Misplaced Pages

#935064

99-809: An addition to the back of the building in 1969, formally known as the Graduate Research Wing, added 99,000 square feet (9,200 m) of research space including study rooms, stacks space, and space for the library's special collections, the Woodson Research Center (named for Benjamin Woodson ). In December 1997, the Hobby Foundation designated $ 21.4 million specifically for improvements in Fondren Library. This gift allowed for additional space planning including

198-773: A Democrat from Georgia, "there is no prospect of ever winning Russian cooperation." Despite its reservations, the 80th Congress implemented Truman's requests, further escalating the Cold War with the USSR. Truman signed the Economic Cooperation Act into law on April 3, 1948; the Act established the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) to administer the program. ECA was headed by economic cooperation administrator Paul G. Hoffman . In

297-640: A concern was the Czechoslovak eagerness to accept the aid, as well as indications of a similar Polish attitude. Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov left Paris, rejecting the plan. After that, statements were made suggesting a future confrontation with the West, calling the United States both a "fascizing" power and the "center of worldwide reaction and anti-Soviet activity", with all U.S.-aligned countries branded as enemies. The Soviets blamed

396-435: A day for one year to 300 million people. Especially damaged was transportation infrastructure, as railways, bridges, and docks had been specifically targeted by airstrikes, while much merchant shipping had been sunk. Although most small towns and villages had not suffered as much damage, the destruction of transportation left them economically isolated. None of these problems could be easily remedied, as most nations engaged in

495-699: A detailed recommendation for the reconstruction of post-war Germany and served as a basis for the Marshall Plan. The initiative was named after United States Secretary of State George C. Marshall . The plan had bipartisan support in Washington, where the Republicans controlled Congress and the Democrats controlled the White House with Harry S. Truman as president. Some businessmen feared

594-450: A follow-up conversation with Stalin, he explained that an armed struggle would be impossible and that the struggle against the Marshall Plan was to be waged under the slogan of national independence. Congress, under the control of conservative Republicans, agreed to the program for multiple reasons. The 20-member conservative isolationist Senate wing of the party, based in the rural Midwest and led by Senator Kenneth S. Wherry (R-Nebraska),

693-720: A historical atlas collection. Large collections of note are the Masterson Texana collection, the Axson collection of 18th century plays, and the Anderson collection on the history of aeronautics. The Cruikshank collection offers a wealth of Cruikshank's illustrations from the 1800s. The Woodson houses the Ricketts and Shannon collection of 19th century printing arts, the Stevenson collection of printing and watermarks,

792-587: A just and honorable peace but—even worse—has actively sought to prevent it. Members of the Republican-controlled 80th Congress (1947–1949) were skeptical. "In effect, he told the Nation that we have lost the peace, that our whole war effort was in vain.", noted Representative Frederick Smith of Ohio. Others thought he had not been forceful enough to contain the USSR. "What [Truman] said fell short of being tough", noted Representative Eugene Cox ,

891-404: A large amount of digitized material online. Historical images of Rice University, its buildings, people, and events are online in the university's institutional repository. There are also digitized materials in the institutional repository related to items from their cultural heritage collections. The Woodson maintains an array of digital exhibits on a variety of topics: Jesse H. Jones, Liberty Hall,

990-533: A large focus of their collecting efforts. This includes collections from the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston , Ann Holmes, William Camfield, Elinor Evans, and Stages Repertory Theatre . As part of a 2-year grant funded Council on Library and Information Resources (CLIR) project “Digitizing hidden selections of Houston's African American and Jewish heritage,” Woodson Research Center will provide public access to collections highlighting

1089-614: A larger meeting was convened in Paris. Every country in Europe was invited, with the exceptions of Spain (a World War II neutral that had sympathized with the Axis powers ) and the small states of Andorra , San Marino , Monaco , and Liechtenstein . The Soviet Union was invited with the understanding that it would likely refuse. The states of the future Eastern Bloc were also approached, and Czechoslovakia and Poland agreed to attend. In one of

SECTION 10

#1732797462936

1188-455: A proposal than a plan, it was a challenge to European leaders to cooperate and coordinate. It asked Europeans to create their own plan for rebuilding Europe, indicating the United States would then fund this plan. The administration felt that the plan would likely be unpopular among many Americans, and the speech was mainly directed at a European audience. In an attempt to keep the speech out of American papers, journalists were not contacted, and on

