115-509: The Ford Comuta was an experimental electric vehicle designed by Ford in 1967 at the Dunton Technical Centre . The vehicle was powered by four 12- volt 85-Ah lead batteries . When it was fully charged, the car had a range of 60 kilometres (37 mi) at a speed of 40 kilometres per hour (25 mph), and was capable of a maximum speed of 60 kilometres per hour (37 mph). Only a handful of Comutas were produced, as
230-611: A steam turbine , which drives a generator, which is then fed to the propulsion. See Nuclear marine propulsion . A few experimental vehicles, such as some cars and a handful of aircraft use solar panels for electricity. These systems are powered from an external generator plant (nearly always when stationary), and then disconnected before motion occurs, and the electricity is stored in the vehicle until needed. Batteries, electric double-layer capacitors and flywheel energy storage are forms of rechargeable on-board electricity storage systems. By avoiding an intermediate mechanical step,
345-461: A 100 kW internal combustion engine, which can only deliver its maximum torque within a limited range of engine speed. Efficiency of charging varies considerably depending on the type of charger, and energy is lost during the process of converting the electrical energy to mechanical energy. Usually, direct current (DC) electricity is fed into a DC/AC inverter where it is converted to alternating current (AC) electricity and this AC electricity
460-611: A bridge over the creek in 1747. Peter began the family business on the Bakers Lookout property where he made his home and built the first Studebaker wagon factory. In this factory, Peter manufactured everything, all necessities including products he made in Solingen, Germany, and naturally wagons. Bakers Lookout, the 1740, 100-acre land patent , Hagerstown, Maryland, was the first of many land patents to be acquired by Peter Studebaker. Peter purchased approximately 1500 acres in what
575-645: A different grille from all previous Champ models. The closure of the South Bend plant hit the community particularly hard, since Studebaker was the largest employer in St. Joseph County, Indiana . Nearly a quarter of the South Bend work force was African-American. Limited automotive production was consolidated at the company's last remaining production facility in Hamilton, Ontario, which had always been profitable and where Studebaker produced cars until March 1966 under
690-419: A fourth giant combine after Chrysler . This had been unsuccessfully attempted by George W. Mason . In this scheme, Studebaker had the disadvantage that its South Bend location would make consolidation difficult. Its labor costs were also the highest in the industry. Ballooning labor costs (the company had never had an official United Auto Workers (UAW) strike and Studebaker workers and retirees were among
805-467: A heavy internal combustion engine or large batteries, they can have very good power-to-weight ratios . This allows high speed trains such as France's double-deck TGVs to operate at speeds of 320 km/h (200 mph) or higher, and electric locomotives to have a much higher power output than diesel locomotives . In addition, they have higher short-term surge power for fast acceleration, and using regenerative brakes can put braking power back into
920-554: A hybrid electric vehicle can combine the power from an electric motor and the internal combustion engine. The most common type is a parallel hybrid that connects the engine and the electric motor to the wheels through mechanical coupling. In this scenario, the electric motor and the engine can drive the wheels directly. Series hybrids only use the electric motor to drive the wheels and can often be referred to as extended-range electric vehicles (EREVs) or range-extended electric vehicles (REEVs). There are also series-parallel hybrids where
1035-613: A number of Mini EVs when their Canadian testing ended. The production of the Citroën Berlingo Electrique stopped in September 2005. Zenn started production in 2006 but ended by 2009. During the late 20th and early 21st century, the environmental impact of the petroleum-based transportation infrastructure, along with the fear of peak oil , led to renewed interest in electric transportation infrastructure. EVs differ from fossil fuel -powered vehicles in that
1150-432: A part of the proving ground was retained and, as of April 2013 , has been restored to use under the name "New Carlisle Test Facility". For many years a rumor persisted of the existence of a Studebaker graveyard. The rumor was later confirmed to be true when the remains of many prototype automobiles and a few trucks were discovered at a remote, heavily wooded site bounded by the proving grounds' high-speed oval. Most of
1265-402: A patent for this type of battery was held by Chevron, which created a problem for their widespread development. These factors, coupled with their high cost, has led to lithium-ion batteries leading as the predominant battery for EVs. The prices of lithium-ion batteries have declined dramatically over the past decade, contributing to a reduction in price for electric vehicles, but an increase in
SECTION 10
#17327944921531380-644: A pattern that spelled "STUDEBAKER" when viewed from the air. Also in 1926, the last of the Detroit plant was moved to South Bend under the control of Harold S Vance , vice president in charge of production and engineering. That year, a new small car, the Erskine Six was launched in Paris, resulting in 26,000 sales abroad and many more in America. By 1929, the sales list had been expanded to 50 models and business
1495-406: A price war between Ford and General Motors , which began with Ford's massive increase in production in the spring of 1953—part of Ford's postwar expansion program aimed at restoring it to the position of the largest car maker which GM had held since 1931—could not be equalled by the independent carmakers, for whom the only hope was seen as a merger of Studebaker, Packard , Hudson , and Nash into
1610-486: A rail line makes it relatively easy to power EVs through permanent overhead lines or electrified third rails , eliminating the need for heavy onboard batteries. Electric locomotives , electric multiple units , electric trams (also called streetcars or trolleys), electric light rail systems , and electric rapid transit are all in common use today, especially in Europe and Asia. Since electric trains do not need to carry
