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120-642: The Ford Corcel ( "charger" or "steed" in Portuguese) is a family car which was sold by Ford do Brasil in Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay and Venezuela. It was also assembled in Venezuela (along with the upscale Del Rey derivative). The French-influenced styling of the Corcel was unique to Brazil until late 1977. From this year, the redesigned Corcel II (as it was originally sold) bore a strong resemblance to

240-403: A continuous flow of electrolyte. Flow cells typically have the fuel dissolved in the electrolyte. Power-to-weight ratios for vehicles are usually calculated using curb weight (for cars) or wet weight (for motorcycles), that is, excluding weight of the driver and any cargo. This could be slightly misleading, especially with regard to motorcycles, where the driver might weigh 1/3 to 1/2 as much as

360-530: A crucial role in providing support to armies in the field. Horses were well suited to the warfare tactics of the nomadic cultures from the steppes of Eastern Europe and Central Asia . Several cultures in East Asia made extensive use of cavalry and chariots. Muslim warriors relied upon light cavalry in their campaigns throughout Northern Africa , Asia , and Europe beginning in the 7th and 8th centuries AD. Europeans used several types of war horses in

480-406: A cutoff voltage are typically specified for a battery by its manufacturer. The output voltage falls to the cutoff voltage when the battery becomes "discharged". The nominal output voltage is always less than the open-circuit voltage produced when the battery is "charged". The temperature of a battery can affect the power it can deliver, where lower temperatures reduce power. Total energy delivered from

600-518: A defensive screen for marching armies. Large teams of draught horses or oxen pulled the heavy early cannon . Other horses pulled wagons and carried supplies for the armies. During the early modern period the shift continued from heavy cavalry and the armoured knight to unarmoured light cavalry , including Hussars and Chasseurs à cheval . Light cavalry facilitated better communication, using fast, agile horses to move quickly across battlefields. The ratio of footmen to horsemen also increased over

720-467: A fluid, or storage in a pressure vessel . A variety of effects can be harnessed to produce thermoelectricity , thermionic emission , pyroelectricity and piezoelectricity . Electrical resistance and ferromagnetism of materials can be harnessed to generate thermoacoustic energy from an electric current. All electrochemical cell batteries deliver a changing voltage as their chemistry changes from "charged" to "discharged". A nominal output voltage and

840-563: A higher discharge current – and therefore higher power-to-weight ratio – but only with a lower energy capacity. Power-to-weight ratio for batteries is therefore less meaningful without reference to corresponding energy-to-weight ratio and cell temperature. This relationship is known as Peukert's law . Capacitors store electric charge onto two electrodes separated by an electric field semi-insulating ( dielectric ) medium. Electrostatic capacitors feature planar electrodes onto which electric charge accumulates. Electrolytic capacitors use

960-600: A highly efficient fighting force. The use of armies consisting mostly of cavalry continued among the Turkish people who founded the Ottoman Empire . Their need for large mounted forces led to an establishment of the sipahi , cavalry soldiers who were granted lands in exchange for providing military service in times of war. Mounted Muslim warriors conquered North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula during

1080-588: A lightweight war horse became known as the rouncey . Medium-weight horses developed as early as the Iron Age with the needs of various civilizations to pull heavier loads, such as chariots capable of holding more than two people, and, as light cavalry evolved into heavy cavalry , to carry heavily armoured riders. The Scythians were among the earliest cultures to produce taller, heavier horses. Larger horses were also needed to pull supply wagons and, later on, artillery pieces. In Europe, horses were also used to

1200-430: A limited extent to maneuver cannons on the battlefield as part of dedicated horse artillery units. Medium-weight horses had the greatest range in size, from about 14.2  hands (58 inches, 147 cm) but stocky, to as much as 16  hands (64 inches, 163 cm), weighing approximately 450 to 540 kilograms (1,000 to 1,200 lb). They generally were quite agile in combat, though they did not have

1320-406: A liquid electrolyte as one of the electrodes and the electric double layer effect upon the surface of the dielectric-electrolyte boundary to increase the amount of charge stored per unit volume. Electric double-layer capacitors extend both electrodes with a nanoporous material such as activated carbon to significantly increase the surface area upon which electric charge can accumulate, reducing

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1440-596: A major role, particularly after the Seven Years' War when Hussars started to play a larger part in battles. Though some leaders preferred tall horses for their mounted troops this was as much for prestige as for increased shock ability and many troops used more typical horses, averaging 15 hands. Cavalry tactics altered with fewer mounted charges, more reliance on drilled maneuvers at the trot , and use of firearms once within range. Ever-more elaborate movements, such as wheeling and caracole , were developed to facilitate

1560-459: A manner similar to that of oxen . However, such a design is incompatible with equine anatomy , limiting both the strength and mobility of the animal. By the time of the Hyksos invasions of Egypt , c. 1600 BC, horses were pulling chariots with an improved harness design that made use of a breastcollar and breeching , which allowed a horse to move faster and pull more weight. Even after

1680-446: A misnomer, as it colloquially refers to mass. In a zero-gravity (weightless) environment, the power-to-weight ratio would not be considered infinite. A typical turbocharged V8 diesel engine might have an engine power of 250 kW (340 hp) and a mass of 380 kg (840 lb), giving it a power-to-weight ratio of 0.65 kW/kg (0.40 hp/lb). Examples of high power-to-weight ratios can often be found in turbines. This

1800-461: A more aggressive look compared to the more conservative 1968 version. Some of the L and all GT versions were also equipped with a new, bored out 1.4-litre (1372 cc) version of the existing engine. Claimed power for the regular Corcel was 75 hp (56 kW) (SAE gross), with 85 hp (63 kW) on tap at 5400 rpm from the "XP" engine used in the GT, with its double-barrel carburettor . With