1287-636: A quick European response to (and acceptance of) the offer, which led to the creation of the Committee of European Economic Co-operation . The two agreed that it would be necessary to invite the Soviets as the other major allied power. Marshall's speech had explicitly included an invitation to the Soviets, feeling that excluding them would have been a sign of distrust. State Department officials, however, knew that Stalin would almost certainly not participate and that any plan that would send large amounts of aid to

1386-544: A sense of hope and self-reliance. By 1952, as the funding ended, the economy of every participant state had surpassed pre-war levels; for all Marshall Plan recipients, output in 1951 was at least 35% higher than in 1938. Over the next two decades, Western Europe enjoyed unprecedented growth and prosperity, but economists are not sure what proportion was due directly to the ERP, what proportion indirectly, and how much would have happened without it. A common American interpretation of

1485-574: A strategic partner, and in exchange, the Federal government would purchase stock in the US businesses to reimburse them. In this way, Europe would receive the aid it needed, American businesses would receive capital investment, and the federal government would make a profit when the stock was sold. British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin heard Marshall's radio broadcast speech and immediately contacted French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault to begin preparing

1584-537: Is a selective depository of U.S. and Texas government publications and a depository for U.S. patents and trademarks. Woodson Research Center contains more than 475 manuscript collections with emphasis on Texas, Houston, history, science, and English literature. Woodson contains more than 475 manuscript collections focused on the history of Texas and the greater Houston area, politics , entrepreneurship , and oil and gas . Other subject areas include American Civil War history, hip hop/rap music-related materials from

1683-636: Is an archive located in Fondren Library at Rice University in Houston, Texas . The Center is named for Benjamin N. Woodson and houses the special collections of Rice University's Fondren Library which includes manuscript collections, rare books, and the Rice University archives. Within the manuscript collections, there are archives focused on specific collecting areas, which include the Houston Asian American Archive,

1782-579: Is as follows: "The mission of the Fondren Library of Rice University is to support the highest aspirations of the University in the areas of research, teaching, and service, through innovative research and information services, access to scholarly resources, collaborative alliances, and provision and shared use of physical and virtual spaces." Fondren Library currently subscribes to more than 141,000 journals in multiple formats and houses more than 2.8 million print volumes and 3 million microforms. The library

1881-631: Is counted separately from the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan was replaced by the Mutual Security Plan at the end of 1951; that new plan gave away about $ 7.5 billion annually until 1961 when it was replaced by another program. The ERP addressed each of the obstacles to postwar recovery. The plan looked to the future and did not focus on the destruction caused by the war. Much more important were efforts to modernize European industrial and business practices using high-efficiency American models, reducing artificial trade barriers, and instilling

1980-401: Is logical that the United States should do whatever it is able to do to assist in the return of normal economic health to the world, without which there can be no political stability and no assured peace. Our policy is not directed against any country, but against hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos. Any government that is willing to assist in recovery will find full co-operation on the part of

2079-695: The Axis or remained neutral . The largest recipient of Marshall Plan money was the United Kingdom (receiving about 26% of the total). The next highest contributions went to France (18%) and West Germany (11%). Some eighteen European countries received Plan benefits. Although offered participation, the Soviet Union refused Plan benefits and also blocked benefits to Eastern Bloc countries, such as Romania and Poland . The United States provided similar aid programs in Asia, but they were not part of

SECTION 20

#1732797462936

2178-603: The Comecon . In a 1947 speech to the United Nations, Soviet deputy foreign minister Andrei Vyshinsky said that the Marshall Plan violated the principles of the United Nations. He accused the United States of attempting to impose its will on other independent states while at the same time using economic resources distributed as a relief to needy nations as an instrument of political pressure. Although all other communist European countries had deferred to Stalin and rejected

2277-509: The European Recovery Program , ERP ) was an American initiative enacted in 1948 to provide foreign aid to Western Europe . The United States transferred $ 13.3 billion (equivalent to $ 173.8 billion in 2024) in economic recovery programs to Western European economies after the end of World War II . Replacing an earlier proposal for a Morgenthau Plan , it operated for four years beginning on April 3, 1948, though in 1951,

2376-652: The Swishahouse record label, science, and literary authors with Rice connections. Also in the Center are the papers of Rice University faculty members and alumni with achievements in the humanities, sciences, engineering, and the arts. Woodson also contains substantial materials related to the composer Francis Poulenc , the biologist Julian Huxley , and the Houston businessman and politician Jesse H. Jones . Woodson Research Center Woodson Research Center