1725-403: A small farmer. In 1918, when Erskine's history of the firm was published, the annual capacity of the seven Studebaker plants was 100,000 automobiles, 75,000 horse-drawn vehicles, and about $ 10,000,000 worth of automobile and vehicle spare parts ($ 202,566,372 in 2023 dollars ). In the preceding seven years, 466,962 horse-drawn vehicles had been sold, as against 277,035 automobiles, but the trend
1840-505: A speed of four miles per hour (6 km/h). In England, a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of rails as conductors of electric current, and similar American patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in 1847. The first mass-produced electric vehicles appeared in America in the early 1900s. In 1902, the Studebaker Automobile Company entered the automotive business with electric vehicles, though it also entered
1955-502: A supplementary propulsion to internal combustion engines, became more widespread in the late 1990s. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles , where electric motors can be used as the predominant propulsion rather than a supplement, did not see any mass production until the late 2000s, and battery electric cars did not become practical options for the consumer market until the 2010s. Progress in batteries , electric motors and power electronics have made electric cars more feasible than during
2070-528: A women's luxury car, which may have been a stigma among male consumers. Also, internal combustion powered cars became ever-easier to operate thanks to the invention of the electric starter by Charles Kettering in 1912, which eliminated the need of a hand crank for starting a gasoline engine, and the noise emitted by ICE cars became more bearable thanks to the use of the muffler , which Hiram Percy Maxim had invented in 1897. As roads were improved outside urban areas, electric vehicle range could not compete with
2185-655: Is connected to a 3-phase AC motor. For electric trains, forklift trucks , and some electric cars, DC motors are often used. In some cases, universal motors are used, and then AC or DC may be employed. In recent production vehicles, various motor types have been implemented; for instance, induction motors within Tesla Motor vehicles and permanent magnet machines in the Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Bolt . Most large electric transport systems are powered by stationary sources of electricity that are directly connected to
2300-403: Is now known state of Maryland. The home still stands today and is proof of the advanced technology of Peter Studebaker. (see Bakers Lookout Peter Studebakers 1740 home website) In 1747 Peter Studebaker built a road through his owned properties known as Broadfording Wagon Road. The road he built carried heavy traffic to Bakers Lookout's wagon and forging services that were instrumental to expand
2415-427: Is only viable if the system is large enough to use the power generated by descending vehicles. In the systems above, motion is provided by a rotary electric motor. However, it is possible to "unroll" the motor to drive directly against a special matched track. These linear motors are used in maglev trains which float above the rails supported by magnetic levitation . This allows for almost no rolling resistance of
SECTION 20
#17327944921532530-404: Is powered exclusively through electric motors. The electricity may come from a battery ( battery electric vehicle ), solar panel ( solar vehicle ) or fuel cell ( fuel cell vehicle ). A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle that combines a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) system with an electric propulsion system ( hybrid vehicle drivetrain ). The presence of
2645-497: Is the world’s largest producer of tactical wheeled vehicles. Nevertheless, as Newman and Altman decided not to progress with any Studebaker truck production, the tooling was then sold off again to Kaiser Jeep in late 1965, which continued producing parts for Studebaker trucks for a few more years. Some '1965' model Champ trucks were built in South America using completely knocked-down kits and left-over parts. These models used
2760-494: Is used only to supplement battery charging and not as the primary source of power. On-road electric vehicles include electric cars, electric trolleybuses, electric buses , battery electric buses , electric trucks , electric bicycles , electric motorcycles and scooters , personal transporters , neighborhood electric vehicles , golf carts , milk floats , and forklifts . Off-road vehicles include electrified all-terrain vehicles and electric tractors . The fixed nature of
2875-557: The Everitt-Metzger-Flanders (E-M-F) Company of Detroit and Walkerville, Ontario . Studebaker began making gasoline-engined cars in partnership with Garford in 1904. In 1910, it was decided to refinance and incorporate as the Studebaker Corporation, which was concluded on February 14, 1911, under New Jersey laws. The company discontinued making electric vehicles that same year. The financing
2990-636: The Flanders Automobile Company . The first gasoline automobiles to be fully manufactured by Studebaker were marketed in August 1912. Over the next 50 years, the company established a reputation for quality, durability and reliability. After an unsuccessful 1954 merger with Packard (the Studebaker-Packard Corporation ) and failure to solve chronic postwar cashflow problems, the 'Studebaker Corporation' name
3105-902: The Light Four , Light Six , Special Six , Big Six models, the Dictator , the record-breaking Commander and President , followed by the 1939 Champion . During World War II , Studebaker produced the Studebaker US6 truck in great quantity and the unique M29 Weasel cargo and personnel carrier. Studebaker ranked 28th among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. An assembly plant in California, Studebaker Pacific Corporation, built engine assemblies and nacelles for B-17s and PV-2 Harpoons . After cessation of hostilities, Studebaker returned to building automobiles. Studebaker prepared well in advance for
3220-581: The University of Groningen , in the Netherlands , built a small-scale electric car, and sometime between 1832 and 1839, Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the first crude electric carriage, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells . American blacksmith and inventor Thomas Davenport built a toy electric locomotive, powered by a primitive electric motor, in 1835. In 1838, a Scotsman named Robert Davidson built an electric locomotive that attained