1920-493: A mule and work to which it was put depended largely on the breeding of the mare that produced the mule. Mules could be lightweight, medium weight, or even, when produced from draught horse mares , of moderate heavy weight. The oldest known manual on training horses for chariot warfare was written c. 1350 BC by the Hittite horsemaster, Kikkuli . An ancient manual on the subject of training riding horses, particularly for

2040-546: A new car based on the upcoming Renault 12 , internally referred to as "Project M". When Willys do Brasil was bought by Ford do Brasil in 1967, Ford inherited the project, meaning that the Corcel was actually presented nearly two years before the Renault 12. The first year of production of the Brazilian Ford Corcel was 1968, when it debuted as a four-door sedan at São Paulo . It was originally equipped with

2160-511: A new head (Joseph W. O'Neill) in 1970 the decision was made to ameliorate the situation. In Brazil's first automotive recall, 65,000 owners were contacted and free repairs were made available; the Corcel once again became Ford's biggest selling model in 1971. In 1971 two new models appeared, with the L (for " Luxo ") and the more powerful GT version added. The GT benefitted from a twin-barrel carburettor ("1300-C") and offered 80 hp (60 kW) and could reach 141 km/h (88 mph) rather than

2280-647: A period of time is equal to the difference in its total energy over that period of time, so the rate at which work is done is equal to the rate of change of the kinetic energy (in the absence of potential energy changes). The work done from time t to time t + Δ t along the path C is defined as the line integral ∫ C F ⋅ d x = ∫ t t + Δ t F ⋅ v ( t ) d t {\displaystyle \int _{C}\mathbf {F} \cdot d\mathbf {x} =\int _{t}^{t+\Delta t}\mathbf {F} \cdot \mathbf {v} (t)dt} , so

2400-628: A power-to-weight ratio of 153 kW/kg (93 hp/lb). In classical mechanics , instantaneous power is the limiting value of the average work done per unit time as the time interval Δ t approaches zero (i.e. the derivative with respect to time of the work done). The typically used metric unit of the power-to-weight ratio is W kg {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\text{W}}{\text{kg}}}\;} which equals m 2 s 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {{\text{m}}^{2}}{{\text{s}}^{3}}}\;} . This fact allows one to express

2520-476: A precarious position for moving quickly, and the horses were held by a handler on the ground, keeping the archer free to use the bow. Thus, these archers were more a type of mounted infantry than true cavalry. The Assyrians developed cavalry in response to invasions by nomadic people from the north, such as the Cimmerians , who entered Asia Minor in the 8th century BC and took over parts of Urartu during

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2640-457: A rider greater leverage with weapons, as well as both increased stability and mobility while mounted, nomadic groups such as the Mongols adopted this technology and developed a decisive military advantage. By the 7th century, due primarily to invaders from Central Asia, stirrup technology spread from Asia to Europe. The Avar invaders are viewed as primarily responsible for spreading the use of

2760-463: A single charge cycle is affected by both the battery temperature and the power it delivers. If the temperature lowers or the power demand increases, the total energy delivered at the point of "discharge" is also reduced. Battery discharge profiles are often described in terms of a factor of battery capacity . For example, a battery with a nominal capacity quoted in ampere-hours (Ah) at a C/10 rated discharge current (derived in amperes) may safely provide

2880-865: A small war chariot at speed. Heavy supply wagons, artillery , and support vehicles were pulled by heavier horses or a larger number of horses. The method by which a horse was hitched to a vehicle also mattered: horses could pull greater weight with a horse collar than they could with a breast collar , and even less with an ox yoke . Light, oriental horses such as the ancestors of the modern Arabian , Barb , and Akhal-Teke were used for warfare that required speed, endurance, and agility. Such horses ranged from about 12  hands (48 inches, 122 cm) to just under 15  hands (60 inches, 152 cm), weighing approximately 360 to 450 kilograms (800 to 1,000 lb). To move quickly, riders had to use lightweight tack and carry relatively light weapons such as bows, light spears, javelins, or later rifles. This

3000-409: A solid framework, or " tree ", provided a bearing surface to protect the horse from the weight of the rider, but was not widespread until the 2nd century AD. However, it made a critical difference, as horses could carry more weight when distributed across a solid saddle tree. A solid tree, the predecessor of today's Western saddle , also allowed a more built-up seat to give the rider greater security in

3120-401: A speed | v ( t ) | {\displaystyle |\mathbf {v} (t)|\;} and angle ϕ {\displaystyle \phi \;} with respect to the centre and radial of a gravitational field by an onboard powerplant , then the associated kinetic energy is where: The work–energy principle states that the work done to the object over

3240-428: A team of two to four horses, they also had to learn to work together with other animals in close quarters under chaotic conditions. Horses were probably ridden in prehistory before they were driven. However, evidence is scant, mostly simple images of human figures on horse-like animals drawn on rock or clay. The earliest tools used to control horses were bridles of various sorts, which were invented nearly as soon as

3360-667: A train. As the coefficient of friction between steel wheels and rails seldom exceeds 0.25 in most cases, improving a locomotive's power-to-weight ratio is often counterproductive. However, the choice of power transmission system, such as variable-frequency drive versus direct-current drive , may support a higher power-to-weight ratio by better managing propulsion power. Most vehicles are designed to meet passenger comfort and cargo carrying requirements. Vehicle designs trade off power-to-weight ratio to increase comfort, cargo space, fuel economy , emissions control , energy security and endurance. Reduced drag and lower rolling resistance in

3480-519: A twin-barrel Solex carburettor. The Corcel II was also used for an FIA Group 1 one-marque championship in Brazil, in the years of 1979 to 1983. The Ford Del Rey was introduced in 1981, with a more upright roofline and available four-door bodywork. The Del Rey also had a reworked, more square front design. A station wagon version of the Del Rey (called the Ford Scala until 1986) differed from

