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191-446: Ford Island ( Hawaiian : Poka ʻAilana ) is an islet in the center of Pearl Harbor , Oahu , in the U.S. state of Hawaii . It has been known as Rabbit Island , Marín's Island , and Little Goats Island ; its native Hawaiian name is Mokuʻumeʻume . The island had an area of 334 acres (135 ha) when it was surveyed in 1825, which was increased during the 1930s to 441 acres (178 ha) with fill dredged out of Pearl Harbor by

382-678: A Hawaiian language news broadcast. Honolulu television station KGMB ran a weekly Hawaiian language program, ʻĀhaʻi ʻŌlelo Ola , as recently as 2010. Additionally, the Sunday editions of the Honolulu Star-Advertiser , the largest newspaper in Hawaii, feature a brief article called Kauakukalahale written entirely in Hawaiian by teachers, students, and community members. Today, the number of native speakers of Hawaiian, which

573-444: A Petri dish. In areas where diatoms are abundant, the underlying sediment is rich in silica diatom tests, and is called diatomaceous earth . Radiolarians are planktonic protozoans (making them part of the zooplankton), that like diatoms, secrete a silica test. The test surrounds the cell and can include an array of small openings through which the radiolarian can extend an amoeba-like "arm" or pseudopod. Radiolarian tests often display

764-421: A change in conditions, such as a change in temperature, pressure, or pH, which reduces the amount of a substance that can remain in a dissolved state. There is not a lot of hydrogenous sediment in the ocean compared to lithogenous or biogenous sediments, but there are some interesting forms. In hydrothermal vents seawater percolates into the seafloor where it becomes superheated by magma before being expelled by

955-440: A critically endangered language. However, informal coercion to drop Hawaiian would not have worked by itself. Just as important was the fact that, in the same period, native Hawaiians were becoming a minority in their own land on account of the growing influx of foreign labourers and their children. Whereas in 1890 pure Hawaiian students made 56% of school enrollment, in 1900 their numbers were down to 32% and, in 1910, to 16.9%. At

1146-449: A few millimetres per million years. For that reason, they only form in areas where there are low rates of lithogenous or biogenous sediment accumulation, because any other sediment deposition would quickly cover the nodules and prevent further nodule growth. Therefore, manganese nodules are usually limited to areas in the central ocean, far from significant lithogenous or biogenous inputs, where they can sometimes accumulate in large numbers on

1337-408: A few millimetres to several tens of kilometres. Near the surface, the sea-floor sediments remain unconsolidated, but at depths of hundreds to thousands of metres (depending on the type of sediment and other factors) the sediment becomes lithified . The various sources of seafloor sediment can be summarized as follows:  The distributions of some of these materials around the seas are shown in

1528-795: A few weeks and three others within a year, but Oklahoma and Arizona were total losses. The weakened state of the US Pacific Fleet would allow the Japanese Navy to hold the initiative until the Guadalcanal Campaign eight months later. Enterprise launched aircraft to patrol Ford Island and search for Japanese carriers. Five American pilots returning from missions to hunt down the Japanese fleet were mistakenly shot down by Ford Island anti-aircraft gunners while attempting to land. The island's commanding officer said about

1719-443: A global scale. So cosmogenous and hydrogenous sediments can mostly be ignored in the discussion of global sediment patterns. Coarse lithogenous/terrigenous sediments are dominant near the continental margins as land runoff , river discharge , and other processes deposit vast amounts of these materials on the continental shelf . Much of this sediment remains on or near the shelf, while turbidity currents can transport material down

1910-505: A grammar of Hawaiian in which he made it clear that the glottal stop (calling it "guttural break") is definitely a true consonant of the Hawaiian language. He wrote it using an apostrophe. In 1922, the Andrews-Parker dictionary of Hawaiian made limited use of the opening single quote symbol, then called "reversed apostrophe" or "inverse comma", to represent the glottal stop. Subsequent dictionaries and written material associated with

2101-804: A high-explosive payload of 450 pounds (200 kg), of which 12 are thought to have found their targets: two in California , one in Nevada and a possible total of nine in Oklahoma and West Virginia ; the latter two ships sank within minutes of being hit. Horizontal bomber aircraft delivering armor-piercing bombs attacked as the last torpedo planes finished, and other horizontal and dive bombers came in later. The aircraft registered many direct hits and damaging near-misses, including two each on California , Maryland and Tennessee and several more on West Virginia . A bomb meant for California hit Hangar 6 on

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2292-478: A higher proportion of O18 isotope. This means the ratio of O16:O18 in shells is low during periods of colder climate. When climate warms, glacial ice melts releasing O16 from the ice and returning it to the oceans, increasing the O16:O18 ratio in the water. When organisms incorporate oxygen into their shells, the shells will contain a higher O16:O18 ratio. Scientists can therefore examine biogenous sediments, calculate