3335-644: The arcjet rocket , the electrostatic ion thruster , the Hall-effect thruster , and Field Emission Electric Propulsion . Studebaker Studebaker was an American wagon and automobile manufacturer based in South Bend, Indiana , with a building at 1600 Broadway, Times Square , Midtown Manhattan , New York City . Founded in 1852 and incorporated in 1868 as the Studebaker Brothers Manufacturing Company,
3450-413: The electrical grid rather than wasting it. Maglev trains are also nearly always EVs. There are also battery electric passenger trains operating on non-electrified rail lines. Electric boats were popular around the turn of the 20th century. Interest in quiet and potentially renewable marine transportation has steadily increased since the late 20th century, as solar cells have given motorboats
3565-681: The energy conversion efficiency can be improved compared to hybrids by avoiding unnecessary energy conversions. Furthermore, electro-chemical batteries conversions are reversible, allowing electrical energy to be stored in chemical form. Most electric vehicles use lithium-ion batteries (Li-Ions or LIBs). Lithium-ion batteries have a higher energy density , longer life span , and higher power density than most other practical batteries. Complicating factors include safety, durability, thermal breakdown, environmental impact , and cost . Li-ion batteries should be used within safe temperature and voltage ranges to operate safely and efficiently. Increasing
Ford Comuta - Misplaced Pages Continue
3680-509: The 1964 models and the ousting of president Sherwood Egbert, on December 9, 1963, the company announced the closure of the South Bend plant. The last Larks and Hawks were assembled on December 20, and the last Avanti was assembled on December 26. To fulfill government contracts, production of military trucks and Zip Vans for the United States Postal Service continued into early 1964. The engine foundry remained open until
3795-417: The 2-door sedans, 4-door sedans, and 1954 Conestoga wagon would sell better than the 2-door coupes, so the company's resources were focused on production of the sedans and the wagon. When the prototype convertible was no longer needed, engineer E. T. Reynolds ordered the car to be stripped and the body sent to the secret graveyard at the proving grounds. A non-engineering employee requested permission to purchase
3910-531: The 20th century, electric rail transport became commonplace due to advances in the development of electric locomotives . Over time their general-purpose commercial use reduced to specialist roles as platform trucks , forklift trucks , ambulances, tow tractors, and urban delivery vehicles, such as the iconic British milk float . For most of the 20th century, the UK was the world's largest user of electric road vehicles. Electrified trains were used for coal transport, as
4025-459: The 20th century. As a means of reducing tailpipe emissions of carbon dioxide and other pollutants, and to reduce use of fossil fuels, government incentives are available in many areas to promote the adoption of electric cars and trucks. Electric motive power started in 1827 when Hungarian priest Ányos Jedlik built the first crude but viable electric motor; the next year he used it to power a small model car. In 1835, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of
4140-409: The Bakers Lookout situation, industrious farms, much acreage, on which one finds the necessary resources, lumber, iron ore, oil shale and land selected with stream, spring, or river to hydropower factories, mills and equipment. Peter's technology-enabled expansion of the family business through the famous Conestoga and Prairie Schooner wagon designs. Peter's trade was the stepping-stone that expanded
4255-630: The Champion and Commander adopted a polarizing appearance from Exner's concepts, and were applied to the 1950 Studebaker Starlight coupe. The new trunk design prompted a running joke that one could not tell if the car was coming or going, and appeared to be influenced by the Lockheed P-38 Lightning , particularly by the shortened fuselage with wrap around canopy. During the war the Studebaker Chippewa Factory
4370-487: The ICE. Finally, the initiation of mass production of gasoline-powered vehicles by Henry Ford in 1913 reduced significantly the cost of gasoline cars as compared to electric cars. In the 1930s, National City Lines , which was a partnership of General Motors , Firestone , and Standard Oil of California purchased many electric tram networks across the country to dismantle them and replace them with GM buses. The partnership
4485-454: The London office. Similar orders were received from the governments of France and Russia. The 1913 six-cylinder models were the first cars to employ the important advancement of monobloc engine casting which became associated with a production-economy drive in the years of the war. At that time, a 28-year-old university graduate engineer, Fred M. Zeder , was appointed chief engineer. He was
4600-726: The Studebaker family descend from Solingen, Germany . They arrived in America at the port of Philadelphia on September 1, 1736, on the ship Harle , (see Exhibit B) from Rotterdam, Netherlands, (see Exhibit A, p. 11) , original manuscripts now in the Pennsylvania State Library at Harrisburg). This included Peter Studebaker and his wife Anna Margetha Studebaker, Clement Studebaker (Peter's brother) and his wife, Anna Catherina Studebaker and Heinrich Studebaker (Peter's cousin). (see Exhibit A, p. 11) In 1918, Albert Russel Erskine , Studebaker Corporation president, wrote
4715-532: The UAW. Despite a sales uptick in 1962, continuing media reports that Studebaker was about to leave the auto business became a self-fulfilling prophecy as buyers shied away from the company's products for fear of being stuck with an "orphan". NBC reporter Chet Huntley made a television program called "Studebaker – Fight for Survival" which aired on May 18, 1962. By 1963, all of the company's automobiles and trucks were selling poorly. After insufficient initial sales of
Ford Comuta - Misplaced Pages Continue
4830-405: The anticipated postwar market and launched the slogan "First by far with a post-war car". This advertising premise was substantiated by Virgil Exner 's designs, notably the 1947 Studebaker Starlight coupé, which introduced innovative styling features that influenced later cars, including the flatback "trunk" instead of the tapered look of the time, and a wrap-around rear window. For 1950 and 1951,