2475-643: The American and British proposals. During negotiations with the French and the British, Molotov received a ciphered telegram from Vyshinsky, Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs. The official position of the Soviet Union, on Stalin's orders, had changed dramatically, and now Moscow's representatives in Paris were forcefully rejecting the Marshall Plan. Due to this change, Molotov rejected the counteroffer to scrap

2574-599: The American economy as well. Major newspapers were highly supportive, including such conservative outlets as Time magazine . Vandenberg made sure of bipartisan support on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. The Solid Democratic South was highly supportive, the upper Midwest was dubious, but heavily outnumbered. The plan was opposed by conservatives in the rural Midwest, who opposed any major government spending program and were highly suspicious of Europeans. The plan also had some opponents on

2673-613: The British-American "Bizonia" and to include the Soviet zone within the newly constructed Germany. Marshall was particularly discouraged after personally meeting with Stalin to explain that the United States could not possibly abandon its position on Germany, while Stalin expressed little interest in a solution to German economic problems. After the adjournment of the Moscow conference following six weeks of failed discussions with

2772-402: The Center are the papers of Rice University faculty members and alumni with achievements in the humanities, sciences, engineering, and the arts. The Americas collection documents the 19th and 20th century political and cultural relationships between North , Central , and South America . 20th century materials include the papers and oral histories of Texas liberal Democratic politicians;

2871-605: The Czechoslovakian and Polish delegations were prevented from attending the Paris meeting. The other Eastern Bloc states immediately rejected the offer. Finland also declined, to avoid antagonizing the Soviets (see also Finlandization ). The Soviet Union's "alternative" to the Marshall plan which was purported to involve Soviet subsidies and trade with western Europe, became known as the Molotov Plan , and later,

2970-493: The East. The drop in food production can be attributed to a drought that killed a major portion of the wheat crop while a severe winter destroyed most of the wheat crop the following year. This caused most Europeans to rely on a 1,500-calorie-per-day diet. Furthermore, the large shipments of food stolen from occupied nations during the war no longer reached Germany. Industrial production fell more than half and reached pre-war levels at

3069-627: The Eastern Bloc, Truman asked Congress to restore a peacetime military draft and to swiftly pass the Economic Cooperation Act , the name given to the Marshall Plan. Of the Soviet Union Truman said, "The situation in the world today is not primarily the result of the natural difficulties which follow a great war. It is chiefly due to the fact that one nation has not only refused to cooperate in the establishment of

Fondren Library - Misplaced Pages Continue

3168-486: The European economy and presented a rationale for US aid: The modern system of the division of labor upon which the exchange of products is based is in danger of breaking down. ... Aside from the demoralizing effect on the world at large and the possibilities of disturbances arising as a result of the desperation of the people concerned, the consequences to the economy of the United States should be apparent to all. It

3267-474: The European recovery in his address at Harvard University in June 1947. The purpose of the Marshall Plan was to aid in the economic recovery of nations after World War II and secure US geopolitical influence over Western Europe. To combat the effects of the Marshall Plan, the USSR developed its own economic recovery program, known as the Molotov Plan . However, the plan was said to have not worked as well due to

3366-654: The Financing of Post-War Business and Industry in the United Kingdom and Republic of France." Crawford's thesis was read by future Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas and presented to President Truman as the solution for Marshall's proposal. It was Crawford's thesis which provided the key to selling the Marshall Plan to Congress by laying out the idea of "strategic partnerships." Instead of the Federal government granting money directly to Europe, American businesses would provide technology, expertise, and materials to Europe as

3465-552: The German economy." The new plan JCS 1779 stated that "an orderly and prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany." The restrictions placed on German heavy industry production were partly ameliorated; permitted steel production levels were raised from 25% of pre-war capacity to a new limit placed at 50% of pre-war capacity. With a communist, although non-Soviet, insurgency threatening Greece, and Britain financially unable to continue its aid,

3564-627: The Houston Folk Music Archive, and the Houston Jewish History Archive. The Woodson contains more than 700 manuscript collections focused on the history of Texas and the greater Houston area, politics , entrepreneurship , oil and gas , theater, architecture. Other subject areas include American Civil War history, hip hop/rap music-related materials from the Swishahouse record label, science, and literary authors with Rice connections. Also in

3663-648: The Houston Folk Music Archive, the Houston Asian American Archive, and many others. Through the Fondren Fellows program, participating students have used Woodson Research Center materials and ArcGIS software to tell new stories and extract data from archival materials related to the U.S. Civil War. One project focused on mapping Civil War narratives and another focused on mapping data from Civil War journals. 29°43′04″N 95°24′01″W  /  29.7178°N 95.4002°W  / 29.7178; -95.4002 Marshall Plan The Marshall Plan (officially