2483-586: A hyphen or dash written above a vowel, i.e., ā ē ī ō ū and Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū . It is used to show that the marked vowel is a "double", or "geminate", or "long" vowel, in phonological terms. (See: Vowel length ) As early as 1821, at least one of the missionaries, Hiram Bingham , was using macrons (and breves ) in making handwritten transcriptions of Hawaiian vowels. The missionaries specifically requested their sponsor in Boston to send them some type (fonts) with accented vowel characters, including vowels with macrons, but

2674-411: A large steel-and-wood hangar, two concrete hangars for seaplanes and flying boats, a supply warehouse, a machine shop, a photography laboratory and a powerhouse. In 1919, the field was named Luke Field after Frank Luke , a World War I ace and Medal of Honor recipient. The U.S. Army's introduction of aviation to Ford Island triggered expansion throughout Hawaii with the development of civilian airports,

2865-602: A laundry and a theater. At the height of World War II, over 40,000 people lived or worked on the island. Beginning in the 1930s, Imperial Japan attempted to expand its territory into China. Opposed to these aggressive actions, the United States, Britain , and the Netherlands froze Japanese assets and imposed economic restrictions which prohibited the exportation of aircraft fuel as well as steel and iron to Japan, affecting 90% of Japan's war production needs. Japan

3056-611: A major impact on the future of the language. He sailed to New England , where he eventually became a student at the Foreign Mission School in Cornwall, Connecticut . He inspired New Englanders to support a Christian mission to Hawaiʻi, and provided information on the Hawaiian language to the American missionaries there prior to their departure for Hawaiʻi in 1819. Adelbert von Chamisso too might have consulted with

3247-597: A mid-Pacific storm while it was being towed to the scrapyard. Nevada , California , West Virginia and the minelayer USS  Oglala were re-floated and salvaged by the Navy. The entire salvage operation took 20,000 man-hours underwater and 5,000 dives to recover human remains, weapons, ammunition and artifacts of historic or military importance. The US Pacific Fleet established the Fleet Intelligence Center, Pacific (FICPAC) on Ford Island by 1955 as

3438-576: A minor revision. The dictionary they produced, in 1957, introduced an era of gradual increase in attention to the language and culture. Language revitalization and Hawaiian culture has seen a major revival since the Hawaiian renaissance in the 1970s. Forming in 1983, the ʻAha Pūnana Leo , meaning "language nest" in Hawaiian, opened its first center in 1984. It was a privately funded Hawaiian preschool program that invited native Hawaiian elders to speak to children in Hawaiian every day. Efforts to promote

3629-422: A much faster rate, so they accumulate below their point of origin before the currents can disperse them. Most of the tests do not sink as individual particles; about 99% of them are first consumed by some other organism, and are then aggregated and expelled as large fecal pellets , which sink much more quickly and reach the ocean floor in only 10–15 days. This does not give the particles as much time to disperse, and

3820-515: A native speaker of Hawaiian in Berlin, Germany , before publishing his grammar of Hawaiian ( Über die Hawaiische Sprache ) in 1837. Like all natural spoken languages, the Hawaiian language was originally an oral language. The native people of the Hawaiian language relayed religion, traditions, history, and views of their world through stories that were handed down from generation to generation. One form of storytelling most commonly associated with

4011-479: A network of aqueducts from freshwater reservoirs, transported to Waipio by barge and then by rail to the mills. In 1902, the nearby estate of Bernice Pauahi Bishop lost a crucial lawsuit brought by the United States to purchase land around Pearl Harbor for below its market value. Although the Bishop estate valued the land at $ 600 per acre, the United States was only willing to pay $ 30 per acre. A jury determined that

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4202-425: A new Army airfield, Hickam Army Airfield , named after pioneer U.S. Army Air Corps pilot Lieutenant Colonel Horace Meek Hickam . From 1936 to 1940 Pan American flew its Clipper service into Ford Island, using it as a refueling stop between the United States and Asia . The Navy built a $ 25,000 boathouse, spent $ 579,565 on a new crew barracks and built a firehouse, water-supply and lighting systems. In June 1936

4393-492: A new phase in the development of Hawaiian. During the next forty years, the sounds of Spanish (1789), Russian (1804), French (1816), and German (1816) arrived in Hawaiʻi via other explorers and businessmen. Hawaiian began to be written for the first time, largely restricted to isolated names and words, and word lists collected by explorers and travelers. The early explorers and merchants who first brought European languages to

4584-509: A number of interlocking CaCO 3 plates (coccoliths) that form a sphere surrounding the cell. When coccolithophores die the individual plates sink out and form an ooze. Over time, the coccolithophore ooze lithifies to becomes chalk. The White Cliffs of Dover in England are composed of coccolithophore-rich ooze that turned into chalk deposits. Foraminiferans (also referred to as forams ) are protozoans whose tests are often chambered, similar to

4775-476: A number of rays protruding from their shells which aid in buoyancy. Oozes that are dominated by diatom or radiolarian tests are called siliceous oozes . Like the siliceous sediments, the calcium carbonate, or calcareous sediments are also produced from the tests of microscopic algae and protozoans; in this case the coccolithophores and foraminiferans. Coccolithophores are single-celled planktonic algae about 100 times smaller than diatoms. Their tests are composed of