4945-670: The automobile business on March 17, 1966, after an announcement on March 4. A turquoise and white Cruiser sedan was the last of fewer than 9,000 1966 models manufactured (of which 2,045 were built in the 1966 calendar year ). In reality, the move to Canada had been a tactic by which production could be slowly wound down and remaining dealer franchise obligations honored. The 1965 and 1966 Studebaker cars used "McKinnon" engines sourced from General Motors Canada Limited, which were based on Chevrolet's 230-cubic-inch six-cylinder and 283 cubic-inch V8 engines when Studebaker-built engines were no longer available. The closure adversely affected not only
5060-405: The battery's lifespan decreases effective costs and environmental impact. One technique is to operate a subset of the battery cells at a time and switching these subsets. In the past, nickel–metal hydride batteries were used in some electric cars, such as those made by General Motors. These battery types are considered outdated due to their tendencies to self-discharge in the heat. Furthermore,
5175-401: The beginnings of aviation, electric power for aircraft has received a great deal of experimentation. Currently, flying electric aircraft include piloted and unpiloted aerial vehicles. Electric power has a long history of use in spacecraft . The power sources used for spacecraft are batteries, solar panels and nuclear power. Current methods of propelling a spacecraft with electricity include
5290-429: The book, "History of the Studebaker Corporation", including the 1918 annual report, "Written for the information of the 3,000 stockholders of the Studebaker Corporation, the 12,000 dealers in its products living throughout the world, its 15,000 employees and numberless friends." (see Exhibit A, p. 9) This book was verified by lawyers and accountants and all board members and was a legal document. (see Exhibit A, p. 7) In
5405-459: The brothers and their parents are reproduced in the 1918 company history, which was written by Erskine after he became president, in memory of John M., whose portrait appears on the front cover. In 1740 Peter Studebaker built his home on a property known as “Bakers Lookout”. (The home still stands in Hagerstown, Maryland .) The first Studebaker wagon factory was built in the same year next to
5520-458: The car in 1965 under the brand name "Avanti II". (See main article Avanti (car) .) They likewise purchased the rights and tooling for Studebaker's trucks, along with the company's vast stock of parts and accessories. The plant, alongside Studebaker's General Products Division, was bought by Kaiser Jeep Corporation who used it to produce military vehicles. That unit formed the nucleus for what would later become AM General Corporation, which today
5635-535: The car is now in a private collection of Studebaker automobiles. In May 1967, Studebaker and its diversified units were merged with Wagner Electric . In November 1967, Studebaker was merged with the Worthington Corporation to form Studebaker-Worthington . The Studebaker name disappeared from the American business scene in 1979, when McGraw-Edison acquired Studebaker-Worthington, except for
5750-406: The complete car, rather than see it rot away with the other prototypes. Chief engineer Gene Hardig discussed the request with E. T. Reynolds. They agreed to let the employee purchase the car on the condition that the employee never sell it. In the 1970s, the car was re-discovered behind a South Bend gas station and no longer owned by the former employee. After eventually passing through several owners,
5865-517: The degree that it even used the central body section of the company's 1953–58 cars, but was a clever enough design to be popular in its first year, selling over 130,000 units and delivering a $ 28.6 million profit to the automaker ($ 298,928,767 in 2023 dollars ). "S-P rose from 56,920 units in 1958 to 153,844 in 1959." However, Lark sales began to drop precipitously after the Big Three manufacturers introduced their own compact models in 1960, and
SECTION 50
#17327944921535980-485: The deployment and adoption of this technology. Ford released a number of their Ford Ecostar delivery vans into the market. Honda, Nissan and Toyota also repossessed and crushed most of their EVs, which, like the GM EV1s, had been available only by closed-end lease. After public protests, Toyota sold 200 of its RAV4 EVs ; they later sold at over their original forty-thousand-dollar price. Later, BMW of Canada sold off
6095-397: The division, which still exists today as AM General . The grove of 5,000 trees planted on the proving grounds in 1937, spelling out the Studebaker name, still stands and has proven to be a popular topic on such satellite photography sites as Google Earth . The proving grounds were acquired by Bendix in 1966 and Bosch in 1996. After Bosch closed its South Bend operation in 2011,
6210-457: The dominant propulsion mechanisms for cars and trucks for about 100 years, but electricity-powered locomotion remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such as overhead line -powered mass transit vehicles like electric trains , trams , monorails and trolley buses , as well as various small, low-speed, short-range battery-powered personal vehicles such as mobility scooters . Hybrid electric vehicles , where electric motors are used as
6325-550: The early 1900s. They were produced by Baker Electric , Columbia Electric , Detroit Electric , and others, and at one point in history outsold gasoline-powered vehicles. In 1900, 28 percent of the cars on the road in the US were electric. EVs were so popular that even President Woodrow Wilson and his secret service agents toured Washington, D.C., in their Milburn Electrics, which covered 60–70 miles (100–110 km) per charge. Most producers of passenger cars opted for gasoline cars in
6440-473: The early 1960s, Studebaker had begun to diversify away from automobiles. Numerous companies were purchased, bringing Studebaker into such diverse fields as the manufacture of tire studs and missile components. The company's 1963 annual report listed the following divisions: Having built the Wright R-1820 under license during World War II, Studebaker also attempted to build what would perhaps have been
6555-437: The electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle or better performance. There is a variety of HEV types and the degree to which each functions as an electric vehicle (EV) also varies. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks (pickups and tractors), buses, boats, tow trucks, and aircraft also exist. There are different ways that