3600-522: A vehicle design can facilitate increased cargo space without increase in the (zero cargo) power-to-weight ratio. This increases the role flexibility of the vehicle. Energy security considerations can trade off power (typically decreased) and weight (typically increased), and therefore power-to-weight ratio, for fuel flexibility or drive-train hybridisation . Some utility and practical vehicle variants such as hot hatches and sports-utility vehicles reconfigure power (typically increased) and weight to provide

3720-413: Is a calculation commonly applied to aircraft, cars, and vehicles in general, to enable the comparison of one vehicle's performance to another. Power-to-weight ratio is equal to thrust per unit mass multiplied by the velocity of any vehicle. The power-to-weight ratio (specific power) is defined as the power generated by the engine(s) divided by the mass. In this context, the term "weight" can be considered

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3840-402: Is an important vehicle characteristic that affects the acceleration of sports vehicles. Propeller aircraft depend on high power-to-weight ratios to generate sufficient thrust to achieve sustained flight, and then for speed. Jet aircraft produce thrust directly . Power-to-weight ratio is important in cycling, since it determines acceleration and the speed during hill climbs . Since

3960-527: Is because of their ability to operate at very high speeds. For example, the Space Shuttle 's main engines used turbopumps (machines consisting of a pump driven by a turbine engine) to feed the propellants (liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen ) into the engine's combustion chamber. The original liquid hydrogen turbopump is similar in size to an automobile engine (weighing approximately 352 kilograms (775 lb)) and produces 72,000 hp (54 MW) for

4080-417: Is conversely usually lower. Fuel cells and flow cells , although perhaps using similar chemistry to batteries, do not contain the energy storage medium or fuel . With a continuous flow of fuel and oxidant, available fuel cells and flow cells continue to convert the energy storage medium into electric energy and waste products. Fuel cells distinctly contain a fixed electrolyte whereas flow cells also require

4200-499: Is only delivered if the powerplant is in motion, and is transmitted to cause the body to be in motion. It is typically assumed here that mechanical transmission allows the powerplant to operate at peak output power. This assumption allows engine tuning to trade power band width and engine mass for transmission complexity and mass. Electric motors do not suffer from this tradeoff, instead trading their high torque for traction at low speed. The power advantage or power-to-weight ratio

4320-405: Is then where: The useful power of an engine with shaft power output can be calculated using a dynamometer to measure torque and rotational speed , with maximum power reached when torque multiplied by rotational speed is a maximum. For jet engines the useful power is equal to the flight speed of the aircraft multiplied by the force, known as net thrust, required to make it go at that speed. It

4440-455: Is used when calculating propulsive efficiency . Thermal energy is made up from molecular kinetic energy and latent phase energy. Heat engines are able to convert thermal energy in the form of a temperature gradient between a hot source and a cold sink into other desirable mechanical work . Heat pumps take mechanical work to regenerate thermal energy in a temperature gradient. Standard definitions should be used when interpreting how

4560-518: The Ancient Greek cavalry is Hippike ( On Horsemanship ) written about 360 BC by the Greek cavalry officer Xenophon . and another early text was that of Kautilya , written about 323 BC. Whether horses were trained to pull chariots, to be ridden as light or heavy cavalry, or to carry the armoured knight, much training was required to overcome the horse's natural instinct to flee from noise,

4680-535: The Cossacks , but once in the field, the lack of supplies typical of wartime meant that horses of all types were used. Since horses were such a vital component of most armies in early modern Europe, many instituted state stud farms to breed horses for the military. However, in wartime, supply rarely matched the demand, resulting in some cavalry troops fighting on foot. Power-to-weight ratio The inverse of power-to-weight, weight-to-power ratio (power loading)

4800-525: The Franks developing heavier, bigger horses. As the amount of armour and equipment increased in the later Middle Ages, the height of the horses increased; some late medieval horse skeletons were of horses over 1.5 metres (15 hands ). Stallions were often used as destriers due to their natural aggression. However, there may have been some use of mares by European warriors, and mares, who were quieter and less likely to call out and betray their position to

4920-560: The Middle Ages onward. They pulled heavy loads like supply wagons and were disposed to remain calm in battle. Some historians believe they may have carried the heaviest-armoured knights of the Late Medieval Period , though others dispute this claim, indicating that the destrier, or knight's battle horse, was a medium-weight animal. It is also disputed whether the destrier class included draught animals or not. Breeds at

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5040-473: The Middle Ages , and the best-known heavy cavalry warrior of the period was the armoured knight . With the decline of the knight and rise of gunpowder in warfare, light cavalry again rose to prominence, used in both European warfare and in the conquest of the Americas . Battle cavalry developed to take on a multitude of roles in the late 18th century and early 19th century and was often crucial for victory in

5160-644: The Middle East as well as parts of West Africa and the Iberian peninsula , Muslim armies consisted mostly of cavalry, made up of fighters from various local groups, mercenaries and Turkoman tribesmen. The latter were considered particularly skilled as both lancers and archers from horseback. In the 9th century the use of Mamluks , slaves raised to be soldiers for various Muslim rulers, became increasingly common. Mobile tactics, advanced breeding of horses, and detailed training manuals made Mamluk cavalry

5280-611: The Napoleonic Wars . In the Americas, the use of horses and development of mounted warfare tactics were learned by several tribes of indigenous people and in turn, highly mobile horse regiments were critical in the American Civil War . Horse cavalry began to be phased out after World War I in favour of tank warfare , though a few horse cavalry units were still used into World War II , especially as scouts. By

5400-620: The Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1050 BC), where they appear in burials. The high point of chariot use in China was in the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BC), although they continued in use up until the 2nd century BC. Descriptions of the tactical role of chariots in Ancient Greece and Rome are rare. The Iliad , possibly referring to Mycenaen practices used c. 1250 BC, describes