4966-592: A significant role in publishing a vocabulary (1836), grammar (1854), and dictionary (1865) of Hawaiian. The Hawaiian Bible was fully completed in 1839; by then, the Mission had such a wide-reaching school network that, when in 1840 it handed it over to the Hawaiian government, the Hawaiian Legislature mandated compulsory state-funded education for all children under 14 years of age, including girls, twelve years before any similar compulsory education law

5157-478: A training ship, was also moored on the western side of the island and was sunk by torpedoes. A total of 58 officers and enlisted were killed and 461 survived. Attempts to use the same methods as "Oklahoma" to right the Utah were unsuccessful. There is now a memorial near the remains of the ship. The Japanese disabled all seven battleships on Battleship Row. Maryland , Tennessee and Pennsylvania were repaired in only

5348-494: A vowel. The Hawaiian alphabetical order has all of the vowels before the consonants, as in the following chart. This writing system was developed by American Protestant missionaries during 1820–1826. It was the first thing they ever printed in Hawaiʻi, on January 7, 1822, and it originally included the consonants B, D, R, T, and V, in addition to the current ones ( H, K, L, M, N, P, W ), and it had F, G, S, Y and Z for "spelling foreign words". The initial printing also showed

5539-507: A way to communicate among themselves. Pidgin eventually made its way off the plantation and into the greater community, where it is still used to this day. The Hawaiian language takes its name from the largest island in the Hawaiian archipelago, Hawaii ( Hawaiʻi in the Hawaiian language). The island name was first written in English in 1778 by British explorer James Cook and his crew members. They wrote it as "Owhyhee" or "Owhyee". It

5730-493: Is Palakila , but retaining "foreign letters" it is Barazila . Another example is Gibraltar , written as Kipalaleka or Gibaraleta . While [z] and [ɡ] are not regarded as Hawaiian sounds, [b] , [ɹ] , and [t] were represented in the original alphabet, so the letters ( b , r , and t ) for the latter are not truly "non-Hawaiian" or "foreign", even though their post-1826 use in published matter generally marked words of foreign origin. ʻOkina ( ʻoki 'cut' + -na '-ing')

5921-519: Is a Polynesian language and critically endangered language of the Austronesian language family that takes its name from Hawaiʻi , the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed . Hawaiian, along with English , is an official language of the US state of Hawaiʻi . King Kamehameha III established the first Hawaiian-language constitution in 1839 and 1840. In 1896,

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6112-434: Is a bioessential element and is efficiently recycled in the marine environment through the silica cycle . Distance from land masses, water depth and ocean fertility are all factors that affect the opal silica content in seawater and the presence of siliceous oozes. The term calcareous can be applied to a fossil, sediment, or sedimentary rock which is formed from, or contains a high proportion of, calcium carbonate in

6303-468: Is a combination of charter, public, and private schools. K–6 schools operate under coordinated governance of the Department of Education and the charter school, while the pre-K–12 laboratory system is governed by the Department of Education, the ʻAha Pūnana Leo , and the charter school. Over 80% of graduates from these laboratory schools attend college, some of which include Ivy-League schools. Hawaiian

6494-454: Is a common mineral in terrestrial rocks, and it is very hard and resistant to abrasion. Over time, particles made from other materials are worn away, leaving only quartz behind. Beach sand is a very mature sediment; it is composed primarily of quartz, and the particles are rounded and of similar size (well-sorted). Marine sediments can also classified by their source of origin. There are four types:  Lithogenous or terrigenous sediment

6685-403: Is a form of calcium carbonate derived from planktonic organisms that accumulates on the sea floor . This can only occur if the ocean is shallower than the carbonate compensation depth . Below this depth, calcium carbonate begins to dissolve in the ocean, and only non-calcareous sediments are stable, such as siliceous ooze or pelagic red clay . Where and how sediments accumulate will depend on

6876-777: Is a type of biogenic pelagic sediment located on the deep ocean floor . Siliceous oozes are the least common of the deep sea sediments, and make up approximately 15% of the ocean floor. Oozes are defined as sediments which contain at least 30% skeletal remains of pelagic microorganisms. Siliceous oozes are largely composed of the silica based skeletons of microscopic marine organisms such as diatoms and radiolarians . Other components of siliceous oozes near continental margins may include terrestrially derived silica particles and sponge spicules. Siliceous oozes are composed of skeletons made from opal silica Si(O 2 ) , as opposed to calcareous oozes , which are made from skeletons of calcium carbonate organisms (i.e. coccolithophores ). Silica (Si)

7067-483: Is another way to categorize sediment texture. Sorting refers to how uniform the particles are in terms of size. If all of the particles are of a similar size, such as in beach sand , the sediment is well-sorted. If the particles are of very different sizes, the sediment is poorly sorted, such as in glacial deposits . A third way to describe marine sediment texture is its maturity, or how long its particles have been transported by water. One way which can indicate maturity

