Misplaced Pages

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47-437: Cultures have different customs regarding footwear. These include not using any in some situations, usually bearing a symbolic meaning. This can however also be imposed on specific individuals to place them at a practical disadvantage against shod people, if they are excluded from having footwear available or are prohibited from using any. This usually takes place in situations of captivity, such as imprisonment or slavery , where

94-480: A prisoner exchange . Prisoners serving a full life or indefinite sentence may never be released. Released prisoners may suffer from issues including psychiatric disorders, criminalized behaviours and access to basic needs. Some criminals, particularly criminals convicted of serious crimes ( felonies or indictable offenses ,) are given restrictions after release, including bans from buying firearms or jury duty exclusion. Post release resources may be provided by

141-499: A decline in the footwear industry. While about 27,000 firms were in business in 2005, only 21,700 remained in 2009. Not only have these firms decreased in number, but direct employment has also reduced within the sector. In the U.S., the annual footwear industry revenue was $ 48 billion in 2012. In 2015, there were about 29,000 shoe stores in the U.S. and the shoe industry employed about 189,000 people. Due to rising imports, these numbers are also declining. The only way of staying afloat in

188-472: A last resort but not generally as punishment, except in the Songhai Empire (1464–1591) and in connection with the slave trade. In the colonial period, imprisonment provided a source of labor and a means of suppression. The use of imprisonment has continued to the present day. Incarceration in what became known as Australia was introduced through colonization . As noted by scholar Thalia Anthony,

235-545: A sign of respect towards someone of higher standing. Similarly, deliberately forcing other people to go barefoot while being shod oneself has been used to clearly showcase and convey one's superiority within a setting of power disparity. Practitioners of the craft of shoemaking are called shoemakers, cobblers, or cordwainers . Footwear has been used by humans since prehistoric times , with paleoclimatology suggesting that they would have been needed in some areas of human settlement by at least 50,000   years ago during

282-416: A solid surface, it creates a two-dimensional impression. These types of impressions can be made with a variety of substances, like dirt and sand. When footwear removes material from a soft surface, it creates a three-dimensional impression. These types of impressions can be made in a variety of soft substances, like snow and dirt. Two-dimensional impressions also differ from three-dimensional impressions because

329-412: Is a tort called false imprisonment . In England and Wales, a much larger proportion of the black population is imprisoned than of the white. When a prisoner completes serving their sentence, start probation, or is given a compassionate release they are no longer considered prisoners and are released to the outside world. A prisoner of war may be released as a result of the end of hostilities or

376-570: Is the restraint of a person's liberty . The 17th century book Termes de la Ley contains the following definition: Imprisonment is no other thing than the restraint of a man's liberty, whether it be in the open field, or in the stocks, or in the cage in the streets or in a man's own house, as well as in the common gaols; and in all the places the party so restrained is said to be a prisoner so long as he hath not his liberty freely to go at all times to all places whither he will without bail or mainprise or otherwise. Imprisonment without lawful cause

423-409: Is understood to imply actual confinement against one's will in a prison employed for the purpose according to the provisions of the law. Generally gender imbalances occur in imprisonment rates , with incarceration of males proportionately more likely than incarceration of females. Before colonisation, imprisonment was used in sub-Saharan Africa for pre-trial detention, to secure compensation and as

470-497: Is usually made of leather or plastic , and rubber . In fact, leather was one of the original materials used for the first versions of a shoe. The soles can be made of rubber or plastic, sometimes with the addition of a sheet of metal on the inside. Roman sandals had sheets of metal on their soles so that they would not bend out of shape. In more recent times, footwear suppliers such as Nike have begun to source environmentally friendly materials. In Europe, recent decades have seen

517-697: The American South was an exception. Its demand for masses of low-quality shoes for its slaves was met by workshops around Boston , Philadelphia , and New York , a dependence that later hobbled the Confederate Army during the Civil War and was responsible in legend for the decisive Battle of Gettysburg . Amid the Industrial Revolution , John Adam Dagyr's introduction of assembly line production and tight quality control to

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564-614: The British Army amid the Napoleonic Wars —failed commercially as soon as the wars were over because the demobilized soldiers reduced the price of manual labor. John Brooks Nichols 's 1850 adaptation of Howe and Singer 's sewing machines to handle binding uppers to soles and the Surinamese immigrant Jan Ernst Matzeliger 's 1880 invention of an automatic lasting machine finally allowed true industrialization, taking