5520-472: The Spanish Riding School have their roots in manoeuvres designed for the battlefield. However, the airs above the ground were unlikely to have been used in actual combat, as most would have exposed the unprotected underbelly of the horse to the weapons of foot soldiers. Horses used for chariot warfare were not only trained for combat conditions, but because many chariots were pulled by

5640-758: The Ummayads who settled in the Guadalquivir valley. Another strain of horse that came with Islamic invaders was the Turkoman horse . Muslim invaders travelled north from present-day Spain into France, where they were defeated by the Frankish ruler Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732 AD. During the European Middle Ages , there were three primary types of war horses: the destrier ,

5760-713: The Wu Hu rebellions in China, and the Mongol conquest of much of Eurasia. The literature of ancient India describes numerous horse nomads. Some of the earliest references to the use of horses in South Asian warfare are Puranic texts, which refer to an attempted invasion of India by the joint cavalry forces of the Sakas , Kambojas , Yavanas , Pahlavas , and Paradas , called the "five hordes" ( pañca.ganah ) or " Kśatriya " hordes ( Kśatriya ganah ). About 1600 BC, they captured

5880-407: The courser , and the rouncey , which differed in size and usage. A generic word used to describe medieval war horses was charger, which appears interchangeable with the other terms. The medieval war horse was of moderate size, rarely exceeding 15.2  hands (62 inches, 157 cm). Heavy horses were logistically difficult to maintain and less adaptable to varied terrains. The destrier of

6000-539: The early Middle Ages was moderately larger than the courser or rouncey, in part to accommodate heavier armoured knights . However, destriers were not as large as draught horses , averaging between 14.2  hands (58 inches, 147 cm) and 15  hands (60 inches, 152 cm). On the European continent, the need to carry more armour against mounted enemies such as the Lombards and Frisians led to

6120-474: The fundamental theorem of calculus has that power is given by F ( t ) ⋅ v ( t ) = m a ( t ) ⋅ v ( t ) = τ ( t ) ⋅ ω ( t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} (t)\cdot \mathbf {v} (t)=m\mathbf {a} (t)\cdot \mathbf {v} (t)=\mathbf {\tau } (t)\cdot \mathbf {\omega } (t)} . where: In propulsion , power

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6240-539: The steppes of Eurasia , in what today is Ukraine , Hungary , and Romania . Not long after domestication of the horse , people in these locations began to live together in large fortified towns for protection from the threat of horseback-riding raiders, who could attack and escape faster than people of more sedentary cultures could follow. Horse-mounted nomads of the steppe and current day Eastern Europe spread Indo-European Languages as they conquered other tribes and groups. The use of horses in organised warfare

6360-585: The 1.3 L (1,289 cc) 68 hp (51 kW) water-cooled overhead-valve "Cléon" engine picked directly from the Renault 12, albeit with a slightly lower compression ratio of 8:1 to allow it to run on 70 octane gasoline. A coupé was added in 1969 to target the second-car market, quickly becoming the fastest-selling version, followed by a three-door station wagon version called " Belina " in March 1970. The early Corcels had severe quality issues and sales suffered accordingly, but after Ford do Brasil received

6480-479: The 135 km/h (84 mph) of the regular versions. Each passing year running styling changes were made, borrowing several details from the Ford Maverick , and becoming more and more like a pony car in appearance. The GT was updated in the form of new decals every year, and eventually also got a larger, more powerful engine. The facelifted Corcel I (sometimes called the "Mark 1½") arrived in 1973 and had

6600-503: The 16th century, the concept of a combined-arms professional army had spread throughout Europe. Professional armies emphasized training, and were paid via contracts, a change from the ransom and pillaging which reimbursed knights in the past. When coupled with the rising costs involved in outfitting and maintaining armour and horses, the traditional knightly classes began to abandon their profession. Light horses, or prickers , were still used for scouting and reconnaissance; they also provided

6720-591: The 7th and 8th centuries AD following the Hijrah , of Muhammad in 622 AD. By 630 AD, their influence expanded across the Middle East and into western North Africa . By 711 AD, the light cavalry of Muslim warriors had reached Spain, and controlled most of the Iberian peninsula by 720. Their mounts were of various oriental types, including the North African Barb . A few Arabian horses may have come with

6840-439: The 9th century, and became widespread by the 12th century. Two major innovations that revolutionised the effectiveness of mounted warriors in battle were the saddle and the stirrup. Riders quickly learned to pad their horse's backs to protect themselves from the horse's spine and withers , and fought on horseback for centuries with little more than a blanket or pad on the horse's back and a rudimentary bridle. To help distribute

6960-565: The Belina only in trim and in the front design. The traditional Ford name Victoria was to be used on this version but was dropped at the last minute. The Ford Corcel II also provided the basis for a pick-up version called the Ford Pampa in 1982, although this used the shorter front doors of the four-door Ford Del Rey since there was no need to access the back seat. The Pampa would eventually also be available with four-wheel drive. As of 1982,

7080-414: The Belina, while the four-door version was dropped in response to lack of consumer interest. The resulting two-door sedan was of a fastback style, with long and heavy doors. Originally equipped with the same 1.4-litre four as the first Corcel, the engine was now rated at 54 hp (40 kW) DIN for the base, Luxo, and LDO versions. The somewhat sporting GT received 57 hp (42 kW), courtesy of

7200-1021: The British Army recruited 200 Dales ponies in World War II for use as pack and artillery animals; and the British Territorial Army experimented with the use of Dartmoor ponies as pack animals in 1935, finding them to be better than mules for the job. Horses were not the only equids used to support human warfare. Donkeys have been used as pack animals from antiquity to the present. Mules were also commonly used, especially as pack animals and to pull wagons, but also occasionally for riding. Because mules are often both calmer and hardier than horses, they were particularly useful for strenuous support tasks, such as hauling supplies over difficult terrain. However, under gunfire, they were less cooperative than horses, so were generally not used to haul artillery on battlefields. The size of