7258-412: Is desired that another language shall be taught in addition to the English language, such instruction may be authorized by the Department, either by its rules, the curriculum of the school, or by direct order in any particular instance. Any schools that shall not conform to the provisions of this section shall not be recognized by the Department. This law established English as the medium of instruction for

7449-475: Is highly variable in composition. Seafloor sediment can range in thickness from a few millimetres to several tens of kilometres. Near the surface seafloor sediment remains unconsolidated, but at depths of hundreds to thousands of metres the sediment becomes lithified (turned to rock). Rates of sediment accumulation are relatively slow throughout most of the ocean, in many cases taking thousands of years for any significant deposits to form. Sediment transported from

7640-474: Is how round the particles are. The more mature a sediment the rounder the particles will be, as a result of being abraded over time. A high degree of sorting can also indicate maturity, because over time the smaller particles will be washed away, and a given amount of energy will move particles of a similar size over the same distance. Lastly, the older and more mature a sediment the higher the quartz content, at least in sediments derived from rock particles. Quartz

7831-465: Is more commonly spoken in Hawaiʻi than Hawaiian. Some linguists, as well as many locals, argue that Hawaiian Pidgin is a dialect of American English. Born from the increase of immigrants from Japan, China, Puerto Rico, Korea, Portugal, Spain and the Philippines, the pidgin creole language was a necessity in the plantations. Hawaiian and immigrant laborers as well as the luna , or overseers, found

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8022-413: Is now an authorized course in the Department of Education language curriculum, though not all schools offer the language. There are two kinds of Hawaiian-immersion medium schools: K–12 total Hawaiian-immersion schools, and grades 7–12 partial Hawaiian immersion schools, the later having some classes are taught in English and others are taught in Hawaiian. One of the main focuses of Hawaiian-medium schools

8213-414: Is primarily composed of small fragments of preexisting rocks that have made their way into the ocean. These sediments can contain the entire range of particle sizes, from microscopic clays to large boulders, and they are found almost everywhere on the ocean floor. Lithogenous sediments are created on land through the process of weathering, where rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller particles through

8404-583: Is pronounced. Elbert & Pukui's Hawaiian Grammar says "The glottal stop, ‘, is made by closing the glottis or space between the vocal cords, the result being something like the hiatus in English oh-oh ." As early as 1823, the missionaries made some limited use of the apostrophe to represent the glottal stop, but they did not make it a letter of the alphabet. In publishing the Hawaiian Bible, they used it to distinguish koʻu ('my') from kou ('your'). In 1864, William DeWitt Alexander published

8595-402: Is the modern Hawaiian name for the symbol (a letter) that represents the glottal stop . It was formerly known as ʻuʻina ("snap"). For examples of the ʻokina, consider the Hawaiian words Hawaiʻi and Oʻahu (often simply Hawaii and Oahu in English orthography). In Hawaiian, these words are pronounced [hʌˈʋʌi.ʔi] and [oˈʔʌ.hu] , and are written with an ʻokina where the glottal stop

8786-443: Is the most aberrant and the one most in need of study". They recognized that Niʻihauans can speak Hawaiian in substantially different ways. Their statements are based in part on some specific observations made by Newbrand (1951) . (See Hawaiian phonological processes ) Friction has developed between those on Niʻihau that speak Hawaiian as a first language, and those who speak Hawaiian as a second language, especially those educated by

8977-475: Is the older and larger of the two ferries, at 181 feet (55 m), with a capacity of 750 people and 33 vehicles. The other, Moko Holo Hele (meaning ' boat go back and forth ' ) was purchased for $ 1.1 million on May 25, 1970. At 162 feet (49 m), its capacity was 750 people and 42 vehicles. Both ferries were operated by US Navy personnel, and access to the island was restricted to US military personnel, their dependents and invited guests. In addition to

9168-489: Is the only area in the world where Hawaiian is the first language and English is a foreign language. The isolated island of Niʻihau , located off the southwest coast of Kauai , is the one island where Hawaiian (more specifically a local dialect of Hawaiian known as Niihau dialect ) is still spoken as the language of daily life. Elbert & Pukui (1979 :23) states that "[v]ariations in Hawaiian dialects have not been systematically studied", and that "[t]he dialect of Niʻihau

9359-534: Is the only college in the United States of America that offers a master's and doctorate's degree in an Indigenous language. Programs offered at The Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani College of Hawaiian Language are known collectively as the "Hilo model" and has been imitated by the Cherokee immersion program and several other Indigenous revitalization programs. Since 1921, the University of Hawaiʻi at Manoa and all of

9550-465: Is thought to have come from river discharge, particularly from Asia. Most of this sediment, especially the larger particles, will be deposited and remain fairly close to the coastline, however, smaller clay particles may remain suspended in the water column for long periods of time and may be transported great distances from the source. Wind: Windborne (aeolian) transport can take small particles of sand and dust and move them thousands of kilometres from