611-545: The High Middle Ages , fashion trends periodically prompted sumptuary taxes or regulations and church condemnation for vanity . The 12th-century pigache and 14th- and 15th-century poulaine had elongated toes, often stuffed to maintain their shape. Around the same time, several mendicant orders began practicing discalceation as an aspect of their vows of humility and poverty , going entirely barefoot at all times or only wearing sandals in any weather. From

658-761: The Last Glacial Period . Osteologists have found evidence of the effect of footwear on human remains by around 40,000   years ago. The oldest shoes so far recovered were found by a team under Luther Cressman in Fort Rock Cave , Oregon, US, in 1938. They had been preserved under the Mazama Ash deposited c.  5025 BC during the volcanic eruption that formed Crater Lake . In 1999, they were dated to around 10,500– 9,300 BP . Egyptian butchers sometimes wore platform sandals with thicker soles than usual to raise their feet out of

705-564: The Marshall Plan after World War II , Italy became the major shoe exporting country in the 1950s. It was joined in the 1960s by Japan , which offshored its production to Taiwan , South Korea , and Hong Kong as its own labor became too expensive. In their turn, the Hong Kong manufacturers began moving production to Guangdong in mainland China almost immediately after the establishment of Deng Xiaoping 's Opening Up Policy in

752-659: The following civil war , contributing to disease and desertion , particularly among the Nationalists . Following the world wars, the increasing importance of professional sports greatly popularized a variety of athletic shoes , particularly sneakers . Major brands such as Converse , Adidas , and Nike used celebrity endorsements from Chuck Taylor , Michael Jordan , Lionel Messi , and others to promote their products. Fashion houses periodically prompted new trends in women's and high-end fashion. In particular, while working for Christian Dior , Roger Vivier popularized

799-660: The imperial period , however, as the emperors appropriated more and more symbols of high status for themselves. The Romans were the earliest people currently known to have shaped their right and left shoes distinctly during creation, rather than pulling them tight and allowing them to wear into shape. The Catholic patron saints of shoemaking— Crispin and Crispinian —were martyred during the Diocletianic Persecution . In medieval Europe , leather shoes and boots became more common. At first most were simply pieces of leather sewn together and then held tight around

846-507: The stiletto heel in 1954. (Men's dress shoes have tended to retain 19th-century British looks such as the Oxford shoe and loafers .) Various subcultures have employed distinctive footwear as part of their identity, including winklepickers , Doc Martens , and skate shoes . The international trade in footwear was at first chiefly restricted to American exports to Europe and Europe's exports to its various colonial empires . Assisted by

893-569: The toga . The combination of toga and calcei was impressive, but also hot and uncomfortable. The Roman poet Martial claimed that, in their leisure time and in the more relaxed surroundings of rural life, hardly anyone used it by the early imperial period. Even in Rome, some high-ranking citizens preferred to wear light Grecian sandals or socci rather than calcei to "go with the crowd". The calcei of most plebs were made of undyed but tanned leather. (The version made with untanned rawhide instead

940-461: The "ten-footer" workshops in Lynn, Massachusetts , US, around 1760 is sometimes credited as the first shoe factory . However, although mechanized textile mills greatly reduced the price of proper socks , each step of the shoemaking process still needed to be done by hand in a slowly optimized putting-out system . The first mechanized systems—developed by Marc Isambard Brunel in 1810 to supply boots to

987-509: The 1480s, the poulaine was replaced by the duckbill , which had a flat front but soon became impractically wide. The stiff hose of the era usually required fairly soft footwear, which in turn was easier to damage in the dirt and muck of the street and outdoors. This led many people to use wooden-soled calopedes , pattens , or galoshes , overshoes that served as a platform while walking. Particularly in Venice , these platforms were combined with

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1034-570: The 18th-century Hessian and 19th-century Wellington boot . In Ming and Qing China , foot binding led to the development of lotus shoes for Han women and then flowerpot shoes for the Manchu women who wanted to emulate the characteristic walk of women with bound feet without undergoing the process themselves. In Africa , North America , and Spanish and Portuguese South America , slave codes often mandated slaves should be barefoot at all times without exception. Following its independence ,

1081-587: The Australian settler colonial state has engaged in carceral tactics of containment and segregation against Aboriginal Australians since colonizers first arrived, "whether that be for Christian , civilizing , protectionist, welfare, or penal purposes." When settlers arrived, they invented courts and passed laws without consent of Indigenous peoples that stated that they had jurisdiction over them and their lands. When Indigenous peoples challenged these laws, they were imprisoned. In English law, imprisonment

