great Plains , upper Mississippi River , and western Great Lakes region . They traditionally speak the Potawatomi language , a member of the Algonquian family . The Potawatomi call themselves Neshnabé , a cognate of the word Anishinaabe . The Potawatomi are part of a long-term alliance, called the Council of Three Fires , with the Ojibwe and Odawa (Ottawa). In

159-617: A slave trade whereby Fox Indians were captured by native allies of New France and then sold as slaves to the French colonial population. Indeed, alliances between the French and other native groups (such as Ottawa , Miamis and Sioux ) as well as those between the Fox and other native groups (such as the Sauk , Mascoutens and Kickapoos ) were an important aspect of the Wars, influencing every stage of

212-696: A concrete and practical relationship with the French. As French colonizers sought to enlarge their influence in the West, they sought to ally themselves with the Indians as commercial and military partners. At the time, French imperial policy had already privileged certain aboriginal tribes, in particular the Ojibwa-Ottawa-Potawatimi confederacy and the Illini confederacy in the south, and the Sioux were

265-486: A fumigating reviver. Vaccinium myrtilloides is part of their traditional cuisine, and is eaten fresh, dried, and canned. They also use the root bark of the plant for an unspecified ailment. The Potawatomi first lived in Lower Michigan, then moved to northern Wisconsin and eventually settled into northern Indiana and central Illinois. In the early 19th century, major portions of Potawatomi lands were seized by

318-457: A war chief, established villages in the area, including a fort with easy gunshot range of Portchartrain. The Fox outnumbered the French and Hurons. However, their luck changed with the arrival of 600 allied warrior under Ottawa war chief Saguima and Potawatomi chief Makisabé which reversed the fighting situation. Jacques-Charles Renaud Dubuisson , who wanted the Fox removed from their village, had ordered these reinforcements. For nineteen days,

371-509: Is Bodéwadmi (without syncope: Bodéwademi ; plural: Bodéwadmik ), a cognate of the Ojibwe form. Their name means "those who tend the hearth-fire," which refers to the hearth of the Council of Three Fires . The word comes from "to tend the hearth-fire," which is bodewadm (without syncope: bodewadem ) in the Potawatomi language ; the Ojibwe and Ottawa forms are boodawaadam and boodwaadam , respectively. Alternatively,

424-613: Is a Central Algonquian language and is spoken around the Great Lakes in Michigan and Wisconsin. It is also spoken by Potawatomi in Kansas , Oklahoma, and in southern Ontario . As of 2001, there were fewer than 1,300 people who speak Potawatomi as a first language, most of them elderly. The people are working to revitalize the language , as evidenced by recent efforts such as the online Potawatomi language Dictionary created by

477-777: The Beaver Wars they fled to the area around Green Bay to escape attacks by both the Iroquois and the Neutral Confederacy , who were seeking expanded hunting grounds. It is estimated that the Potawatomi numbered around 3,000 in 1658,. As an important part of Tecumseh 's Confederacy, Potawatomi warriors took part in Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812 . Their alliances switched repeatedly between United Kingdom and

530-477: The British . These ties continued to be significant as late as the War of 1812 , when many Sauk and Fox fought on the side of British North America . The financial situation of the colony before the first Fox War was a state of semi-bankruptcy. The War of Spanish Succession had taken a significant toll on the funds of France, and by extension, on the resources available to the colony of New France . Therefore,

583-771: The Citizen Potawatomi Nation or the various resources available through the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians . The Potawatomi language is most similar to the Odawa language ; it also has borrowed a considerable amount of vocabulary from Sauk . Like the Odawa language, or the Ottawa dialect of the Anishinaabe language , the Potawatomi language exhibits a great amount of vowel syncope . Many places in

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636-570: The French and Indian War (the North American front of the Seven Years' War ). Pontiac's Rebellion was an attempt by Native Americans to push the British and other European settlers out of their territory. The Potawatomi captured every British frontier garrison but the one at Detroit. The Potawatomi nation continued to grow and expanded westward from Detroit, most notably in the development of