9741-410: Is to teach the form and structure of the Hawaiian language by modeling sentences as a "pepeke", meaning squid in Hawaiian. In this case the pepeke is a metaphor that features the body of a squid with the three essential parts: the poʻo (head), the ʻawe (tentacles) and the piko (where the poʻo and ʻawe meet) representing how a sentence is structured. The poʻo represents the predicate, the piko representing

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9932-429: Is very resistant to abrasion, so it is a dominant component of lithogenous sediments, including sand. Biogenous sediments come from the remains of living organisms that settle out as sediment when the organisms die. It is the "hard parts" of the organisms that contribute to the sediments; things like shells, teeth or skeletal elements, as these parts are usually mineralized and are more resistant to decomposition than

10123-403: Is written "Oh-Why-hee" on the first map of Sandwich Islands engraved by Tobias Conrad Lotter  [ de ] in 1781. Explorers Mortimer (1791) and Otto von Kotzebue (1821) used that spelling. The initial "O" in the name "Oh-Why-hee" is a reflection of the fact that Hawaiian predicates unique identity by using a copula form, ʻo , immediately before a proper noun. Thus, in Hawaiian,

10314-729: The College of Hawaiian Language at the University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo . The university sponsors a Hawaiian Language Lexicon Committee ( Kōmike Huaʻōlelo Hou ) which coins words for concepts that historically have not existed in the language, like "computer" and "cell phone". These words are generally not incorporated into the Niʻihau dialect, which often coins its own words organically. Some new words are Hawaiianized versions of English words, and some are composed of Hawaiian roots and unrelated to English sounds. The Hawaiian medium education system

10505-614: The Hawaiian Historical Society believe that the island was given to Francisco de Paula Marín on February 9, 1818, and later named after him for his assistance in providing weapons used by Kamehameha I to conquer the island of Oʻahu . However, Marín wrote in an 1809 journal entry that he was given the island and its adjacent fishing waters as early as 1791. He used the land to raise sheep, hogs, goats and rabbits as provisions for ships, and grew plants and vegetables which he had imported. In 1825, Admiral George Byron,

10696-604: The Pearl Harbor National Memorial sites at Pearl Harbor and Ford Island. Ancient Hawaiians called the island Mokuʻumeʻume ("isle of attraction" or "island of strife"), after the ceremony ( ʻume ) held during the Makahiki festival for married couples who were having difficulty conceiving children. In the Hawaiian language the word moku means to cut or sever in two, as well as an island or inlet. The word ʻume means to draw, attract or entice and

10887-586: The Republic of Hawaii passed Act 57, an English-only law which subsequently banned Hawaiian language as the medium on instruction from publicly funded schools and promoted strict physical punishment for children caught speaking the Hawaiian language in schools. The Hawaiian language was not again allowed to be used as a medium of instruction in Hawai’i’s public schools until 1987, a span of 91 years. The number of native speakers of Hawaiian gradually decreased during

11078-472: The United States Navy to deepen the harbor. The island was the site of an ancient Hawaiian fertility ritual, which was stopped by Christian missionaries during the 1830s. The island was given by Kamehameha I to Spanish deserter Francisco de Paula Marín , and later returned to the monarchy . After the island was bought at auction by James Isaac Dowsett and sold to Caroline Jackson, it became

11269-630: The Vietnam War escalated and an additional intelligence branch was needed in addition to the one in Guam . With little other use of the island, as naval and air operations were moved to facilities on the side of the Pearl Harbor previously owned by the Bishop estate, the Navy decommissioned Naval Air Station Ford Island in 1966. The island continued to be controlled by the Navy as a sub-component of Naval Station Pearl Harbor. On February 20, 1970,

11460-423: The continental margins where they can be over 10 km thick. This is because the crust near passive continental margins is often very old, allowing for a long period of accumulation, and because there is a large amount of terrigenous sediment input coming from the continents. Near mid-ocean ridge systems where new oceanic crust is being formed, sediments are thinner, as they have had less time to accumulate on

11651-421: The diatoms (algae) and the radiolarians ( protozoans ). Diatoms are particularly important members of the phytoplankton, functioning as small, drifting algal photosynthesizers. A diatom consists of a single algal cell surrounded by an elaborate silica shell that it secretes for itself. Diatoms come in a range of shapes, from elongated, pennate forms, to round, or centric shapes that often have two halves, like

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11842-435: The start of this article ↑ shows the distribution of the major types of sediment on the ocean floor. Cosmogenous sediments could potentially end up in any part of the ocean, but they accumulate in such small abundances that they are overwhelmed by other sediment types and thus are not dominant in any location. Similarly, hydrogenous sediments can have high concentrations in specific locations, but these regions are very small on

