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57-797: Located at the junction of the north and south forks of the American River, the dam was built by the United States Army Corps of Engineers , and was transferred to the United States Bureau of Reclamation upon its completion. The dam and its reservoir, Folsom Lake , are part of the Central Valley Project , a multipurpose project that provides flood control , hydroelectricity , irrigation, and municipal water supply. To increase Sacramento's flood protection to 200-year flood protection (meaning that

114-536: A 5-day period. However, this time the Bureau of Reclamation was able to limit releases to less than 110,000 cubic feet per second (3,100 m/s). The 1997 storm was a classic example of a "rain on snow" event, during which a warm tropical storm melted existing snowpack at lower and middle elevations, effectively doubling the volume of runoff. Prior to the New Year's storm, the winter of December 1996 had also been one of

171-567: A diving salvage. It was their conclusion that operations were not possible, and the New York papers all reported the view as definitive, demonstrating that MC&S already had considerable reputation for expertise in maritime salvage. It is not clear from the sources consulted so far what sorts of activities MC&S were involved in during the 1910s although some ships were sold to the Navy just prior to US entry into World War I in 1917, including

228-581: A new spillway, is designed to handle the runoff from large storms and snowmelt floods that might cause damage in the region. The new spillway is built with gates 50 ft (15 m) lower than the existing spillway, allowing for more efficient evacuation of reservoir storage before flooding events. North Fork American River The North Fork American River is the longest branch of the American River in Northern California . It

285-480: A number of boats, and steam derricks . By the late 19th century, the firm had some experience in maritime investigation, with the ability to determine causes for wrecks and explosions. When, in 1898, the USS Maine exploded in the harbour of Havana, Cuba , the U.S. War department engaged Merritt-Chapman to determine whether the unknown explosion came from inside the hull or outside. Investigators decided that it

342-506: A story about the origins of the Life Saving Benevolent Association of New York and the story behind the black horse shown on the corporate flag. "The memory of the black horse of this book is preserved as a symbol to this day on the house flag of Merritt-Chapman & Scott Corporation, the great ship salvage firm." In addition to salvage operations, the company got involved in marine construction, acquiring

399-527: Is 88 miles (142 km) long from its source at the crest of the Sierra Nevada , near Lake Tahoe , to its mouth at Folsom Lake northeast of Sacramento . Prior to the construction of Folsom Dam the river was about 9 miles (14 km) longer making for a total length of 97 miles (156 km). It rises at Mountain Meadow Lake near the 9,008 ft (2,746 m) peak of Granite Chief in

456-438: Is applied to the weak axis of the struts (see Section modulus ). To better handle these loads, the struts are connected with diagonal braces that take the stress as axial loads. At Folsom Dam, increasing corrosion at the pin-hub interface had raised the coefficient of friction and, therefore, the bending stress in the strut and the axial force in the brace. The capacity of the brace connection was exceeded and it failed. This caused

513-425: Is intermediate, between peaking and base load . It generally operates during the day, when the demand and price for electricity is the highest. The plant produces an average of 691,358,000 kilowatt hours each year. Folsom Dam was proposed as early as the 1930s under California's State Water Plan, in response to chronic flooding in low-lying Sacramento. The flood risk to the state capital had been exacerbated since

570-424: Is located just north of the city of Folsom , and consists of a 340-ft-high (100 m), 1,400-ft-long (430 m), hollow-core, concrete gravity dam containing 1,170,000 cu yd (890,000 m) of material. The dam is flanked by two earthen wing dikes, and the reservoir is held in place by an additional nine saddle dams on the west and southeast sides. The wing dams total a length of 8,800 ft (2,700 m), and

627-618: The Folsom Powerhouse , generating electricity that was transmitted to Sacramento over a 22 mi (35 km)-long distribution line, the longest electrical distribution system in the world at the time. The remains of the earlier dam can be seen downstream from the Folsom Lake Crossing. Construction of the dam began in 1951 with preliminary excavations for the Folsom Power Plant. The primary contract

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684-696: The Tahoe National Forest . Flowing initially northwest, the river soon swings west into a gorge, paralleling the Forest Hill Divide on the south. Big Granite Creek then joins the North Fork of the American River coming in from the right. The canyon shallows as the river turns southwest, carving through the Sierra foothills, then turning abruptly south near Colfax . About 4 miles (6.4 km) downstream, it receives Shirttail Creek from