689-472: The Council of Three Fires, the Potawatomi are considered the "youngest brother". Their people are referred to in this context as Bodéwadmi , a name that means "keepers of the fire" and refers to the council fire of three peoples. In the 19th century, some bands of Potawatomi were pushed to the west by European/American encroachment. In the 1830s the federal government removed most from their lands east of

742-530: The Fox against the French and their native allies centered on the return of Fox captives, the most significant issue perpetuating the Fox Wars into subsequent decades." Yet, long after the conflicts, Fox slaves worked in domestic service, unskilled labour and fieldwork, among other tasks throughout New France. Despite the abolishment of slavery in New France in accordance with the 1709 ordinance, Fox slavery

795-505: The Fox and French actually achieve peace. In the past, there had been several attempts to find peace, however, each one failing and causing the Fox to return to war. As a result, during this period, enslaved Fox (men, women and children) entered Canada through raids and became a dominant source of enslaved labour in the Saint Lawrence Valley . Fox defeat For the Fox, the start and the potential end to their conflict lay in

848-461: The Fox declared war on the French and all their Indian allies. For the next four years, the French invested a lot of money and, with their allies, descended on Fox villages with an extreme advantage. The French pursued destruction of the Fox to such an extent as to damage their relations with other tribes. The Sioux and the Iowa refused to grant the Fox sanctuary. By the summer of 1730, the Fox population

901-514: The Fox escaped their village and fled north. The French-allied Indians cornered them near the head of the Detroit River and inflicted four more days of fighting. By the end of the siege and pursuit, around 1,000 Fox and Mascouten men, women and children were killed (including many of the captives). The French lost 30 men, and their allies had 60 fatalities. It was not until 1726, with the arrival of Charles de Beauharnois de La Boische , that

954-415: The Fox fought and kept their footing with the French. After several days, the Fox asked for a ceasefire and returned some hostages; however, no ceasefire was granted. Several days later, another parley occurred, as the Fox tried to seek protection for the women and children. Dubuisson chose to let his allies decide their course; they chose to grant no mercy. After nineteen days, during a nighttime thunderstorm,

1007-471: The Fox slaves in his possession. This agreement relied on certain conditions. The first request was that the Fox return their slaves to other Native groups. The second request was that new slaves be brought to the French in the following year. The French desire for slaves would lead the Fox into conducting more slave raids , and increasing tension between Native groups. The Illinois would persist during this period in denying their holding of any Fox slaves, but

1060-514: The Fox unsuccessful, but prior to 1701, many wars between aboriginal people, which also included the French, against the Iroquois were ravaging the aboriginal lands of the Pays d'en Haut . The Iroquoian wars brought fear and urgency for the French to attempt to save what was left of their trade alliances. Their alliances were in jeopardy, and also, in 1697 the western posts were closed as a result of

1113-453: The Fox. By accepting these slaves, French colonists had symbolically acknowledged their enmity against the Fox, implicitly committing military support to their allies in future disputes. Fox slavery in New France thus had a precarious symbolic power. On the one hand, the exchange of slaves signaled the possible end of conflict, while, on the other hand, it also served as a motive for inciting more conflict. In an early French manuscript describing

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1166-578: The French were impotent to force the Illinois to return the slaves in their possession. This in turn caused tensions to boil over and spark the Second Fox War. By the end of the Second Fox War, France had lost a trading partner, and a certain amount of economic influence. Another aspect that was made apparent through these tensions was the lack of control over the trade that New France had found itself to be reliant on. This lack of control stemmed from

1219-593: The French were quick to establish a French protectorate in the Great Lakes region. Nevertheless, the question still remained as to how they would facilitate trade with their southern partners, when their main trading posts had been closed. From this point on, the Great Lakes region was going to be even more unstable. Fox defeat After the Peace Conference of 1701, Antoine de Lamothe Cadillac resolved