7320-811: The European Ford Escort and Ford Cortina of same era, but its Renault underpinnings remained the same. The Corcel was eventually replaced by the Del Rey , which was originally introduced as a better equipped version of the Corcel. The Corcel's origins lay in the Renault 12 . Willys-Overland 's Brazilian operations included manufacturing the Renault Dauphine as the Willys Dauphine/Gordini/1093/Teimoso. Plans were underway to replace this outmoded range with

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7440-753: The Greeks. A century later, the "Men of the Mountain Land," from north of Kabul River , served in the army of Darius III of Persia when he fought against Alexander the Great at Arbela in 331 BC. In battle against Alexander at Massaga in 326 BC, the Assakenoi forces included 20,000 cavalry. The Mudra-Rakshasa recounted how cavalry of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas , Parasikas , and Bahlikas helped Chandragupta Maurya (c. 320–298 BC) defeat

7560-573: The Scala, however, had by now lost nearly all of their interior/exterior differences and became near identical: only a few details, such as the taillamps, differentiated these two models. Between 1985 and 1987 the Belina was made available with the same four-wheel-drive system used in the Pampa. This system seemed to have questionable reliability; Quatro Rodas magazine did a long-term test of a Belina 4x4 (50,000 km) in which breakdowns were very frequent -

7680-538: The art of using archery from horseback. The archery skills of mounted samurai were developed by training such as Yabusame , which originated in 530 AD and reached its peak under Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–1199 AD) in the Kamakura period . They switched from an emphasis on mounted bowmen to mounted spearmen during the Sengoku period (1467–1615 AD). During the period when various Islamic empires controlled much of

7800-533: The chariot had become obsolete as a tool of war, there still was a need for technological innovations in pulling technologies; horses were needed to pull heavy loads of supplies and weapons. The invention of the horse collar in China during the 5th century AD ( Northern and Southern dynasties ) allowed horses to pull greater weight than they could when hitched to a vehicle with the ox yokes or breast collars used in earlier times. The horse collar arrived in Europe during

7920-726: The chariot to Ancient Egypt in the 16th century BC and the Egyptians adopted its use from that time forward. The oldest preserved text related to the handling of war horses in the ancient world is the Hittite manual of Kikkuli , which dates to about 1350 BC, and describes the conditioning of chariot horses. Chariots existed in the Minoan civilization , as they were inventoried on storage lists from Knossos in Crete , dating to around 1450 BC. Chariots were also used in China as far back as

8040-460: The command of cavalry divisions, but in some battles, such as Waterloo , the horse artillery were used as a rapid response force, repulsing attacks and assisting the infantry. Agility was important; the ideal artillery horse was 1.5 to 1.6 metres (15 to 16 hands ) high, strongly built, but able to move quickly. Relations between steppe nomads and the settled people in and around Central Asia were often marked by conflict. The nomadic lifestyle

8160-597: The cost of keeping horses. Heavy cavalry was believed to have been developed by the Ancient Persians , although others argue for the Sarmatians . By the time of Darius (558–486 BC), Persian military tactics required horses and riders that were completely armoured, and selectively bred a heavier, more muscled horse to carry the additional weight. The cataphract was a type of heavily armoured cavalry with distinct tactics, armour, and weaponry used from

8280-481: The demise of the knight to the invention of gunpowder , or to the English longbow . Some link the decline to both technologies. Others argue these technologies actually contributed to the development of knights: plate armour was first developed to resist early medieval crossbow bolts, and the full harness worn by the early 15th century developed to resist longbow arrows. From the 14th century onwards, most plate

8400-458: The dielectric medium to nanopores and a very thin high permittivity separator. While capacitors tend not to be as temperature sensitive as batteries, they are significantly capacity constrained and without the strength of chemical bonds suffer from self-discharge. Power-to-weight ratio of capacitors is usually higher than batteries because charge transport units within the cell are smaller (electrons rather than ions), however energy-to-weight ratio

8520-409: The earliest written training manual for war horses was a guide for training chariot horses written about 1350 BC. As formal cavalry tactics replaced the chariot, so did new training methods, and by 360 BC, the Greek cavalry officer Xenophon had written an extensive treatise on horsemanship. The effectiveness of horses in battle was also revolutionized by improvements in technology , such as

8640-473: The early toe loop stirrup is credited to the cultures of India, and may have been in use as early as 500 BC. Not long after, the cultures of Mesopotamia and Ancient Greece clashed with those of central Asia and India. Herodotus (484–425 BC) wrote that Gandarian mercenaries of the Achaemenid Empire were recruited into the army of emperor Xerxes I of Persia (486–465 BC), which he led against

8760-843: The end of World War II, horses were seldom seen in battle, but were still used extensively for the transport of troops and supplies. Today, formal battle-ready horse cavalry units have almost disappeared, though the United States Army Special Forces used horses in battle during the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan . Horses are still seen in use by organized armed fighters in the Global South . Many nations still maintain small units of mounted riders for patrol and reconnaissance , and military horse units are also used for ceremonial and educational purposes. Horses are also used for historical reenactment of battles, law enforcement , and in equestrian competitions derived from

8880-654: The enemy, were the preferred war horse of the Moors , who invaded various parts of Southern Europe from 700 AD through the 15th century. Geldings were used in war by the Teutonic Knights , and known as "monk horses" ( German : Mönchpferde or Mönchhengste ). One advantage was if captured by the enemy, they could not be used to improve local bloodstock, thus maintaining the Knights' superiority in horseflesh. The heavy cavalry charge, while it could be effective,