3762-402: The Houston and South Texas Jewish community. Following Hurricane Harvey Dr. Joshua Furman and Dr. Melissa Kean helped to rescue historical items damaged by the flood waters. These archival materials serve the basis of this growing archive. Particular subject strengths include the history of science, Confederate imprints, Texana , 18th century British drama, the history of aeronautics , and

3861-728: The Houston area recorded by Rice University students. The archive also contains collections from various members and groups from the Houston Asian American community, like the Houston chapter of the Chinese American Citizens Alliance . Started in 2016, the Houston Folk Music Archive documents the history of folk music from the 1960s-1980s. The archive contains collections from Wheatfield, Richard Dobson , Vince Bell , Lynn Langham, George Ensle, Don Sanders , David Rodriguez , Sara Hickman , as well as collections that document music venues in

3960-572: The Kremlin from whom he received instructions, also castigated communist parties in France and Italy for collaboration with those countries' domestic agendas. Zhdanov warned that if they continued to fail to maintain international contact with Moscow to consult on all matters, "extremely harmful consequences for the development of the brother parties' work" would result. Party rules prevented Italian and French communist leaders from pointing out that it

4059-700: The Lawson sermon recordings, dating from 1996-2004, have already been digitized from their original audio-cassettes. Founded and managed by The Chao Center for Asian Studies (CCAS) at Rice University, the Houston Asian American Archive (HAAA) is housed at the Woodson Research Center. This archive intends to piece together the Asian American experience in Houston. It includes oral histories with Asian Americans in

Fondren Library - Misplaced Pages Continue

4158-571: The Marshall Plan was largely replaced by the Mutual Security Act . The goals of the United States were to rebuild war-torn regions, remove trade barriers , modernize industry , improve European prosperity and prevent the spread of communism . The Marshall Plan proposed the reduction of interstate barriers and the economic integration of the European Continent while also encouraging an increase in productivity as well as

4257-616: The Marshall Plan, unsure whether reconstructing European economies and encouraging foreign competition was in the US' best interests. The plan was largely the creation of State Department officials, especially William L. Clayton and George F. Kennan , with help from the Brookings Institution , as requested by Senator Arthur Vandenberg , chairman of the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations . Marshall spoke of an urgent need to help

4356-507: The Marshall Plan. Its role in rapid recovery has been debated. The Marshall Plan's accounting reflects that aid accounted for about 3% of the combined national income of the recipient countries between 1948 and 1951, which means an increase in GDP growth of less than half a percent. Graham T. Allison states that "the Marshall Plan has become a favorite analogy for policy-makers. Yet few know much about it." Some new studies highlight not only

4455-468: The Marshall Plan. Italy and Belgium would follow by the end of 1948. In Germany in 1945–46 housing and food conditions were bad, as the disruption of transport, markets, and finances slowed a return to normality. In the West, the bombing had destroyed 5,000,000 houses and apartments, and 12,000,000 refugees from the east had crowded in. Food production was two-thirds of the pre-war level in 1946–48, while normal grain and meat shipments no longer arrived from

4554-500: The Nazis, had long been closely linked to the German economy and felt their prosperity depended on its revival. The Scandinavian nations, especially Sweden , insisted that their long-standing trading relationships with the Eastern Bloc nations not be disrupted and that their neutrality not be infringed. The United Kingdom insisted on special status as a longstanding belligerent during the war, concerned that if it were treated equally with

4653-526: The President announced his Truman Doctrine on March 12, 1947, "to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures", with an aid request for consideration and decision, concerning Greece and Turkey. Herbert Hoover noted that "The whole economy of Europe is interlinked with the German economy through the exchange of raw materials and manufactured goods. The productivity of Europe cannot be restored without

4752-487: The Soviet Union called a meeting of nine European communist parties at the resort town of Szklarska Poręba in southwest Poland. A Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) report was read at the outset to set the heavily anti-Western tone, stating now that "international politics is dominated by the ruling clique of the American imperialists" which have embarked upon the "enslavement of the weakened capitalist countries of Europe". Communist parties were to struggle against

4851-548: The Soviet ambassador in Washington suspected that the Marshall Plan could lead to the creation of an anti-Soviet bloc, Stalin was open to the offer. He directed that—in negotiations to be held in Paris regarding the aid—countries in the Eastern Bloc should not reject economic conditions being placed upon them. Stalin only changed his outlook when he learned that (a) credit would only be extended under conditions of economic cooperation, and (b) aid would also be extended to Germany in total, an eventuality which Stalin thought would hamper