6670-495: The electricity they consume can be generated from a wide range of sources, including fossil fuels , nuclear power , and renewables such as solar power and wind power , or any combination of those. Recent advancements in battery technology and charging infrastructure have addressed many of the earlier barriers to EV adoption, making electric vehicles a more viable option for a wider range of consumers. The carbon footprint and other emissions of electric vehicles vary depending on
6785-512: The enterprise. From 1950 Studebaker declined rapidly, and by 1954 was losing money. It negotiated a strategic takeover by Packard, a smaller but less financially troubled car manufacturer . However, the cash position was worse than it had led Packard to believe, and by 1956, the company (renamed Studebaker-Packard Corporation and under the guidance of CEO James J. Nance ) was nearly bankrupt , though it continued to make and market both Studebaker and Packard cars until 1958. The "Packard" element
6900-402: The executive committee in 1897, the firm had an engineer working on a motor vehicle. At first, Studebaker opted for electric (battery-powered) over gasoline propulsion. While manufacturing its own Studebaker Electric vehicles from 1902 to 1911, the company entered into body-manufacturing and distribution agreements with two makers of gasoline-powered vehicles, Garford of Elyria, Ohio , and
7015-513: The expiration of GM's EV1 leases, GM discontinued them. The discontinuation has variously been attributed to: A movie made on the subject in 2005–2006 was titled Who Killed the Electric Car? and released theatrically by Sony Pictures Classics in 2006. The film explores the roles of automobile manufacturers , oil industry , the U.S. government , batteries , hydrogen vehicles , and the general public, and each of their roles in limiting
SECTION 60
#17327944921537130-606: The factory and to the mill. Although Peter Studebaker's life in the colonies was short, less than 18 years, the family business flourished through his descendants (see Exhibit M) and apprentices expanded the vast land holdings enlarging the Studebaker family business and its industrious wagon-making region. Peter's trade secrets were passed from father to son, generation to generation. The Studebaker family business plan, purchasing, again and again, vast amounts of land, on which they built industrious farms with mills and wagon making facilities and wagon selling facilities, each identical to
7245-588: The firm was cutting wages and laying off workers. Company president Albert Russel Erskine maintained faith in the Rockne and rashly had the directors declare huge dividends in 1930 and 1931. He also acquired 95% of the White Motor Company 's stock at an inflated price and in cash. By 1933, the banks were owed $ 6 million, ($ 141,223,650 in 2023 dollars ) though current assets exceeded that figure. On March 18, 1933, Studebaker entered receivership . Erskine
7360-549: The firm was originally a coachbuilder , manufacturing wagons, buggies, carriages and harnesses. Studebaker entered the automotive business in 1902 with electric vehicles and in 1904 with gasoline vehicles, all sold under the name "Studebaker Automobile Company". Until 1911, its automotive division operated in partnership with the Garford Company of Elyria, Ohio , and after 1909 with the E-M-F Company and with
7475-606: The first decade of the 20th century, but electric trucks were an established niche well into the 1920s. A number of developments contributed to a decline in the popularity of electric cars. Improved road infrastructure required a greater range than that offered by electric cars, and the discovery of large reserves of petroleum in Texas, Oklahoma, and California led to the wide availability of affordable gasoline/petrol, making internal combustion powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances. Electric vehicles were seldom marketed as
7590-401: The first of a trio of brilliant technicians, with Owen R. Skelton and Carl Breer , who launched the successful 1918 models, and were known as " The Three Musketeers ". They left in 1920 to form a consultancy, later to become the nucleus of Chrysler Engineering. The replacement chief engineer was Guy P. Henry, who introduced molybdenum steel, an improved clutch design, and presided over
7705-792: The foundation of the family fortune and the corporation which now bears his name." (see Exhibit D) "John Studebaker, father of the five brothers [that began the Studebaker Corporation] was the son of Peter Studebaker. (see Exhibit A, p. 13) . John Clement Studebaker (son of Clement Studebaker and Sarah Rensel) was born February 8, 1799, Westmorland, PA, and died in 1877 in South Bend, St. Joseph, IN. John Studebaker (1799–1877) moved to Ohio in 1835 with his wife Rebecca (née Mohler) (1802–1887). The five sons were, in order of birth: Henry (1826–1895), Clement (1831–1901), John Mohler (1833–1917), Peter Everst (1836–1897) and Jacob Franklin (1844–1887). The boys had five sisters. Photographs of
7820-474: The fuel and technology used for electricity generation . The electricity may be stored in the vehicle using a battery, flywheel, or supercapacitors . Vehicles using internal combustion engines usually only derive their energy from a single or a few sources, usually non-renewable fossil fuels. A key advantage of electric vehicles is regenerative braking , which recovers kinetic energy , typically lost during friction braking as heat, as electricity restored to
7935-409: The gasoline vehicles market in 1904. However, with the advent of cheap assembly line cars by Ford Motor Company , the popularity of electric cars declined significantly. Due to lack of electricity grids and the limitations of storage batteries at that time, electric cars did not gain much popularity; however, electric trains gained immense popularity due to their economies and achievable speeds. By
8050-461: The highest paid in the industry), quality control issues, and the new-car sales war between Ford and General Motors in the early 1950s wrought havoc on Studebaker's balance sheet . Professional financial managers stressed short-term earnings rather than long-term vision. Momentum was sufficient to keep going for another 10 years, but stiff competition and price -cutting by the Big Three doomed
8165-564: The home. On Bakers Lookout Peter, master of the German Cutler Guild, built the first Studebaker home, the first Studebaker wagon factory where he began forging and tempering steel and seasoning wood in the colonies. Peter Studebaker built the first Studebaker mill and a wagon road. Broadfording Wagon Road was built to run through the property. Peter owned property on both sides of the Conococheague Creek , so he built