1272-710: The Mississippi River to Indian Territory - first in Kansas, Nebraska, and last to Oklahoma. Some bands survived in the Great Lakes region and today are federally recognized as tribes, in addition to the Potawatomi in Oklahoma. The English "Potawatomi" is derived from the Ojibwe Boodewaadamii(g) ( syncoped in the Ottawa as Boodewaadmii(g) ). The Potawatomi name for themselves ( autonym )

1325-622: The Mississippi River. Often annuities and supplies were reduced, or late in arrival, and the Potawatomi suffered after their relocations. Those in Kansas were later removed to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma ). The removal of the Indiana Potawatomi was documented by a Catholic priest, Benjamin Petit , who accompanied the Indians on the Potawatomi Trail of Death in 1838. Petit died while returning to Indiana in 1839. His diary

1378-402: The Potawatomi doodems (clans) being: They regard Epigaea repens as their tribal flower and consider it to have come directly from their divinity. Allium tricoccum is consumed in traditional Potawatomi cuisine. They mix an infusion of the root of Uvularia grandiflora with lard and use it as salve to massage sore muscles and tendons. They use Symphyotrichum novae-angliae as

1431-763: The Potawatomi as a single tribe. They often had a few tribal leaders whom all villages accepted. The Potawatomi had a decentralized society, with several main divisions based on geographic locations: Milwaukee or Wisconsin area, Detroit or Huron River , the St. Joseph River , the Kankakee River , Tippecanoe and Wabash Rivers , the Illinois River and Lake Peoria, and the Des Plaines and Fox Rivers . The chiefs listed below are grouped by geographic area. The removal period of Potawatomi history began with

1484-515: The Potawatomi call themselves Neshnabé (without syncope: Eneshenabé ; plural: Neshnabék ), a cognate of Ojibwe Anishinaabe (g) , meaning "original people." The Potawatomi teach their children about the "Seven Grandfather Teachings" of wisdom, respect, love, honesty, humility, bravery, and truth toward each other and all creation. Each principle teaches the equality and importance of their fellow tribesmen and respect for all of nature's creations. The story that underlies these teaches

1537-603: The Potawatomi. The French period of contact began with early explorers who reached the Potawatomi in western Michigan. They also found the tribe located along the Door Peninsula of Wisconsin. By the end of the French period, the Potawatomi had begun a move to the Detroit area, leaving the large communities in Wisconsin. The British period of contact began when France ceded its lands after its defeat by Britain in

1590-803: The St. Joseph villages adjacent to the Miami in southwestern Michigan. The Wisconsin communities continued and moved south along the Lake Michigan shoreline. The United States treaty period of Potawatomi history began with the Treaty of Paris , which ended the American Revolutionary War and established the United States' interest in the lower Great Lakes. It lasted until the treaties for Indian removal were signed. The US recognized

1643-611: The US government. Following the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, by which the tribe ceded its lands in Illinois, most of the Potawatomi people were removed to Indian Territory, west of the Mississippi River. Many perished en route to new lands in the west on their journey through Iowa , Kansas, and Indian Territory, following what became known as the " Trail of Death ". Potawatomi (also spelled Pottawatomie; in Potawatomi Bodéwadmimwen or Bodéwadmi Zheshmowen or Neshnabémwen )

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1696-439: The US reduced the size of the reservations under pressure for land by incoming European Americans. The final step followed the Treaty of Chicago , negotiated in 1833 for the tribes by Caldwell and Robinson. In return for land cessions, the US promised new lands, annuities and supplies to enable the peoples to develop new homes. The Illinois Potawatomi were removed to Nebraska and the Indiana Potawatomi to Kansas , both west of