9000-569: The engine was a CHT , an improved version of the "Cléon" engine used in the first Corcel of 1968. It had already been bored and stroked to 1555 cc years earlier, but with a redesigned cylinder head , a rotating valve design and many other peripheral improvements it received a new name and a new lease on life. On 30 October 1981, Venezuelan assembly of the Corcel II commenced. In 1986, Ford Motor de Venezuela produced 2244 Corcel IIs and 2439 Corcel Ghias (all two-door sedans), although by then, it

9120-472: The events. These competitions uncovered that the front drive universal joint was prone to break under heavy stress, so in 1976 the Corcel line switched to constant-velocity joints . In 1977, for the 1978 model year, Ford launched the Corcel II . The second generation had a completely remade design and straight lines as opposed to the pony car style of the original Corcel. These changes were also applied to

9240-431: The form of sieges , and in the later Middle Ages as mounted raids called chevauchées , with lightly armed warriors on swift horses. The war horse was also seen in hastiludes  – martial war games such as the joust , which began in the 11th century both as sport and to provide training for battle. Specialised destriers were bred for the purpose, although the expense of keeping, training, and outfitting them kept

9360-481: The heavy variety. The Chinese used chariots for horse-based warfare until light cavalry forces became common during the Warring States era (402–221 BC). A major proponent of the change to riding horses from chariots was Wu Ling , c. 320 BC. However, conservative forces in China often opposed change, as cavalry did not benefit from the additional cachet attached to being the military branch dominated by

9480-531: The higher output Volkswagen AP -1800 engine replaced the 1.6-litre unit in all models of the Del Rey and Belina, and was made available in all models of the Pampa except for the ones with four-wheel drive. The Del Rey and the "new" Belina were discontinued in 1991, being replaced by the Volkswagen Santana-derived Ford Versailles and Royale respectively. The Pampa continued to be sold on until 1997, when Ford introduced

9600-462: The horse was domesticated . Evidence of bit wear appears on the teeth of horses excavated at the archaeology sites of the Botai culture in northern Kazakhstan , dated 3500–3000 BC. The invention of the wheel was a major technological innovation that gave rise to chariot warfare. At first, equines, both horses and onagers , were hitched to wheeled carts by means of a yoke around their necks in

9720-413: The invention of the saddle , the stirrup , and the horse collar . Many different types and sizes of horses were used in war, depending on the form of warfare. The type used varied with whether the horse was being ridden or driven, and whether they were being used for reconnaissance , cavalry charges, raiding , communication, or supply. Throughout history, mules and donkeys , as well as horses played

9840-452: The later SAE net ratings, these figures became 72 hp (54 kW) and 77 hp (57 kW). In 1975 a minor facelift occurred, in which the grille and headlight surrounds were subtly changed and the Ford logo moved from the grille onto the leading edge of the bonnet, along with the existing "F O R D" script. The taillights were now single-piece units. Also new for 1975 was

9960-519: The luxurious "LDO" version, available as a coupé or estate. Meanwhile, the locally developed 1.4 gradually replaced the old 1.3 throughout the lineup. This was very easy to modify for greater power and some dealers had the option to install an unofficial small tuning kit that would improve the engine's horsepower to 95 (SAE Gross). Note that all of these power outputs were achieved using the low quality, low octane petrol available in South America at

10080-525: The majority of the population from owning one. While some historians suggest that the tournament had become a theatrical event by the 15th and 16th centuries, others argue that jousting continued to help cavalry train for battle until the Thirty Years' War . The decline of the armoured knight was probably linked to changing structures of armies and various economic factors, and not obsolescence due to new technologies. However, some historians attribute

10200-471: The maximum weight that horses can pull varies widely, depending on the build of the horse, the type of vehicle, road conditions, and other factors. Horses harnessed to a wheeled vehicle on a paved road can pull as much as eight times their weight, but far less if pulling wheelless loads over unpaved terrain. Thus, horses that were driven varied in size and had to make a trade-off between speed and weight, just as did riding animals. Light horses could pull

10320-769: The nobility as in medieval Europe. Nevertheless, during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC), it is recorded that 300,000 government-owned horses were insufficient for the cavalry and baggage trains of the Han military in the campaigns to expel the Xiongnu nomads from the Ordos Desert , Qilian Mountains , Khangai Mountains and Gobi Desert , spurring new policies that encouraged households to hand over privately-bred horses in exchange for military and corvee labor exemptions. The Japanese samurai fought as cavalry for many centuries. They were particularly skilled in

10440-872: The north and west, the Chinese of the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) developed effective mounted units. Cavalry was not used extensively by the Romans during the Roman Republic period, but by the time of the Roman Empire , they made use of heavy cavalry. However, the backbone of the Roman army was the infantry. Once gunpowder was invented, another major use of horses was as draught animals for heavy artillery , or cannon . In addition to field artillery , where horse-drawn guns were attended by gunners on foot, many armies had artillery batteries where each gunner

10560-442: The perception of sports car like performance or for other psychological benefit . Increased engine performance is a consideration, but also other features associated with luxury vehicles . Longitudinal engines are common. Bodies vary from hot hatches , sedans (saloons) , coupés , convertibles and roadsters . Mid-range dual-sport and cruiser motorcycles tend to have similar power-to-weight ratios. Power-to-weight ratio

10680-483: The period as infantry weapons improved and footmen became more mobile and versatile, particularly once the musket bayonet replaced the more cumbersome pike. During the Elizabethan era , mounted units included cuirassiers , heavily armoured and equipped with lances; light cavalry, who wore mail and bore light lances and pistols; and " petronels ", who carried an early carbine . As heavy cavalry use declined armour

10800-431: The power-to-weight ratio purely by SI base units . A vehicle's power-to-weight ratio equals its acceleration times its velocity; so at twice the velocity, it experiences half the acceleration, all else being equal. If the work to be done is rectilinear motion of a body with constant mass m {\displaystyle m\;} , whose center of mass is to be accelerated along a (possibly non-straight) line to