12033-610: The #2 barracks. The island's gasoline tank was emptied and refilled with water; trenches were dug, and buildings camouflaged. Its runway was cleared of over three tons of scrap metal in two hours. The Marines who had picked up rifles for guard duty were tasked with feeding and clothing the soldiers and sailors. Twenty prisoners from the island's brig were marched to the Marine barracks and put to work without incident; some received commuted sentences for their efforts. That evening, Hawaiians were instructed to observe an indoor blackout , stay off

12224-488: The $ 50 million 16-acre (6.5 ha) Pacific Aviation Museum . Plans included 500 homes for Navy personnel, a child-development center and a Navy lodge. In planning the island's development, the Navy considered its operational needs and the island's historic value. However, the National Trust for Historic Preservation considered the Navy's communication style more directive rather than collaborative, restricting

12415-431: The 12-month period ending March 4, 1998, the airport had 39,992 aircraft operations, an average of 110 per day: 98 percent general aviation and two percent military . On July 1, 1999, all military and civilian general-aviation activity at NALF Ford Island ended when NAS Barbers Point was closed in a BRAC action and became the present civilian Kalaeloa Airport and Coast Guard Air Station Barbers Point . The new airport

12606-603: The 1910s to the 1940s, the island continued to grow as a strategic center of operations for the U.S. Navy in the Pacific Ocean. Ford Island was at the center of the attack on Pearl Harbor and on the U.S. Pacific Fleet by the Imperial Japanese fleet on December 7, 1941. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964, and the National Trust for Historic Preservation listed the island as one of

12797-452: The 1930s, the Navy contracted a $ 1.5 million dredging of Pearl Harbor to allow larger battleships and the fleet's carriers to enter it. Work began in May 1940 resulting in 13,000,000 cubic yards (9,900,000 m) of material dredged from the opening of Pearl Harbor to build a channel to Ford Island as well as to create a turning channel around the island. Material was also dredged to deepen

12988-465: The 4,000-foot (1,200 m) runway at NALF Ford Island was opened to civilian flight training operations, primarily local Army, Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps flying clubs. Itinerant military helicopter training activities also continued at NALF Ford Island during this period. Hawaii (which achieved statehood in 1959) contracted with the US Navy to allow touch-and-go landings until 1972, when the airfield

13179-513: The 7th Baron Byron arrived, commanding HMS  Blonde , to return the remains of Kamehameha II and Queen Kamāmalu after their deaths in England of Measles . While on Oahu, he would map the Pearl River (known today as Pearl Harbor ). The ship's naturalist, Andrew Bloxam, spent time on Ford Island hunting rabbits and wild ducks; its surveyor, Lieutenant Charles Robert Malden , called it Rabbits Island . In 1826, Hiram Paulding became

13370-470: The Bahamas. Methane hydrates are another type of hydrogenous deposit with a potential industrial application. All terrestrial erosion products include a small proportion of organic matter derived mostly from terrestrial plants. Tiny fragments of this material plus other organic matter from marine plants and animals accumulate in terrigenous sediments, especially within a few hundred kilometres of shore. As

13561-442: The Hawaiian and Society Islands. Jack H. Ward (1962) conducted a study using basic words and short utterances to determine the level of comprehension between different Polynesian languages. The mutual intelligibility of Hawaiian was found to be 41.2% with Marquesan, 37.5% with Tahitian, 25.5% with Samoan and 6.4% with Tongan. In 1778, British explorer James Cook made Europe's initial, recorded first contact with Hawaiʻi, beginning

13752-453: The Hawaiian islands also took on a few native crew members who brought the Hawaiian language into new territory. Hawaiians took these nautical jobs because their traditional way of life changed due to plantations, and although there were not enough of these Hawaiian-speaking explorers to establish any viable speech communities abroad, they still had a noticeable presence. One of them, a boy in his teens known as Obookiah ( ʻŌpūkahaʻia ), had

13943-546: The Hawaiian islands is hula . Nathaniel B. Emerson notes that "It kept the communal imagination in living touch with the nation's legendary past". The islanders' connection with their stories is argued to be one reason why Captain James Cook received a pleasant welcome. Marshall Sahlins has observed that Hawaiian folktales began bearing similar content to those of the Western world in the eighteenth century. He argues this

14134-471: The Hawaiian language revitalization have preferred to use this symbol, the ʻokina , to better represent spoken Hawaiian. Nonetheless, excluding the ʻokina may facilitate interface with English-oriented media, or even be preferred stylistically by some Hawaiian speakers, in homage to 19th century written texts. So there is variation today in the use of this symbol. The ʻokina is written in various ways for electronic uses: Because many people who want to write

14325-503: The Hawaiian language was accelerated by the coup that overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy and dethroned the existing Hawaiian queen. Thereafter, a law was instituted that required English as the main language of school instruction. The law cited is identified as Act 57, sec. 30 of the 1896 Laws of the Republic of Hawaiʻi: The English Language shall be the medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools, provided that where it