1128-535: The Elder stated that, by the end of the Republic, plebs who had reached curule office were entitled to the formerly patrician footwear. Plebeian generals like Marius who celebrated a triumph were likewise permitted to wear them. Talbert states that by the imperial era there is no conclusive evidence that footwear continued to differ between the classes as a whole, possibly because the emperors began to restrict

1175-492: The authorities. Various factors have been investigated as to their influence on post-release recidivism , such as family and other relationships, employment, housing and ability to quit drug use. Calceus patricius The calceus ( pl. : calcei ) was the common upper-class male footwear of the Roman Republic and Empire . Normally made of leather and hobnailed , it was flat soled and typically reached

1222-441: The calceus was flat soled and typically reached the lower shin , entirely covering the foot and ankle . It was secured with crossed thongs or laces. Equivalent to a short boot or high-top shoe , it was lighter than the military caliga but sturdier than slip-on shoes like the soccus and able to easily handle outdoor use. Calcei were considered a distinctive part of the national dress of male Roman citizens , alongside

1269-546: The development of plimsolls , deck shoes , rubber boots , galoshes , and waders . The prevalence of trench foot in World War I focused attention on the importance of providing of adequate footwear in following conflicts, although this was not always possible. Millions of Chinese soldiers in both the NRA and PLA were obliged to use straw and rope shoes to allow easy replacement on long marches during both World War II and

1316-515: The early 1980s. Competitors were soon forced to follow suit, including removal of Taiwanese and Korean production to Fujian and to Wenzhou in southern Zhejiang . Similarly, amid Perestroika and the Fall of Communism , Italy dismantled its domestic industry, outsourcing its work to Eastern Europe , which proved less dependable than the Chinese and further eroded their market share. Beginning around

1363-429: The foot with a toggle or drawstring. This developed into the turnshoe , where the sole and upper were sewn together and then turned inside-out to hide and protect the seam and improve water resistance. From the reign of Charlemagne , Byzantine fashions began to influence the west and the pontificalia of the popes and other bishops began to feature greater luxury, including embroidered silk and velvet slippers . By

1410-442: The gore. Wealthier Egyptians also sometimes wore platforms. The Greeks distinguished a great variety of footwear, particularly different styles of sandals . The heeled cothurnus was part of the standard costume for tragedians , and the effeminate soccus for comedians . Going barefoot , however, was frequently lauded: Spartan boys undergoing military training, Socrates , and Olympic athletes all went without shoes most of

1457-459: The groups are among other things distinctly divided by whether or not footwear is being worn. In some cultures, people remove their shoes before entering a home. Bare feet are also seen as a sign of humility and respect, and adherents of many religions worship or mourn while barefoot. Some religious communities explicitly require people to remove shoes before they enter holy buildings, such as temples. In several cultures people remove their shoes as

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1504-438: The heel". It is frequently taken loosely as the general Latin word for any laced and covered shoe distinguished from sandals, slippers, and boots. Theodor Mommsen even considered it to sometimes intend sandals as well. Similarly, medieval Latin used the adjective discalceātus to indicate both mendicant orders which only used sandals and those which went entirely barefoot. Normally made of leather and hobnailed ,

1551-514: The industry: "edgesetter", "heel trimmer", " McKay machine operator". Many were replaced by cheaper immigrants ; the Czech Tomáš Baťa joined these workers at Lynn in 1904 and then returned to his own factory in Zlín , Moravia, mechanizing and rationalizing its production while guiding the factory town that developed into a garden city . By the early 20th century, vulcanization had led to

1598-420: The kings of Alba Longa before being adopted by the patricians. Cassius Dio states that the patrician shoes were originally marked with the letter R , although early forms of Latin used an R closer in shape to the later P . Francis X. Ryan has offered that this class distinction in footwear—rather than procedural status—may have been responsible for the name of the backbencher senatores pedarii . Cato

1645-454: The latter case it is considered " false imprisonment ". Imprisonment does not necessarily imply a place of confinement with bolts and bars, but may be exercised by any use or display of force (such as placing one in handcuffs ), lawfully or unlawfully, wherever displayed, even in the open street. People become prisoners, wherever they may be, by the mere word or touch of a duly authorized officer directed to that end. Usually, however, imprisonment