4950-414: The Soviets in their occupied zone. Molotov refrained from supplying accounts of Soviet assets. The Soviets took a punitive approach, pressing for a delay rather than an acceleration in economic rehabilitation, demanding unconditional fulfillment of all prior reparation claims, and pressing for progress toward nationwide socioeconomic transformation. After six weeks of negotiations, Molotov rejected all of

5049-408: The Soviets regarding a potential German reconstruction, the United States concluded that a solution could not wait any longer. To clarify the American position, a major address by Secretary of State George Marshall was planned. Marshall gave the address at Harvard University on June 5, 1947. He offered American aid to promote European recovery and reconstruction. The speech described the dysfunction of

SECTION 50

#1732797462936

5148-495: The Soviets was unlikely to get Congressional approval. Speaking at the Paris Peace Conference on October 10, 1946, Molotov had already stated Soviet fears: "If American capital was given a free hand in the small states ruined and enfeebled by the war [it] would buy up the local industries, appropriate the more attractive Romanian, Yugoslav ... enterprises and would become the master in these small states." While

5247-465: The Soviets' ability to exercise influence in western Germany. Initially, Stalin maneuvered to kill the plan, or at least hamper it using destructive participation in the Paris talks regarding conditions. He quickly realized, however, that this would be impossible after Molotov reported—following his arrival in Paris in July 1947—that conditions for the credit were non-negotiable. Looming as just as large

5346-564: The US presence in Europe by any means necessary, including sabotage. The report further claimed that "reactionary imperialist elements throughout the world, particularly in the United States, in Britain and France, had put particular hope on Germany and Japan, primarily on Hitlerite Germany—first as a force most capable of striking a blow at the Soviet Union". Referring to the Eastern Bloc, the report stated that "the Red Army's liberating role

5445-437: The USSR particularly having been hit hard by the effects of World War II . The phrase "equivalent of the Marshall Plan" is often used to describe a proposed large-scale economic rescue program. The reconstruction plan, developed at a meeting of the participating European states, was drafted on June 5, 1947. It offered the same aid to the Soviet Union and its allies , but they refused to accept it, under Soviet pressure (as

5544-471: The United States and Canada. Most of Europe's economies were recovering slowly, as unemployment and food shortages led to strikes and unrest in several nations. Agricultural production was 83% of 1938 levels, industrial production was 88%, and exports 59%. Exceptions were the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and France, where by the end of 1947 production had already been restored to pre-war levels before

5643-470: The United States donated $ 17 billion (equivalent to $ 240.95 billion in 2023) in economic and technical assistance to help the recovery of the European countries that joined the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation . The $ 17 billion was in the context of a US GDP of $ 258 billion in 1948, and on top of $ 17 billion in American aid to Europe between the end of the war and the start of the plan that

5742-510: The United States for communist losses in elections in Belgium, France, and Italy months earlier, in the spring of 1947. It claimed that "marshallization" must be resisted and prevented by any means and that French and Italian communist parties were to make maximum efforts to sabotage the implementation of the plan. In addition, Western embassies in Moscow were isolated, with their personnel being denied contact with Soviet officials. On July 12,

5841-511: The United States, which was provided by the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and other agencies. Food shortages were severe, especially in the harsh winter of 1946–47 . From July 1945 through June 1946, the United States shipped 16.5 million tons of food, primarily wheat, to Europe and Japan. It amounted to one-sixth of the American food supply and provided 35 trillion calories, enough to provide 400 calories

5940-496: The United States. Its purpose should be the revival of a working economy in the world so as to permit the emergence of political and social conditions in which free institutions can exist. Marshall was convinced that economic stability would provide political stability in Europe. He offered aid, but the European countries had to organize the program themselves. The speech, written at Marshall's request and guidance by Charles Bohlen contained virtually no details and no numbers. More

6039-496: The United States. These efforts had important effects, but they lacked any central organization and planning, and failed to meet many of Europe's more fundamental needs. Already in 1943, the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) was founded to provide relief to areas liberated from Germany. UNRRA provided billions of dollars of rehabilitation aid and helped about 8 million refugees. It ceased