14516-813: The John Papa ʻĪʻī estate to build 6-inch (15 cm) gun batteries: Battery Boyd and Battery Henry Adair. In 1917, the John Papa ʻĪʻī estate agreed to sell part of the Island to the United States for construction of an airfield, despite the Oahu Sugar Company complaining in court that the sale would hurt their business. In 1917, the 6th Aero Squadron was created in Honolulu , with Captain John F. Currey as its commander. Although 50 were assigned, only 49 arrived; one deserted en route. Currey chose Ford Island as

14707-668: The Mediterranean Sea. Beginning around 6 million years ago, tectonic processes closed off the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic, and the warm climate evaporated so much water that the Mediterranean was almost completely dried out, leaving large deposits of salt in its place (an event known as the Messinian Salinity Crisis ). Eventually the Mediterranean re-flooded about 5.3 million years ago, and

14898-704: The NTHP's ability to share their concerns, and in 2001 designated Ford Island one of its 11 most-endangered sites. Although the Navy's plans included preserving important hangars, the control tower and seaplane ramps, they failed to protect the existing runway and 1920s housing and did not address preserving bullet holes on the seaplane ramps. As hoped by the Trust, after the designation the Navy agreed to delay development of some of these items until an agreement could be reached. Hawaiian language Hawaiian ( ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi , pronounced [ʔoːˈlɛlo həˈvɐjʔi] )

15089-424: The Navy lengthened the island's landing field by 400 feet (120 m), to 3,000 feet (910 m). In March 1937 Amelia Earhart , on her second visit to Luke Field, crashed her Lockheed Electra on takeoff. In 1939, after three years of construction, Hickam Field opened. The Army transferred its operations there, leaving Luke Field under Navy control. The latter was renamed Naval Air Station Ford Island, and became

15280-550: The O16:O18 ratios for samples of known ages, and from those ratios, infer the climate conditions under which those shells were formed. The same types of measurements can also be taken from ice cores; a decrease of 1 ppm O18 between ice samples represents a decrease in temperature of 1.5°C. The primary sources of microscopic biogenous sediments are unicellular algaes and protozoans (single-celled amoeba-like creatures) that secrete tests of either calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) or silica (SiO 2 ). Silica tests come from two main groups,

15471-596: The Oahu Sugar Cane Plantation) leased about 300 acres (120 ha) from the John Papa ʻĪʻī estate (after their purchase of the island in 1891) to harvest sugar in 1899. The business was successful, and the company sublet land from Benjamin Dillingham on the Waipi'o peninsula (southeast of present Waipio ) to build a 12-roller mill and railroad. Sugarcane was grown and harvested on Ford Island with

15662-788: The U.S. and abroad at the USS Arizona memorial and the USS Missouri museum . Ford Island is inside Pearl Harbor, South Oʻahu of the Hawaiian Islands. Pearl Harbor is divided into three large bodies of water: the West Loch, Middle Loch and East Loch, with Ford Island in the center of the East Loch. It is 1.5 miles (2.4 km) long and 0.75 miles (1.21 km) wide, and was enlarged from 334 to 441 acres (135 to 178 ha) between 1930 and 1940 with landfill dredged from

15853-536: The U.S. strategic center in the Pacific consisted of the seven battleships moored along Battleship Row and the six pairs of interrupted quays along the east side of Ford Island. Quay F-2 (the southernmost), which usually berthed an aircraft carrier, was empty. The Pacific Fleet flagship California was moored northeastward, at F-3. Side by side with Maryland was Oklahoma (outboard), followed by Tennessee with West Virginia outboard. Behind Tennessee

16044-566: The U.S., and Kamehameha III sought reciprocity. As early as 1873, a United States military commission recommended attempting to obtain Ford Island in exchange for the tax-free importation of sugar to the U.S. At that time Major General John Schofield , U.S. commander of the military division of the Pacific, and Brevet Brigadier General Burton S. Alexander arrived in Hawaii to ascertain its defensive capabilities. U.S. control of Hawaii

16235-685: The United States Congress agreed to seven years of reciprocity in exchange for Ford Island. At the end of the seven-year reciprocity agreement, the United States showed little interest in renewal. On January 20, 1887, the United States began leasing Pearl Harbor. Shortly afterwards, a group of mostly non-Hawaiians calling themselves the Hawaiian Patriotic League began the Rebellion of 1887 . They drafted their own constitution on July 6, 1887. The new constitution

16426-512: The United States still seemed uninterested in reciprocity, he threatened to forge more favorable export agreements with Australia or New Zealand. Congress feared that a treaty between Hawaii and Australia or New Zealand would result in annexation by one of those countries instead of the United States. Although Kalākaua was loath to give any foreign country land in Hawaii, he signed the treaty in September 1887. The Oahu Sugar Company (also known as

16617-706: The United States' most-endangered historic sites. By the late 1990s, hundreds of millions of dollars had been invested in real estate development and infrastructure on and around Ford Island, including a new bridge, the Admiral Clarey Bridge . The island continues to serve an active role in the Pacific, hosting military functions at the Pacific Warfighting Center and civilian functions at NOAA 's Pacific Tsunami Warning Center . The island has been featured in films such as Tora! Tora! Tora! and Pearl Harbor and receives tourists from