741-659: The Waldo-Hancock Bridge , 1931, Bucksport, Maine , the Marquette Ore Docks , 1931, Marquette, Michigan , and the Mount Vernon Memorial Highway Hunting Creek Bridge, 1932, Alexandria, Virginia . and even sinking an elderly destroyer ( USS Moody ) for the 1933 MGM film Hell Below . Marquette had been an ore transshipment (from rail to ship for a journey down Lake Superior and the rest of

798-596: The 1850s by hydraulic mining debris and the construction of levees to protect farms and towns, which reduced the channel capacity of the Sacramento and American Rivers. The current dam was originally authorized by Congress in 1944 as a 355,000 acre⋅ft (0.438 km) flood control unit, and was reauthorized in 1949 as a 1,000,000 acre⋅ft (1.2 km) multiple-purpose facility. The current Folsom Dam replaced an earlier, smaller dam that had been completed in 1893 by Horatio Gates Livermore. The earlier dam had fed

855-403: The 1950s or 1960s (a 1949 book gives no mention of MS&C ownership. Further research is needed to clarify this part of the history. MC&S itself was to be taken over in 1951 by Louis E. Wolfson a renowned corporate raider of the time. The takeover was not without its problems, there were a number of stockholder suits, and eventually, further difficulties. But Merritt-Chapman & Scott

912-501: The 2,140 sq mi (5,500 km) American River watershed. The average amount of runoff entering the reservoir is 2,700,000 acre-feet (3.3 km), forcing the release of 1,700,000 acre-feet (2.1 km) for flood control. Folsom Power Plant is located on the north side of the river, at the base of the dam. It has three Francis turbines with a combined capacity of 198.72 megawatts (MW), uprated from its original capacity of 162 MW in 1972. The power plant's electricity production

969-409: The American River. This was 15,000 cubic feet per second (420 m/s) above the safe capacity of downstream levees. Although the dam and the Sacramento levee system held without major damage, the requisite winter flood control space was increased 50%, from 400,000 to 600,000 acre feet, to protect against future floods. In addition, about 33,000 acre-feet (41,000,000 m) of sediment carried down from

1026-459: The Great Lakes to either Chicago, Detroit or Cleveland where the mills were) point since the 1850s, with a succession of more elaborate ore storage and transfer facilities being constructed. The Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic Railway (DSS&A) commissioned the construction of a large and modern facility in 1931. The construction process began with the awarding of contracts. The first one

1083-637: The Relief and subsequently purchased back after the war's end. In the 1920s, it is known they continued to be involved in diving operations and they had a reputation of "skilled artisans with an average individual experience probably not to be found in any other group". By the 1930s MS&C's broadening of scope was clear. They continued to acquire companies and were involved in a large number of construction projects during this decade that utilised their underwater, pile driving, concrete setting, foundation construction, and diving expertise. These projects included

1140-537: The area is protected from a flood that has a 0.5% chance of occurring in any given year), the Corps of Engineers recently constructed an auxiliary spillway, which was completed in October 2017; it enables Folsom Dam operators to increase outflows to prevent the lake level from reaching or exceeding the height of the main dam gates. Another Central Valley Project dam, Nimbus Dam , is located further down river. Folsom Dam

1197-418: The consequent unreliability of equipment, and the growing needs of commerce to fuel US expansion meant that a large number of ships operated. Some foundered or got into trouble on their own, and some were lured to their doom by wreckers . Salvage operations were in their infancy, and commercial diving was almost unheard of. It was with this background that a number of companies started operating under law of

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1254-596: The dam forms Folsom Lake , with a normal maximum pool of 977,000 acre⋅ft (1.205 km) and a surcharge capacity of 110,000 acre⋅ft (0.14 km), for a total capacity of 1,087,000 acre⋅ft (1.341 km). The original capacity was 1,010,000 acre-feet (1.25 km), but it has been reduced somewhat due to sedimentation . At its maximum elevation of 480 ft (150 m), the reservoir covers 11,930 acres (4,830 ha), with 75 mi (121 km) of shoreline. The dam and reservoir control runoff from an area of 1,875 sq mi (4,860 km), or 87.6% of

1311-471: The dam was complete, it demonstrated its effectiveness as a flood control facility during the record storms of December 1955, which completely filled Folsom Lake in a matter of weeks, and preventing $ 20 million of property damage. The dam was officially dedicated on May 5, 1956, and operation was transferred to the Bureau of Reclamation on May 14. On the morning of July 17, 1995, the Folsom Dam power plant