SECTION 60

#1732797462936

6138-745: The Wilson collection of historical maps and atlases, and the Hirsch Limited Editions Club Collection of fine books. The William Ward Watkin and Annie Ray Watkin University archives contain the historical records of the University's Board of Governors, administrative offices, the papers of Rice presidents, university committees, academic departments, student organizations and university-related groups. The archives also contain campus plans, drawings and blueprints, photographs, publications, video and audio tapes, ephemeral material and memorabilia. The Woodson Research Center has

6237-471: The adoption of modern business procedures. The Marshall Plan aid was divided among the participant states roughly on a per capita basis. A larger amount was given to the major industrial powers, as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for the general European revival. Somewhat more aid per capita was also directed toward the Allied nations , with less for those that had been part of

6336-487: The aid, the Yugoslavs, led by Josip Broz (Tito), initially went along and rejected the Marshall Plan. However, in 1948 Tito broke decisively with Stalin on other issues. Yugoslavia requested American aid. American leaders were internally divided, but finally agreed and began sending money on a small scale in 1949 and on a much larger scale in 1950–53. The American aid was not part of the Marshall Plan. In late September,

6435-484: The building in 2004 of the Library Service Center, a high-density offsite shelving facility that houses less-used materials in a climate-controlled environment. In 2005-06, Fondren underwent an extensive renovation creating access through the entire library, a new first-floor Hobby Information commons, and a Rice-only study space on the sixth floor with dynamic views of the campus. The mission statement

6534-419: The city, such as: Rockefeller's , Anderson Fair Retail Restaurant, Liberty Hall , and Sand Mountain Coffee House. In addition to archival collections, the archive conducts oral histories with members of the folk music community. A collaboration between the Program in Jewish Studies at Rice University and the Woodson Research Center, the Houston Jewish History Archive (HJHA) collects and preserves materials from

6633-409: The devastated continental powers, it would receive virtually no aid. The Americans were pushing the importance of free trade and European unity to form a bulwark against communism. The Truman administration, represented by William L. Clayton , promised the Europeans that they would be free to structure the plan themselves, but the administration also reminded the Europeans that implementation depended on

6732-472: The dollar value of the goods in local currency ("counterparts") into so-called ERP Special Accounts that were set up at the country's central bank. This way of operation held three advantages: the provision of U.S. goods to Europe without European dollar payments helped to narrow the dollar gap that strangled European reconstruction; the accumulated funds could be used for investments in long-term reconstruction (as happened in France and Germany) or for paying off

6831-422: The economic recovery of Europe was delayed." By July 1947, Washington realized that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base, deciding that an "orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany." In addition, the strength of Moscow-controlled communist parties in France and Italy worried Washington. In

6930-406: The economy on a continental level—that is, it stimulated the total political reconstruction of Western Europe. Belgian economic historian Herman Van der Wee concludes the Marshall Plan was a "great success": It gave a new impetus to reconstruction in Western Europe and made a decisive contribution to the renewal of the transport system, the modernization of industrial and agricultural equipment,

7029-454: The end of 1949. While Germany struggled to recover from the destruction of the War, the recovery effort began in June 1948, moving on from emergency relief. The currency reform in 1948 was headed by the military government and helped Germany to restore stability by encouraging production. The reform revalued old currency and deposits and introduced a new currency. Taxes were also reduced and Germany prepared to remove economic barriers. During

7128-580: The first three years of occupation of Germany, the Allied occupational authorities vigorously pursued a military disarmament program in Germany , partly by removal of equipment but mainly through an import embargo on raw materials, part of the Morgenthau Plan approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Historian Nicholas Balabkins concluded that "as long as German industrial capacity was kept idle

7227-441: The form of the Soviet Union's offer of a lucrative trade agreement lasting for five years, a grant amounting to the approximate equivalent of $ 450 million (in 1948; the sum would have been $ 4.4 billion in 2014 ) in the form of long-term credit and loans and the provision of 200,000 tonnes of grain, heavy and manufacturing machinery and factories and heavy industries to Poland. The Marshall Plan participants were not surprised when

7326-406: The four years of the plan. Congress reflected public opinion, which resonated with the ideological argument that communism flourishes in poverty. Across America, multiple interest groups, including business, labor, farming, philanthropy, ethnic groups, and religious groups, saw the Marshall Plan as an inexpensive solution to a massive problem, noting it would also help American exports and stimulate

7425-517: The gigantic sums of money would be handled efficiently. Turning the plan into reality required negotiations among the participating nations. Sixteen nations met in Paris to determine what form the American aid would take, and how it would be divided. The negotiations were long and complex, with each nation having its own interests. France's major concern was that Germany not be rebuilt to its previous level of might. The Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg), despite also suffering under