10920-701: The propulsive power of a jet or rocket engine is transferred to its vehicle. An electric motor uses electrical energy to provide mechanical work , usually through the interaction of a magnetic field and current-carrying conductors . By the interaction of mechanical work on an electrical conductor in a magnetic field, electrical energy can be generated . Fluids (liquid and gas) can be used to transmit and/or store energy using pressure and other fluid properties. Hydraulic (liquid) and pneumatic (gas) engines convert fluid pressure into other desirable mechanical or electrical work . Fluid pumps convert mechanical or electrical work into movement or pressure changes of

11040-450: The raw speed or endurance of a lighter horse. By the Middle Ages , larger horses in this class were sometimes called destriers . They may have resembled modern Baroque or heavy warmblood breeds. Later, horses similar to the modern warmblood often carried European cavalry. Large, heavy horses, weighing from 680 to 910 kilograms (1,500 to 2,000 lb), the ancestors of today's draught horses , were used, particularly in Europe, from

11160-569: The reign of Sargon II , approximately 721 BC. Mounted warriors such as the Scythians also had an influence on the region in the 7th century BC. By the reign of Ashurbanipal in 669 BC, the Assyrians had learned to sit forward on their horses in the classic riding position still seen today and could be said to be true light cavalry . The ancient Greeks used both light horse scouts and heavy cavalry, although not extensively, possibly due to

11280-471: The resulting bad reputation led to Belina 4x4 production ending after only a few model years, while the Pampa 4x4 continued to be available. 1986 was the last year for the Corcel. The Belina was also discontinued in 1986, but its name was from then on applied to what had been the Scala (a name that had never really caught on) as the "Del Rey Belina". In 1989, as a result of the Autolatina joint-venture ,

11400-472: The rider's legs and weight . The horse became accustomed to any necessary tack and protective armour placed upon it, and learned to balance under a rider who would also be laden with weapons and armour. Developing the balance and agility of the horse was crucial. The origins of the discipline of dressage came from the need to train horses to be both obedient and manoeuvrable. The Haute ecole or "High School" movements of classical dressage taught today at

11520-423: The rider's weight and protect the horse's back, some cultures created stuffed padding that resembles the panels of today's English saddle . Both the Scythians and Assyrians used pads with added felt attached with a surcingle or girth around the horse's barrel for increased security and comfort. Xenophon mentioned the use of a padded cloth on cavalry mounts as early as the 4th century BC. The saddle with

11640-524: The riding and training skills once used by the military. A fundamental principle of equine conformation is "form to function". Therefore, the type of horse used for various forms of warfare depended on the work performed, the weight a horse needed to carry or pull, and distance travelled. Weight affects speed and endurance, creating a trade-off: armour added protection, but added weight reduced maximum speed. Therefore, various cultures had different military needs. In some situations, one primary type of horse

11760-563: The ruler of Magadha and take the throne, thus laying the foundations of Mauryan dynasty in Northern India. Mughal cavalry used gunpowder weapons, but were slow to replace the traditional composite bow. Under the impact of European military successes in India, some Indian rulers adopted the European system of massed cavalry charges, although others did not. By the 18th century, Indian armies continued to field cavalry, but mainly of

11880-491: The saddle. The Romans are credited with the invention of the solid-treed saddle. An invention that made cavalry particularly effective was the stirrup. A toe loop that held the big toe was used in India possibly as early as 500 BC, and later a single stirrup was used as a mounting aid. The first set of paired stirrups appeared in China about 322 AD during the Jin dynasty . Following the invention of paired stirrups, which allowed

12000-517: The smaller end of the heavyweight category may have included the ancestors of the Percheron , agile for their size and physically able to maneuver in battle. The British Army's 2nd Dragoons in 1813 had 340 ponies of 14.2  hands (58 inches, 147 cm) and 55 ponies of 14  hands (56 inches, 142 cm); the Lovat Scouts, formed in 1899, were mounted on Highland ponies;

12120-478: The smaller, Fiesta -based Ford Courier a year later. Horses in warfare The first evidence of horses in warfare dates from Eurasia between 4000 and 3000 BC. A Sumerian illustration of warfare from 2500 BC depicts some type of equine pulling wagons . By 1600 BC, improved harness and chariot designs made chariot warfare common throughout the Ancient Near East , and

12240-465: The smell of blood, and the confusion of combat. They also learned to accept any sudden or unusual movements of humans while using a weapon or avoiding one. Horses used in close combat may have been taught, or at least permitted, to kick, strike, and even bite, thus becoming weapons themselves for the warriors they carried. In most cultures, a war horse used as a riding animal was trained to be controlled with limited use of reins , responding primarily to

12360-557: The stirrup into central Europe. However, while stirrups were known in Europe in the 8th century, pictorial and literary references to their use date only from the 9th century. Widespread use in Northern Europe, including England, is credited to the Vikings , who spread the stirrup in the 9th and 10th centuries to those areas. The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates from between 4000 and 3000 BC in

12480-624: The throne of Ayodhya by dethroning the Vedic king, Bahu. Later texts, such as the Mahābhārata , c. 950 BC, appear to recognise efforts taken to breed war horses and develop trained mounted warriors, stating that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were of the finest quality, and the Kambojas, Gandharas, and Yavanas were expert in fighting from horses. In technological innovation,

12600-535: The time of the Persians up until the Middle Ages. In Ancient Greece , Phillip of Macedon is credited with developing tactics allowing massed cavalry charges. The most famous Greek heavy cavalry units were the companion cavalry of Alexander the Great . The Chinese of the 4th century BC during the Warring States period (403–221 BC) began to use cavalry against rival states. To fight nomadic raiders from