1368-447: The dam was great enough concern for Bureau officials to close Folsom Dam Road. The road over the dam had been a major artery for the city of Folsom. With its closure, traffic became severely congested during rush hour. The impact was so great that residents and city officials petitioned the federal government to reconsider the road closure, which the government initially considered. Continued security concerns prevented them from re-opening

1425-573: The dock including the large steel ore chutes would be furnished by McClintick, Marshall Corporation of Chicago. Jernstad Electric of Ishpeming would install the electrical work and the Worden—Allen Company of Chicago was given the contract for furnishing all of the reinforced steel for the dock and its approach. The USS Moody , a World War I vintage destroyer, obsolete, and over the London Naval Treaty limits for naval vessels,

1482-516: The end of Alfred Hitchcock 's film Saboteur . The ship was righted in 1943 by Merritt-Scott & Chapman in the world's most expensive salvage operation, but it was subsequently determined that the cost of restoring the liner was too great. After neither the US Navy nor the French Line offered to restore the liner, the ship's designer, Vladimir Yourkevitch, made a last-ditch proposal to cut

1539-456: The film crew interfering with operations. Threats were exchanged, but the filming was done. As during World War I there was a fair bit of transference of MC&S assets to the Navy, and back again, as a result of World War II . One of the most famous salvage operations ever carried out by MC&S was the salvage of the Normandie , a French liner, the largest in the world when built, which

1596-485: The fire spread rapidly. The ship had a very efficient fire protection system, but it had been disconnected during the conversion. All on board fled the ship. As firefighters on shore and in fireboats poured water on the blaze, the ship developed a dangerous list to port. About 2:45 a.m. on February 10, the Normandie capsized , crushing a fireboat. A shot of the capsized ship makes a brief cameo appearance towards

1653-691: The last full decade of its life. These included: The company also undertook smaller projects ranging from roads in Ethiopia to Air Force early-warning stations in Labrador. The company went into liquidation in 1967. The management aimed to complete the liquidation process in three years, but it was not in fact completed until 1982. Since 1971, the New York Ship site has been owned by the South Jersey Port Corporation,

1710-770: The left then is impounded in Lake Clementine (or North Fork Lake) which is formed by the North Fork Dam , built in 1939 to contain hydraulic mining debris. Below the dam, the river bends south, passing under the Foresthill Bridge , the highest bridge in California, then receives the Middle Fork American River , its largest tributary, from the left. The valley widens as the river flows south past Auburn , soon emptying into

1767-414: The load from the struts and transfers it across an interface to the trunnion pin, which is stationary and is connected to the dam. When the gate is operated, the hub rotates around the pin. The struts are primarily compression members, but friction at the pin-hub interface induces a bending stress during gate operation. Typically, and in this case, the struts are oriented such that the trunnion friction stress

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1824-403: The load to redistribute and the failure progressed, eventually buckling the struts. After a year-long investigation, the Bureau of Reclamation attributed the failure to a design flaw: the Corps of Engineers, which designed the dam, did not consider trunnion friction (at the pin-hub interface) in the gate analyses. While this is true, this was one of five identical service gates that operated under

1881-404: The lubricant used by Reclamation did not conform to the Corps' original design specifications; it was a new, environmentally-friendly lubricant that was not sufficiently waterproof, allowing water to enter the pin-hub interface and cause the corrosion that resulted in increased friction. This failure caused no fatalities, and it had a significant positive impact on the dam industry. A renewed focus

1938-467: The mountains was deposited in Folsom Lake, considerably reducing its capacity. The consequence was a reduced capacity to store winter rainfall for summer use. Folsom Dam may have prevented as much as $ 4.7 billion in damages in 1986 alone. The New Year's Day storm of 1997 was the most severe in recent history, with a total inflow of 1 million acre feet (equal to the entire capacity of Folsom Lake) over

1995-719: The north arm of Folsom Lake, a reservoir formed in 1955 by the Folsom Dam. Its waters merge in the lake with those of the South Fork American River and form the American River, a tributary of the Sacramento River . Merritt-Chapman %26 Scott Merritt-Chapman & Scott , nicknamed "The Black Horse of the Sea", was a noted marine salvage and construction firm of the United States, with worldwide operations. The chief predecessor company