1749-477: The United States as power relations shifted between the nations, and they calculated effects on their trade and land interests. At the time of the War of 1812, a band of Potawatomi inhabited the area near Fort Dearborn , where Chicago developed. Led by the chiefs Blackbird and Nuscotomeg (Mad Sturgeon), a force of about 500 warriors attacked the United States evacuation column leaving Fort Dearborn. They killed most of

1802-464: The area. Ottawa and Huron peoples established villages in the area, soon joined by the Potawatomi , Miamis , and Ojibwa. The population may have reached 6,000 at times. This was positive for the French, but their presence and the presence of the Fox would aggravate things in the region. Indigenous groups that were enemies lived fairly far apart, but in Detroit, they lived side by side competing for

1855-544: The civilians and 54 of Captain Nathan Heald 's force, and wounded many others. George Ronan , the first graduate of West Point to be killed in combat, died in this ambush. The incident is referred to as the Battle of Fort Dearborn . A Potawatomi chief named Mucktypoke ( Makdébki , Black Partridge), counseled his fellow warriors against the attack. Later he saved some of the civilian captives who were being ransomed by

1908-456: The colony had to maximize its profits and try to minimize its spending. This posed a particular problem in respect to the long-standing tensions with the Fox natives and their long-standing enemies, the Cree and Assiniboines natives. The financial justification for wanting to prevent war was very simple for the French. Periods of war slowed down the production of fur by the natives and New France

1961-448: The conflicts, including the causes, the fighting and the conclusion. The First Fox War (1712–1716) began with inter-alliance violence and ended with the surrender of a large group of Fox and the subsequent peace deal. As was custom, peace offerings required the exchange of goods and of prisoners to account for those who died in the conflict, acknowledging the importance of this exchange for establishing peace. The Second Fox War (1728–1733)

2014-478: The entry of Fox slaves into colonial New France in two ways: as spoils of French military officers or through direct trading. Beginning with the 1716 treaty, slavery became an ongoing element of the Fox-French relationship. As historian Brett Rushforth explains, The French received scores of Fox slaves during the previous four years, placing themselves in a difficult diplomatic position between their allies and

2067-474: The history of Green Bay , it is suggested that to gain peace with the Fox, it is more beneficial for opposing groups to simply return Fox captives than to take up arms against the Fox. "If this amnesty for slaves is not reached, and if the Fox do not maintain their promises for peace and "take up the hatchet anew, it will be necessary to reduce them by armed forces of both colonies acting in concert." Slaves were so commonly held that "every recorded complaint made by

2120-475: The importance of patience and listening. It follows the Water Spider's journey to retrieve fire so that the other animals can survive the cold. As the other animals step forth one after another to proclaim that they shall be the ones to retrieve the fire, the Water Spider sits and waits while listening to her fellows. As they finish and wrestle with their fears, she steps forward and announces that she will be

2173-473: The next profitable alliance. The Wisconsin tribes (Fox, Sauk, Mascouten, Kickapoo and Winnebago), with the intention of dominating the post, prevented the French from having direct trade access to the Sioux. Concurrently, they would disrupt the lives of the Ottawas and Miamis near Detroit, as well as the French settlement. In the spring of 1712, a large group of Fox under Lamyma , a peace chief, and Pemoussa ,

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2226-411: The one to bring fire back. As they laugh and doubt her, she weaves a bowl out of her web, using it to sail across the water to retrieve the fire. She brings back a hot coal out of which the animals make fire, and they celebrate her honor and bravery. The Potawatomi are first mentioned in French records, which suggest that in the early 17th century, they lived in what is now southwestern Michigan . During

2279-903: The political nature of the slave trade and the adeptness at which Illinois natives had used it to anger the Fox and lock the French into alliances. As a result, this was another event that led to the decline of the French power in Great Lakes Region. Fox River (Wisconsin) Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.133 via cp1102 cp1102, Varnish XID 549273025 Upstream caches: cp1102 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Thu, 28 Nov 2024 05:44:01 GMT Potawatomi The Potawatomi / p ɒ t ə ˈ w ɒ t ə m i / , also spelled Pottawatomi and Pottawatomie (among many variations ), are