12720-655: The time. The Corcel GT was moderately successful in Brazilian Tarumã, Interlagos and beach rally street car championships during the 1970s, thanks to its front-wheel-drive stability and low weight (920 kg), which allowed a high power-to-weight ratio . It would not be faster than the V-8 Maverick and Chevrolet Opala , but it would beat everything else in the Brazilian market, including four- and six-cylinder Mavericks and some Dodge Chargers that partook of

12840-563: The use of chariots for transporting warriors to and from battle, rather than for actual fighting. Later, Julius Caesar , invading Britain in 55 and 54 BC, noted British charioteers throwing javelins, then leaving their chariots to fight on foot. Some of the earliest examples of horses being ridden in warfare were horse-mounted archers or javelin-throwers, dating to the reigns of the Assyrian rulers Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III . However, these riders sat far back on their horses,

12960-435: The use of firearms from horseback. These tactics were not greatly successful in battle since pikemen protected by musketeers could deny cavalry room to manoeuvre. However the advanced equestrianism required survives into the modern world as dressage . While restricted, cavalry was not rendered obsolete. As infantry formations developed in tactics and skills, artillery became essential to break formations; in turn, cavalry

13080-516: The vehicle itself. In the sport of competitive cycling athlete's performance is increasingly being expressed in VAMs and thus as a power-to-weight ratio in W/kg. This can be measured through the use of a bicycle powermeter or calculated from measuring incline of a road climb and the rider's time to ascend it. A locomotive generally must be heavy in order to develop enough adhesion on the rails to start

13200-473: Was concentrating on production of the European -sourced Ford Sierra . All had a slight face lift for the 1985 model year. The Corcel II became known again simply as the Corcel. The interior was now the same for all four models. Externally, the Corcel and the Del Rey differed at the rear; the Corcel received fastback -style bodywork while the Del Rey was of a more traditional sedan design. The Belina and

13320-633: Was documented early in recorded history. One of the first depictions is the "war panel" of the Standard of Ur , in Sumer , dated c. 2500 BC, showing horses (or possibly onagers or mules) pulling a four-wheeled wagon. Among the earliest evidence of chariot use are the burials of horse and chariot remains by the Andronovo (Sintashta-Petrovka) culture in modern Russia and Kazakhstan , dated to approximately 2000 BC. The oldest documentary evidence of what

13440-416: Was favoured over all others. In other places, multiple types were needed; warriors would travel to battle riding a lighter horse of greater speed and endurance, and then switch to a heavier horse, with greater weight-carrying capacity, when wearing heavy armour in actual combat. The average horse can carry up to approximately 30% of its body weight. While all horses can pull more weight than they can carry,

13560-465: Was increasingly abandoned and dragoons , whose horses were rarely used in combat, became more common: mounted infantry provided reconnaissance, escort and security. However, many generals still used the heavy mounted charge, from the late 17th century and early 18th century, where sword-wielding wedge-formation shock troops penetrated enemy lines, to the early 19th century, where armoured heavy cuirassiers were employed. Light cavalry continued to play

13680-423: Was made from hardened steel, which resisted early musket ammunition. In addition, stronger designs did not make plate heavier; a full harness of musket-proof plate from the 17th century weighed 70 pounds (32 kg), significantly less than 16th century tournament armour. The move to predominately infantry-based battles from 1300 to 1550 was linked to both improved infantry tactics and changes in weaponry . By

13800-408: Was not a common occurrence. Battles were rarely fought on land suitable for heavy cavalry. While mounted riders remained effective for initial attacks, by the end of the 14th century, it was common for knights to dismount to fight, while their horses were sent to the rear, kept ready for pursuit. Pitched battles were avoided if possible, with most offensive warfare in the early Middle Ages taking

13920-714: Was probably chariot warfare in the Ancient Near East is the Old Hittite Anitta text, of the 18th century BC, which mentioned 40 teams of horses at the siege of Salatiwara . The Hittites became well known throughout the ancient world for their prowess with the chariot. Widespread use of the chariot in warfare across most of Eurasia coincides approximately with the development of the composite bow , known from c. 1600 BC. Further improvements in wheels and axles, as well as innovations in weaponry, soon resulted in chariots being driven in battle by Bronze Age societies from China to Egypt. The Hyksos invaders brought

14040-454: Was provided with a mount. Horse artillery units generally used lighter pieces, pulled by six horses. "9-pounders" were pulled by eight horses, and heavier artillery pieces needed a team of twelve. With the individual riding horses required for officers, surgeons and other support staff, as well as those pulling the artillery guns and supply wagons, an artillery battery of six guns could require 160 to 200 horses. Horse artillery usually came under

14160-660: Was required to both combat enemy artillery, which was susceptible to cavalry while deploying, and to charge enemy infantry formations broken by artillery fire. Thus, successful warfare depended in a balance of the three arms: cavalry, artillery and infantry. As regimental structures developed many units selected horses of uniform type and some, such as the Royal Scots Greys , even specified colour. Trumpeters often rode distinctive horses so they stood out. Regional armies developed type preferences, such as British hunters , Hanoverians in central Europe, and steppe ponies of

14280-604: Was the original horse used for early chariot warfare, raiding, and light cavalry . Relatively light horses were used by many cultures, including the Ancient Egyptians , the Mongols , the Arabs , and the Native Americans . Throughout the Ancient Near East , small, light animals were used to pull chariots designed to carry no more than two passengers, a driver and a warrior. In the European Middle Ages ,

14400-583: Was well suited to warfare, and steppe cavalry became some of the most militarily potent forces in the world, only limited by nomads' frequent lack of internal unity. Periodically, strong leaders would organise several tribes into one force, creating an almost unstoppable power. These unified groups included the Huns , who invaded Europe, and under Attila , conducted campaigns in both eastern France and northern Italy, over 500 miles apart, within two successive campaign seasons. Other unified nomadic forces included

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