8280-562: The infinite range of sailboats . Electric motors can and have also been used in sailboats instead of traditional diesel engines. Electric ferries operate routinely. Submarines use batteries (charged by diesel or gasoline engines at the surface), nuclear power, fuel cells or Stirling engines to run electric motor-driven propellers. Fully electric tugboats are being used in Auckland, New Zealand (June 2022), Vancouver, British Columbia (October 2023), and San Diego, California. Since
8395-626: The largest aircraft piston engine ever built. With 24 cylinders in an "H" configuration , a bore of 8 in (203 mm) and stroke of 7.75 in (197 mm), displacement would have been 9,349 cubic inches (153.20 L), hence the H-9350 designation. It was not completed. 635 S. Lafayette Blvd., South Bend, IN Clement and Henry Studebaker Jr., became blacksmiths and foundrymen in South Bend, Indiana , in February 1852. They first made metal parts for freight wagons and later expanded into
8510-496: The leadership of Gordon Grundy. It was projected that the Canadian operation could break even on production of about 20,000 cars a year, and Studebaker's announced goal was 30,000–40,000 1965 models. While 1965 production was just shy of the 20,000 figure, the company's directors felt that the small profits were not enough to justify continued investment. Rejecting Grundy's request for funds to tool up for 1967 models, Studebaker left
8625-781: The manufacture of complete wagons. At this time, John M. was making wheelbarrows in Placerville, California . The site of his business is California Historic Landmark #142 at 543 Main St, Placerville. The first major expansion in Henry and Clem's South Bend business came from their being in the right place to meet the needs of the California Gold Rush that began in 1849. From his wheelbarrow enterprise at Placerville, John M. had amassed $ 8,000 ($ 292,992 in 2023 dollars ). In April 1858, he quit and moved out to apply this to financing
8740-519: The motors did not use the valuable oxygen in the mines. Switzerland's lack of natural fossil resources forced the rapid electrification of their rail network . One of the earliest rechargeable batteries – the nickel-iron battery – was favored by Edison for use in electric cars. EVs were among the earliest automobiles, and before the preeminence of light, powerful internal combustion engines (ICEs), electric automobiles held many vehicle land speed and distance records in
8855-494: The old Detroit Packard plant and returned the then-new Packard plant on Conner Avenue (where Packard production had moved in 1954, at the same time Packard took its body-making operations in house after its longtime body supplier, Briggs Manufacturing Company , was acquired by Chrysler in late 1953) to its lessor, Chrysler. The company became the American importer for Mercedes-Benz , Auto Union , and DKW automobiles and many Studebaker dealers sold those brands, as well. C-W gained
8970-412: The on-board battery. There are many ways to generate electricity, of varying costs, efficiency and ecological desirability. It is also possible to have hybrid EVs that derive electricity from multiple sources, such as: For especially large EVs, such as submarines , the chemical energy of the diesel–electric can be replaced by a nuclear reactor . The nuclear reactor usually provides heat, which drives
9085-429: The plant's 700 employees, who had developed a sense of collegiality around group benefits such as employee parties and day trips, but the city of Hamilton as a whole; Studebaker had been Hamilton's 10th-largest employer. In 1965, Gordon Grundy of Studebaker Canada was sent by Studebaker management to Japan to investigate potential links with Nissan and Toyota , to sell their vehicles badged as Studebakers. While Grundy
9200-413: The price of critical minerals such as lithium from 2021 to the end of 2022 has put pressure on historical battery price decreases. The power of a vehicle's electric motor , as in other machines, is measured in kilowatts (kW). Electric motors can deliver their maximum torque over a wide RPM range. This means that the performance of a vehicle with a 100 kW electric motor exceeds that of a vehicle with
9315-442: The prototypes were left to rot in direct contact with the ground and full exposure to the weather and falling trees. Attempts to remove some of these rusting bodies resulted in the bodies crumbling under their own weight as they were moved, so now they exist only in photographs. However, there were a few notable exceptions. A few of the prototypes were rescued. The only example of a never-produced 1947 Champion wood-sided station wagon
9430-402: The same book, Albert Russel Erskin, accurately wrote that Peter Studebaker was the "wagon-maker, which trade later became the foundation of the family fortune and the corporation which now bears his name." (see Exhibit A, p. 11) "The tax list of York County, Pennsylvania, in 1798–9 showed among the taxable were Peter Studebaker Sr. and Peter Studebaker Jr. wagon-makers, which trade later became
9545-430: The situation became critical once the so-called "senior compacts" debuted for 1961. The Lark had provided a temporary reprieve, but nothing proved enough to stop the financial bleeding. A labor strike occurred at the South Bend plant starting on January 1, 1962, and lasting 38 days. The strike came to an end after an agreement was reached between company president Sherwood H. Egbert and Walter P. Reuther , president of
9660-561: The six-cylinders-only policy favored by new president Albert Russel Erskine , who replaced Fred Fish in July 1915. In 1925, the corporation's most successful distributor and dealer Paul G. Hoffman came to South Bend as vice president in charge of sales. In 1926, Studebaker became the first automobile manufacturer in the United States to open a controlled outdoor proving ground on which, in 1937, would be planted 5,000 pine trees in
9775-507: The still existing Studebaker Leasing, based in Jericho, NY. McGraw-Edison was itself purchased in 1985 by Cooper Industries , which sold off its auto-parts divisions to Federal-Mogul some years later. As detailed above, some vehicles were assembled from left-over parts and identified as Studebakers by the purchasers of the Avanti brand and surplus material from Studebaker at South Bend. By
9890-521: The subject of $ 1.25 million investment and was providing employment that supported 500 families. Few industrialists were prepared for the Wall Street Crash of October 1929. Though Studebaker's production and sales had been booming, the market collapsed and plans were laid for a new, small, low-cost car—the Rockne . However, times were too bad to sell even inexpensive cars. Within a year,