2052-504: The road and a new bridge, named Folsom Lake Crossing, was constructed and opened on March 28, 2009. During a severe storm in December 1964, the inflow into Folsom Lake reached a record high of 280,000 cu ft (7,900 m) per second, with a river release of 115,000 cu ft (3,300 m) per second. In February 1986, nearly 500,000 people faced the possibility of flooding when engineers at Folsom Dam were forced to open

2109-478: The saddle dams measure 16,530 ft (5,040 m) long combined. The dam and appurtenant dikes total a length of 26,730 ft (8,150 m), more than 5 mi (8.0 km). Floodwaters are released by a spillway located on the main channel dam, controlled by eight radial gates with a capacity of 567,000 cu ft/s (16,100 m/s), as well as a set of outlet works with a capacity of 115,000 cu ft/s (3,300 m/s). The impounded water behind

2166-454: The same circumstances for nearly 40 years without problems being observed. This suggests that the failure resulted from a condition that changed over time. Specifically, there was a gradual increase in the coefficient of friction at the pin-hub interface. While one would expect maintenance frequency to increase as a gate ages, Reclamation decreased the frequency of regular maintenance and lubrication over time due to budget constraints. In addition,

2223-411: The sea salvage rules rather than as wreckers. Israel Merritt founded Merritt Salvage in or before 1860 to operate in this nascent industry. The company continued to grow and expand the scope of operations, merging with other firms, and adopting the famous "black horse" house flag , a black horse in full gallop on a white flag. Iris Vinton , a noted author of young adult novels, wrote "Flying Ebony",

2280-632: The ship down and restore her as a mid-sized passenger liner. This, too, failed to draw backing, and the former Normandie was sold to Lipsett Inc. and scrapped in 1947. Another notable project was construction in 1942 of the Escanaba Ore Docks , Escanaba, Michigan , which were built as a backup in case the Marquette docks were sabotaged or bombed. MC&S acquired the New York Shipbuilding company at some point during

2337-474: The spillway gates after heavy rains. The flooding was made worse by the failure of the Auburn Dam cofferdam upstream which released an extra 100,000 acre-feet (120,000,000 m) into the American River. A peak flow of 250,000 cubic feet per second (7,100 m/s) entered Folsom Lake, forcing operators at Folsom Dam to open all the spillway gates, releasing 130,000 cubic feet per second (3,700 m/s) into

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2394-431: The summer season. This confused Pacific salmon and striped bass, whose instincts told them that fall rains had arrived, thus they began their annual fall migrations months ahead of schedule. The hydraulic load on this type of spillway gate ( Tainter gate ) is transmitted from the cylindrical skin plate, which is in contact with the reservoir, through a number of struts to a convergence at the trunnion hub. The hub collects

2451-537: The takeover, Wolfson had been stung with a dozen suits by angry investors, and in 1966 was indicted by a federal grand jury on charges of fraudulent dealings in Merritt-Chapman stock. Such stock manipulations, if they occurred, are only one of Merritt-Chapman's misfortunes under Wolfson. Another is that he tried to build up and broaden the company too fast. Acquisitions such as the unprofitable New York Shipbuilding Corp cut into profits and dividends; in 1966, there

2508-521: The time. Water storage in Folsom Lake began in February 1955, and the final concrete in the main dam was poured on May 17, 1955. The first hydroelectric power was generated in September of that year. In order to acquire the necessary land in the future Folsom Lake bed, the government had to relocate families on 142 properties, including the settlements of Mormon Island and Salmon Falls . Even before

2565-527: The time. and Merritt-Chapman & Scott Corporation's $ 25,735,600 (equivalent to $ 232 million in 2023 ) contract to build all the foundations led to the mobilization of the largest bridge construction fleet ever assembled to the time. The American Bridge Division of United States Steel Corporation had a $ 44,532,900 (equivalent to $ 401 million in 2023 ) contract to build this superstructure, with steel supplied by U.S. Steel's mills and delivered via their Pittsburgh Steamship Division's fleet. Since

2622-453: The wettest ever recorded, saturating the ground and depositing a considerable amount of snow. The Bureau of Reclamation's Safety of Dams Program determined the risk of flooding in the Sacramento area, labelling it as one of the most at-risk communities in the United States. Two projects to increase flood protection are currently underway. The first will raise the surrounding dikes by 7 feet (2.1 m) to increase flood protection. The second,