1692-404: The latter demonstrate length, width, and depth whereas two-dimensional impressions only demonstrate the first two aspects. [REDACTED] Media related to Footwear at Wikimedia Commons Imprisonment Imprisonment or incarceration is the restraint of a person's liberty for any cause whatsoever, whether by authority of the government, or by a person acting without such authority. In

1739-440: The lower shin , entirely covering the foot and ankle . It was secured with crossed thongs or laces. Equivalent to a short boot or high-top shoe , it was lighter than the military caliga but sturdier than slip-on shoes like the soccus and able to easily handle outdoor use. The Latin word calceus derives from calx (" heel ") and the usually Grecian suffix -eus , meaning essentially "heely" or "thing for

1786-420: The productivity of individual workers from 20 or 50 pairs a day to as many as 700, halving prices, and briefly making Lynn the center of world shoe production. As late as 1865, most men in the industry identified in the census and city directory as general purpose "cordwainers" or "shoemakers"; by 1890, they were almost universally described as "shoe workers" or—more often—by the specific name of their work within

1833-444: The prominently pointed shoe or boot now known as the calceus repandus . The Romans saw clothing and footwear as unmistakable signs of power and status in society . Patricians typically wore dyed and ornamented shoes of tanned leather with their togas or armor , while plebeians wore rawhide or hobnail boots and slaves were usually required to be barefoot . These class distinctions in footwear seem to have lessened during

1880-590: The shoe market is to establish a presence in niche markets. To ensure high quality and safety of footwear , manufacturers have to make sure all products comply to existing and relevant standards. By producing footwear in accordance with national and international regulations, potential risks can be minimized and the interest of both textile manufacturers and consumers can be protected. The following standards/regulations apply to footwear products: Footwear can create two types of impressions: two-dimensional and three-dimensional impressions. When footwear places material onto

1927-482: The shoe to make chopines , sometimes so awkwardly high that the wearer required servants to help support them. ( Turkish sources, meanwhile, credit the chopines directly to the nalins worn in Ottoman baths and whose height was considered to be a marker of status.) By the early modern period , the development of better socks and less stiff hose allowed European footwear to become firmer and more durable. Welting

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1974-659: The time. Similarly, ancient China considered footwear an important aspect of civilization—particularly embroidered slippers —but often depicted Taoist immortals and gods like Xuanwu barefoot. The Book of Exodus records Moses reverentially removing his shoes at Mount Sinai and the priests likewise went barefoot at the Temple of Solomon before Babylonian customs prevailed and entering houses of worship in footwear became common in Judaism and Christianity . The Etruscans experienced several footwear trends, including

2021-427: The use of certain status symbols to themselves. Other calcei were distinguished by their ornamentation. The " equestrian calceus" ( calceus equestris or equester ) included distinct crescent-shaped buckles. The "senatorial calceus" ( calceus senatorius ) was likewise distinguished by a crescent-shaped ornament, an ivory lunula attached to the back of the shoe. By the mid-imperial period, this

2068-478: The year 2000, China has constantly produced more than half of the world's shoes. As of 2021, footwear is the 30th most traded category internationally; but, while China produces well over 60% of exported footwear, it currently earns less than 36% of the value of the total trade owing to the continuing importance of American, German, and other brands in the North American and European markets. Modern footwear

2115-424: Was developed, using a narrow band of leather between the uppers and sole to improve appearance and comfort, increase water resistance, and simplify repair, particularly resoling worn shoes. Beginning with the 1533 marriage of the 14-year-old Florentine Catherine de Medici to Prince Henry of France , both male and female royalty and nobles began wearing high heels , giving rise to the expression "well heeled". This

2162-501: Was done sometimes for display or appearance and sometimes as an aid to riding in stirrups . For the most part, male footwear was more ornate and expensive because women's feet were usually covered by the large dresses of the era . Shoe fetishism was first publicized in the work of Nicolas-Edme Rétif in prerevolutionary France . 17th-century Cavalier boots developed into upper-class fashion and into sailing boots prized by fishermen and pirates before being replaced as military gear by

2209-414: Was known as the pero.) The " patrician calceus" ( calceus patricius ) seems to have often been dyed red, Tyrian purple , or some equivalent. Senators and higher ranking priests were likewise expected to wear the mulleus or "red calceus" ( calceus mulleus ) along with their red-edged toga praetexta while engaged in their public duties. Festus claimed the mulleus was originally used by

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