10005-401: The transportation industry. Thomas E. Bonsall, wrote "Much more than the story of a family business; it is also, in microcosm, the story of the industrial development of America." Peter Studebaker died in the mid-1750s. John M. Studebaker had always viewed the automobile as complementary to the horse-drawn wagon, pointing out that the expense of maintaining a car might be beyond the resources of
10120-464: The union contract expired in May 1964. The supply of engines produced in the first half of 1964 supported Zip Van assembly until the government contract was fulfilled, and automobile production at the Canadian plant until the end of the 1964 model year. The Avanti model name, tooling, and plant space were sold off to Leo Newman and Nate Altman, a longtime South Bend Studebaker-Packard dealership. They revived
10235-675: The use of gasoline. In January 1990, General Motors President introduced its EV concept two-seater, the "Impact", at the Los Angeles Auto Show. That September, the California Air Resources Board mandated major-automaker sales of EVs, in phases starting in 1998. From 1996 to 1998 GM produced 1117 EV1s , 800 of which were made available through three-year leases. Chrysler , Ford, GM, Honda , and Toyota also produced limited numbers of EVs for California drivers during this time period. In 2003, upon
10350-413: The use of idle car plants and tax relief on their aircraft profits while Studebaker-Packard received further working capital to continue car production. The automobiles that came after the diversification process began , including the redesigned compact Lark (1959) and the Avanti sports car (1962), were based on old chassis and engine designs. The Lark, in particular, was based on existing parts to
10465-423: The vehicle and no mechanical wear and tear of the train or track. In addition to the high-performance control systems needed, switching and curving of the tracks becomes difficult with linear motors, which to date has restricted their operations to high-speed point to point services. It is generally possible to equip any kind of vehicle with an electric power-train. A pure-electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle
10580-502: The vehicle can be powered by the engine working alone, the electric motor on its own, or by both working together; this is designed so that the engine can run at its optimum range as often as possible. A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from any external source of electricity, such as wall sockets , and the electricity stored in the Rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive
10695-543: The vehicle was an experiment. Electric vehicle An electric vehicle ( EV ) is a vehicle whose propulsion is powered fully or mostly by electricity. EVs include road and rail vehicles , electric boats and underwater vessels , electric aircraft and electric spacecraft . Early electric vehicles first came into existence in the late 19th century, when the Second Industrial Revolution brought forth electrification . Using electricity
10810-442: The vehicles through wires. Electric traction allows the use of regenerative braking , in which the motors are used as brakes and become generators that transform the motion of, usually, a train into electrical power that is then fed back into the lines. This system is particularly advantageous in mountainous operations, as descending vehicles can produce a large portion of the power required for those ascending. This regenerative system
10925-482: The vehicles were well built. In 1913, the company experienced the first major labor strike in the automotive industry, the 1913 Studebaker strike . The corporation benefited from enormous orders cabled by the British government at the outbreak of World War I . They included 3,000 transport wagons, 20,000 sets of artillery harness, 60,000 artillery saddles, and ambulances, as well as hundreds of cars purchased through
11040-403: The west. The Maryland Historical Trust WA-I-306 writes 04/03/2001, that this road was "One of Washington County's earliest thoroughfares, Broadfording (Wagon) Road was already in existence in 1747." (see Exhibit I) The wagon transportation industry boomed. On the property, Broadfording Wagon Road built in 1740 by Peter Studebaker, went directly through the property to allow access from the home to
11155-400: The wheels. PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. A range-extended electric vehicle (REEV) is a vehicle powered by an electric motor and a plug-in battery. An auxiliary combustion engine
11270-743: Was 180,000 cars, requiring 23,000 employees. The original South Bend vehicle plant continued to be used for small forgings, springs, and making some body parts. Separate buildings totaling over one million square feet were added in 1922–1923 for the Light, Special, and Big Six models. At any one time, 5,200 bodies were in process. South Bend's Plant 2 made chassis for the Light Six and had a foundry of 575,000 sq ft (53,400 m ), producing 600 tons of castings daily. Plant 3 at Detroit made complete chassis for Special and Big Six models in over 750,000 sq ft (70,000 m ) of floor space and
11385-464: Was achieved on March 9, 1935. A new car was put on the drawing boards under chief engineer Delmar "Barney" Roos —the Champion . Its final styling was designed by Virgil Exner and Raymond Loewy . The Champion doubled the company's previous-year sales when it was introduced in 1939. From the 1920s to the 1930s, the South Bend company had originated many style and engineering milestones , including
11500-531: Was all too clear. The regular manufacture of horse-drawn vehicles ended when Erskine ordered the removal of the last wagon gear in 1919. To its range of cars, Studebaker would now add a truck line to replace the horse-drawn wagons. Buses , fire engines , and even small rail locomotive -kits were produced using the same powerful six-cylinder engines. In 1895, John M. Studebaker's son-in-law Fred Fish urged for development of 'a practical horseless carriage'. When, on Peter Studebaker's death, Fish became chairman of
11615-501: Was also speaking with Toyota executives, Nissan ended negotiations, leaving Grundy empty-handed. Many of Studebaker's dealers either closed, took on other automakers' product lines, or converted to Mercedes-Benz dealerships following the closure of the Canadian plant. Studebaker's General Products Division, which built vehicles to fulfill defense contracts, was acquired by Kaiser Industries , which built military and postal vehicles in South Bend. In 1970, American Motors (AMC) purchased