2332-429: The slave trade. The Fox were still willing to return to the French alliance if they could secure the return of their captives. In fact, all they wanted was to be considered as allies and kin, not enemies. However, the French officials supported the Illinois, Ottawa, Ojibwa, and Huron, who were against the Fox. As a result, the peace treaty from 1726 was annulled in the summer of 1727. With this peace treaty being annulled,

2385-559: The tensions surrounding the Second Fox War. This demonstrated a distinct lack of control by the French over the trade that they depended upon in the early years of New France. After the First Fox War, there were tensions between the Fox and the French in Detroit, for holding slaves. Always wanting to secure French trade agreements, the Governor General of Canada , General Philippe de Rigaud de Vaudreuil , agreed to return

2438-583: The termination by Louis XIV of the fur trade west of Montreal . Historian Richard White illustrates central Wisconsin at the end of the seventeenth century as "a vast refugee center, its situation constantly changing, nations socializing, cooperating, feuding, fighting, constantly adjusting their strategies to shift in French trading policy, which was always the dominant reality." Thus, when the Peace Conference of 1701 finally took place in Montreal,

2491-430: The trade issue by establishing a new fort, Fort Pontchartrain , at Detroit. This location was strategic, as it allowed access to the water trade routes, which were more accessible than Montreal, and the warpaths of the Great Lakes region. Despite enabling access to this region by establishing a fort, the French could not survive without the help of the aboriginal people. Governor Cadillac invited numerous tribes to settle in

2544-527: The treaties of the late 1820s, when the United States created reservations. Billy Caldwell and Alexander Robinson negotiated for the United Nations of Chippewa, Ottawa and Potowatomi in the Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien (1829), by which they ceded most of their lands in Wisconsin and Michigan. Some Potawatomi became religious followers of the "Kickapoo Prophet", Kennekuk . Over the years,

2597-543: Was far more destructive than the first, and ended with the near annihilation of the Fox population. The Fox Indians were living in eastern Wisconsin at the time of their first contacts with the French around 1670. The Fox unsuccessfully sought to establish themselves as middlemen between the French and the Sioux , one of their two traditional enemies, the other being the Ojibwas (Chippewas) in northern Wisconsin. Not only were

2650-567: Was in no position to lose any more money that had already been spent elsewhere. This lack of funds made the French dependent on their allies for furs. Large scale expeditions could not be carried out by French voyageurs , instead the voyageurs would travel into native hunting grounds to make their trades and maintain relationships. These relationships were vital to French economic success, but this also bound them to act as diplomatic partners, becoming embroiled in conflicts between Native groups as part of their trade agreements. The Fox Wars facilitated

2703-578: Was published in 1941, over 100 years after his death, by the Indiana Historical Society. Many Potawatomi found ways to remain, primarily those in Michigan. Others fled to their Odawa neighbors or to Canada to avoid removal to the west. There are several active bands of Potawatomi. Federally recognized Potawatomi tribes in the United States: La Chauvignerie (1736) and Morgan (1877) mention among

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2756-498: Was weakening and continued to be attacked until the Sauk finally granted them sanctuary. The Sauk and Fox fought off the French with the help of western Indians, who were aware of Beauharnois' plan for decimation. This final push would cause Beauharnois to grant a "General Pardon" in 1738 and for peace to be restored. Their historical feuds with New France encouraged many Sauk and Fox warriors to develop kinship ties with France's rivals,

2809-476: Was widespread. This pattern of slavery is evidence that intercultural experience in New France was sometimes vicious. After the First Fox War, roughly 1,000 Fox slaves were taken by the coalition of Native groups who were fighting the Fox (namely the Illinois ). In addition, some were taken and sold to the French in Detroit and in return, they received goods and credit. The impact of these slave holdings tied into

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