7524-515: The history and experiences of the African-American community in and near Houston, which in turn shed light on nationally significant issues including politics, art, race, and religion. Included in this project are the anniversary booklets and bulletins from Wheeler Avenue Baptist Church from the papers of Reverend William Alexander Lawson (1929- ), the founding Pastor of Wheeler Avenue Baptist Church located in Houston, Texas. More than 200 of

7623-576: The left, led by Henry A. Wallace , the former vice president. He said the plan was hostile to the Soviet Union, a subsidy for American exporters, and sure to polarize the world between East and West. However, opposition against the Marshall Plan was greatly reduced by the shock of the communist coup in Czechoslovakia in February 1948. The appointment of the prominent businessman Paul G. Hoffman as director reassured conservative businessmen that

7722-416: The most evident signs and reflections of tight Soviet control and domination over the region, Jan Masaryk , the foreign minister of Czechoslovakia, was summoned to Moscow and berated by Stalin for considering Czechoslovakia's possible involvement with and joining of the Marshall Plan. The prime minister of Poland, Józef Cyrankiewicz , was rewarded by Stalin for his country's rejection of the plan which came in

7821-425: The one hand, and the anti-imperialist and democratic camp on the other". Although the Eastern Bloc countries, except Czechoslovakia, had immediately rejected Marshall Plan aid, Eastern Bloc communist parties were blamed for permitting even minor influence by non-communists in their respective countries during the run-up to the Marshall Plan. The meeting's chair, Andrei Zhdanov, who was in permanent radio contact with

7920-475: The operation of displaced persons camps in Europe in 1947; many of its functions were transferred to several UN agencies. After Marshall's appointment in January 1947, administration officials met with Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov and others to press for an economically self-sufficient Germany, including a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already removed by

8019-920: The papers of the author of the Marshall Plan , William L. Clayton ; Oveta Culp Hobby papers, Larry McMurtry and Diana Ossana papers, Gus Wortham family and business papers; Jesse H. Jones personal papers and corporate records; Brown and Root company records; the papers of the scientist Julian Huxley , his wife Juliette Huxley, and his brother Aldous Huxley . The Woodson holds papers of such prominent Texas families as Autry , Fondren, Hamman, Hutcheson, Lovett , Masterson , Sharp, Townsend and Watkin. Oil and gas related collections include Panhandle Eastern and several smaller companies. The Woodson collects architectural records with collections from Anderson Todd, Arthur E. Jones , Charles Tapley, Brochsteins Inc., and Ralph Anderson Jr. , and Weber-Staub-Briscoe architectural ironwork. Fine Arts has also become

8118-399: The plan's passage through Congress. A majority of Congress members were committed to free trade and European integration and were hesitant to spend too much of the money on Germany. However, before the Marshall Plan was in effect, France, Austria, and Italy needed immediate aid. On December 17, 1947, the United States agreed to give $ 40 million to France, Austria, China, and Italy. Agreement

8217-419: The plan, and thus be pulled out of the emerging Soviet bloc, but that did not happen. In January 1947, Truman appointed retired General George Marshall as Secretary of State. In July 1947 Marshall scrapped Joint Chiefs of Staff Directive 1067 , which was based on the Morgenthau Plan which had decreed "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany [or] designed to maintain or strengthen

8316-496: The program's role in European recovery was expressed by Paul Hoffman, head of the Economic Cooperation Administration, in 1949 when he told Congress Marshall aid had provided the "critical margin" on which other investment needed for European recovery depended. The Marshall Plan was one of the first elements of European integration , as it erased trade barriers and set up institutions to coordinate

8415-464: The restoration of Germany as a contributor to that productivity." Hoover's report led to a realization in Washington that a new policy was needed; "almost any action would be an improvement on current policy." In Washington, the Joint Chiefs declared that the "complete revival of German industry, particularly coal mining" was now of "primary importance" to American security. The United States

8514-462: The resumption of normal production, the raising of productivity, and the facilitating of intra-European trade. By the end of World War II, much of Europe was devastated. Sustained aerial bombardment during the war had badly damaged most major cities, and industrial facilities were especially hard-hit. Millions of refugees were in temporary camps. The region's trade flows had been thoroughly disrupted; millions were in refugee camps living on aid from

8613-423: The role of economic cooperation but approach the Marshall Plan as a case concerning strategic thinking to face some typical challenges in policy, as problem definition, risk analysis, decision support to policy formulation, and program implementation. In 1947, two years after the end of the war, industrialist Lewis H. Brown wrote, at the request of General Lucius D. Clay , A Report on Germany , which served as