2679-452: Was a loss of $ 740,000 and no dividend at all. To halt the drain, Wolfson sold off a paint company, a small steel mill, the company's derrick division and a small shipyard, but the future was not assured. Along with its losses on operations, Merritt-Chapman also added a $ 3,233,000 "special charge" to the books in 1967 as a provision against losses if other properties had to be sold. However, the company did carry out significant projects in this,

2736-640: Was awarded in March 1931 when the Lake Shore Engine Works of Marquette was contracted to construct 150 hoists for raising and lowering the dock chutes. The second contract was let out on April 1, to the Merritt-Chapman & Whitney Corporation of Duluth. This company was the successor to Whitney Bros. which specialized in the building of docks, bridges, heavy construction work of all kinds as well as river and harbor improvements. They would bring their experience to this project. The fabricated steel for

2793-481: Was awarded to Savin Construction Corp. of East Hartford, Connecticut, and Merritt-Chapman & Scott of New York for $ 29.5 million, with oversight by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . On October 29, 1952, the first concrete was poured for the foundation. Flooding washed out the temporary cofferdam three times in 1953, delaying work and causing damage to Nimbus Dam which was also under construction at

2850-755: Was external, and attributed it to blast powder. This incident became the precipitate cause of the Spanish–American War . In 1909, the RMS Republic was struck by the SS Florida , and sank in 40 fathoms of open ocean off Nantucket, Massachusetts the next day after unsuccessful towing attempts by the MC&;S Relief and other tugs, taking a rumoured 3 million in gold currency with her. Merritt-Chapman were engaged to evaluate salvage operations and whether it would be possible to raise her, or to carry out

2907-455: Was founded in the 1860s by Israel Merritt , but a large number of other firms were merged in over the course of the company's history. It was taken over in the 1950s by famed corporate raider , Louis E. Wolfson . It went into liquidation in 1967. The 1850s and 1860s were a dangerous time for mariners and marine operations around the American continent. The transition from sail to steam with

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2964-520: Was headed for the breaking yard when MGM purchased her for approximately US$ 35,000 to film Hell Below , a movie based on Commander Edward Ellsberg 's novel Pigboats , which starred Robert Montgomery and Jimmy Durante . The Moody was towed from Mare Island to a nearby shipyard and reworked to resemble an Austro-Hungarian destroyer. To simulate her sinking by "torpedoes" by the American submarine, AL-14 (played by sub S-31 ), Merritt-Chapman & Scott Corporation were hired. A charge of dynamite

3021-467: Was involved in a large number of projects during this decade, including the following: One of the most important projects of the decade was the foundation contract for David B. Steinman 's Mackinac Bridge commenced 1954 and completed in 1957, across the Straits of Mackinac . This five-mile (8.0 km) bridge (including approaches) was the world's longest anchorage-to-anchorage single-suspended span at

3078-471: Was placed on board just aft of the bridge. Shortly after noon on February 21, 1933, the Moody was blown in two. The explosion was placed between two water tight compartments so she would continue to float after the explosion. Two other explosions took out the water tight bulkheads and the Moody finally sank at 5:30 PM. Several boats, many with newsmen aboard hoping to film the sinking destroyer, hovered around

3135-429: Was placed on maintenance and monitoring of radial gates, many of which were retrofitted to strengthen struts and bracing and ensure sufficient lubrication. After the 9/11 terrorist attacks , the Bureau of Reclamation analyzed potential targets for vulnerability and measures that could be taken to eliminate or reduce possible threats. With 500,000 residents in the vicinity of the Folsom Dam, the possibility of an attack on

3192-588: Was seized by the US after the fall of France. By 1941 the United States Navy decided to convert the Normandie into a troopship , the aptly named USS Lafayette . The ship was moored at Manhattan's Pier 88 for the conversion. On February 9, 1942, sparks from a welding torch ignited a stack of thousands of lifevests filled with kapok , a highly flammable material, that had been stored in the first class dining room. The woodwork had not yet been removed, and

3249-412: Was shut down and Spillway Gate 3 was opened to maintain flows in the American River. As the gate was operated, a diagonal brace between the lowest and second lowest struts failed. The failure resulted in the uncontrolled release of nearly 40% of Folsom Lake and a flood of 40,000 cubic feet per second (1,100 m/s) moving down the American River. The freshwater reaching San Francisco Bay was atypical for

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