11730-459: Was among the preferred methods for motor vehicle propulsion as it provides a level of quietness, comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline engine cars of the time, but range anxiety due to the limited energy storage offered by contemporary battery technologies hindered any mass adoption of private electric vehicles throughout the 20th century. Internal combustion engines (both gasoline and diesel engines ) were
11845-610: Was at Walkerville, Ontario, Canada, where complete cars were assembled from components that had been shipped from South Bend and Detroit factories or locally made in Canada, and is in close proximity to the current Ford Windsor Engine Factory. Output was designated for the Canadian (left-hand drive) and British Empire (right-hand drive) trade. By locating it there, Studebaker could advertise the cars as "British-built" and qualify for reduced tariffs. This manufacturing facility had been acquired from E-M-F in 1910 (see above). By 1929, it had been
11960-507: Was convicted of conspiring to monopolize the sale of equipment and supplies to their subsidiary companies, but was acquitted of conspiring to monopolize the provision of transportation services. The Copenhagen Summit , which was conducted in the midst of a severe observable climate change brought on by human-made greenhouse gas emissions, was held in 2009. During the summit, more than 70 countries developed plans to eventually reach net zero. For many countries, adopting more EVs will help reduce
12075-464: Was handled by Lehman Brothers and Goldman Sachs who provided board representatives including Henry Goldman whose contribution was especially esteemed. After taking over E-M-F's Detroit facilities, Studebaker sought to remedy customer dissatisfaction complaints by paying mechanics to visit each disgruntled owner and replace defective parts in their vehicles, at a total cost of US$ 1 million ($ 15,209,302 in 2023 dollars ). The worst problem
12190-539: Was located between Clark Avenue and Scotten Avenue south of Fort Street. Plant 5 was the service parts store and shipping facility, plus the executive offices of various technical departments. The Detroit facilities were moved to South Bend in 1926, except that the Piquette Avenue Plant (Plant 10) was retained for assembly of the Erskine between 1927 and 1929 and the Rockne (1931–1933). Plant 7
12305-538: Was negotiating with Nissan to possibly import the Nissan Cedric , the Studebaker board found out about the Toyota Century , which was not introduced until February 1968, and then the attorney representing the board, former United States Vice President Richard Nixon , asked Grundy to contact Toyota, as well. Toyota was insulted at being Studebaker's second choice, and when word got out to Nissan that Grundy
12420-443: Was occasionally driven around South Bend by engineers. Additional structural reinforcements were needed to reduce body flexure. Even though the car was equipped with the 232 cu. in. V-8, the added structural weight increased the car's 0-60 mph acceleration time to an unacceptable level. In addition, the company did not have the financial resources to add another body type to the model line. The company's leadership mistakenly thought
12535-445: Was pushed out of the presidency in favor of more cost-conscious managers. Erskine committed suicide on July 1, 1933, leaving successors Harold Vance and Paul Hoffman to deal with the problems. By December 1933, the company was back in profit with $ 5.75 million working capital and 224 new Studebaker dealers, while the purchase of White was cancelled. With the substantial aid of Lehman Brothers , full refinancing and reorganization
12650-403: Was rear-axle failure. Hendry comments that the frenzied testing resulted in Studebaker's aim to design 'for life'—and the consequent emergence of "a series of really rugged cars... the famous Big Six and Special Six " listed at $ 2,350 ($ 35,742 in 2023 dollars ). From that time, Studebaker's own marque was put on all new automobiles produced at the former E-M-F facilities as an assurance that
12765-513: Was restored and is on display at the Studebaker National Museum . Another prototype initially slated for disposal at the proving grounds escaped the fate of the others. In late 1952 Studebaker produced one 1953 Commander convertible as an engineering study to determine if the model could be profitably mass-produced. The car was based on the 1953 2-door hardtop coupe. The car was later modified to 1954-model specifications, and
12880-469: Was restored in 1962, but the South Bend plant ceased automobile production on December 20, 1963, and the last Studebaker automobile rolled off the Hamilton, Ontario , Canada, assembly line on March 17, 1966. Studebaker continued as an independent manufacturer before merging with Wagner Electric in May 1967 and then Worthington Corporation in February 1968 to form Studebaker-Worthington . The ancestors of
12995-432: Was retained until 1962, when the name reverted to "Studebaker Corporation". A three-year management contract was made by CEO Nance with aircraft maker Curtiss-Wright in 1956 with the aim of improving finances due to Studebaker's experience building aircraft engines during the war and military grade trucks. C-W's president, Roy T. Hurley, attempted to reduce labor costs. Under C-W's guidance, Studebaker-Packard also sold
13110-581: Was so good that 90% of earnings were being paid out as dividends to shareholders in a highly competitive environment. However, the end of that year ushered in the Great Depression that resulted in many layoffs and massive national unemployment for several years. Studebaker's total plant area in Indiana was 225 acres (0.91 km ), spread over three locations, with buildings occupying 7.5 million square feet of floor space. Annual production capacity
13225-575: Was the primary location for aircraft engines used in the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and the marketing department attempted to evoke a reference to their contribution to the war effort. Studebaker's strong postwar management team including president Paul G Hoffman and Roy Cole (vice president, engineering) had left by 1949 and was replaced by more cautious executives who failed to meet the competitive challenge brought on by Henry Ford II and his Whiz Kids . Massive discounting in
#152847