8712-474: The same day, Truman called a press conference to take away headlines. In contrast, Dean Acheson , an Under Secretary of State, was dispatched to contact the European media, especially the British media, and the speech was read in its entirety on the BBC . In the audience at Harvard was International Law and Diplomacy graduate student Malcolm Crawford, who had just written his Master's thesis entitled "A Blueprint for

8811-646: The same year, the participating countries (Austria, Belgium , Denmark, France, West Germany, the United Kingdom, Greece, Iceland , Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Norway, Sweden, Switzerland , Turkey, and the United States) signed an accord establishing a master financial-aid-coordinating agency, the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (later called the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development or OECD ), which

8910-488: The view of the State Department under President Harry S Truman , the United States needed to adopt a definite position on the world scene or fear losing credibility. The emerging doctrine of containment (as opposed to rollback ) argued that the United States needed to substantially aid non-communist countries to stop the spread of Soviet influence. There was also some hope that the Eastern Bloc nations would join

9009-517: The war had exhausted their treasuries in the process. The only major powers whose infrastructure had not been significantly harmed in World War II were the United States and Canada. They were much more prosperous than before the war, but exports were a small factor in their economy. Much of the Marshall Plan aid would be used by the Europeans to buy manufactured goods and raw materials from

9108-613: Was Stalin who had directed them not to take opposition stances in 1944. The French communist party, like others, was then to redirect its mission to "destroy capitalist economy" and that the Soviet Communist Information Bureau ( Cominform ) would take control of the French Communist Party's activities to oppose the Marshall Plan. When they asked Zhdanov if they should prepare for armed revolt when they returned home, he did not answer. In

9207-441: Was already spending a great deal to help Europe recover. Over $ 14 billion was spent or loaned during the postwar period through the end of 1947 and is not counted as part of the Marshall Plan. Much of this aid was designed to restore infrastructure and help refugees. Britain, for example, received an emergency loan of $ 3.75 billion. The United Nations also launched a series of humanitarian and relief efforts almost wholly funded by

9306-430: Was complemented by an upsurge of the freedom-loving peoples' liberation struggle against the fascist predators and their hirelings." It argued that "the bosses of Wall Street" were "tak[ing] the place of Germany, Japan, and Italy". The Marshall Plan was described as "the American plan for the enslavement of Europe". It described the world now breaking down "into basically two camps—the imperialist and antidemocratic camp on

9405-498: Was eventually reached, and the Europeans sent a reconstruction plan to Washington, which was formulated and agreed upon by the Committee of European Economic Co-operation in 1947. In the document, the Europeans asked for $ 22 billion in aid. Truman cut this to $ 17 billion in the bill he put to Congress. On March 17, 1948, Truman addressed European security and condemned the Soviet Union before a hastily convened Joint Session of Congress . Attempting to contain spreading Soviet influence in

9504-482: Was headed by Frenchman Robert Marjolin . According to Armin Grünbacher: The U.S. government did not give money directly to the participating countries so that they could buy whatever they thought they needed. Instead the U.S. delivered the goods and provided services, mainly transatlantic shipping, to the participating governments, which then sold the commodities to businesses and individuals who had to pay

9603-593: Was no certainty that the plan would succeed, but said it would halt economic chaos, sustain Western civilization, and stop further Soviet expansion. Senator Robert A. Taft (R-Ohio) hedged on the issue. He said it was without economic justification; however, it was "absolutely necessary" in "the world battle against communism." In the end, only 17 senators voted against it on March 13, 1948 A bill granting an initial $ 5 billion passed Congress with strong bipartisan support. Congress eventually allocated $ 12.4 billion in aid over

9702-509: Was outmaneuvered by the emerging internationalist wing, led by Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg (R-Michigan). The opposition argued that it made no sense to oppose communism by supporting the socialist governments in Western Europe; and that American goods would reach Russia and increase its war potential. They called it "a wasteful 'operation rat-hole'" Vandenberg, assisted by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. (R-Massachusetts) admitted there

9801-401: Was the case for Finland's rejection) as doing so would allow a degree of US control over the communist economies. Secretary Marshall became convinced Stalin had no interest in helping restore economic health in Western Europe. President Harry Truman signed the Marshall Plan on April 3, 1948, granting $ 5 billion in aid to 16 European nations. During the four years that the plan was in effect,

#935064