16808-541: The University of Hawaiʻi Community Colleges also offer Hawaiian language courses to students for credit. The university now also offers free online courses not for credit, along with a few other websites and apps such as Duolingo . Hawaiians had no written language prior to Western contact, except for petroglyph symbols. The modern Hawaiian alphabet, ka pīʻāpā Hawaiʻi , is based on the Latin script . Hawaiian words end only in vowels, and every consonant must be followed by

16999-441: The West Loch, East Loch, and Middle Loch for the mooring of battleships. With dredged material used as land fill, the island's size was increased from 334 acres (135 ha) to 441 acres (178 ha). The Navy replaced its PK, F5L, and H16 aircraft with newer models (see table below). In 1933 VP-8F arrived on station, and in 1935 the army bombers had become too large to be maintained and stored at Luke Field. Construction began on

17190-405: The action of wind, rain, water flow, temperature- or ice-induced cracking, and other erosive processes. These small eroded particles are then transported to the oceans through a variety of mechanisms:  Streams and rivers: Various forms of runoff deposit large amounts of sediment into the oceans, mostly in the form of finer-grained particles. About 90% of the lithogenous sediment in the oceans

17381-448: The amount of material coming from a source, the distance from the source, the amount of time that sediment has had to accumulate, how well the sediments are preserved, and the amounts of other types of sediments that are also being added to the system. Rates of sediment accumulation are relatively slow throughout most of the ocean, in many cases taking thousands of years for any significant deposits to form. Lithogenous sediment accumulates

17572-644: The archipelago in roughly 300 CE followed by later waves of immigration from the Society Islands and Samoa - Tonga . Their languages, over time, became the Hawaiian language within the Hawaiian Islands. Kimura and Wilson (1983) also state: Linguists agree that Hawaiian is closely related to Eastern Polynesian, with a particularly strong link in the Southern Marquesas, and a secondary link in Tahiti, which may be explained by voyaging between

17763-403: The atmosphere that eventually settle back down to Earth and contribute to the sediments. Like spherules, meteor debris is mostly silica or iron and nickel. One form of debris from these collisions are tektites , which are small droplets of glass. They are likely composed of terrestrial silica that was ejected and melted during a meteorite impact, which then solidified as it cooled upon returning to

17954-407: The attackers. Some of these search planes were again shot down on their return by friendly fire from the Ford Island defense, which was on high alert. In addition to Battleship Row and the island's naval field, the fixed moorings on the western side of Ford Island (capable of securing battleships or aircraft carriers) were high-priority targets. Just west of the island, the seaplane tender Curtiss

18145-400: The bottom! Given that slow descent, a current of only 1 cm/sec could carry the test as much as 15,000 km away from its point of origin before it reaches the bottom. Despite this, the sediments in a particular location are well-matched to the types of organisms and degree of productivity that occurs in the water overhead. This means the sediment particles must be sinking to the bottom at

18336-420: The bottom. While calcite is insoluble in surface water, its solubility increases with depth (and pressure) and at around 4,000 m, the carbonate fragments dissolve. This depth, which varies with latitude and water temperature, is known as the carbonate compensation depth . As a result, carbonate oozes are absent from the deepest parts of the ocean (deeper than 4,000 m), but they are common in shallower areas such as

18527-492: The climate-change implications of its extraction and use can see that this would be folly. Cosmogenous sediment is derived from extraterrestrial sources, and comes in two primary forms; microscopic spherules and larger meteor debris. Spherules are composed mostly of silica or iron and nickel, and are thought to be ejected as meteors burn up after entering the atmosphere. Meteor debris comes from collisions of meteorites with Earth. These high impact collisions eject particles into

18718-409: The coccolithophores that also produced calcium carbonate tests. Discoaster tests were star-shaped, and reached sizes of 5-40 μm across. Discoasters went extinct approximately 2 million years ago, but their tests remain in deep, tropical sediments that predate their extinction. Because of their small size, these tests sink very slowly; a single microscopic test may take about 10–50 years to sink to

18909-427: The contaminated soil with topsoil and erosion-resistant vegetation (including Bermuda grass ). The containment system was completed in 1996. The wildlife on Ford Island is likely very similar to that on Naval Station Pearl Harbor . Wildlife is sparse and dominated by invasive species such as the house mouse , mongoose , brown rat , black rat , house sparrow , Java sparrow and common mynah . An endangered owl,

19100-453: The continental shelf and reach the deep ocean floor. Lithogenous sediments usually reflect the composition of whatever materials they were derived from, so they are dominated by the major minerals that make up most terrestrial rock. This includes quartz, feldspar, clay minerals, iron oxides, and terrestrial organic matter. Quartz (silicon dioxide, the main component of glass) is one of the most common minerals found in nearly all rocks, and it

19291-411: The creation of a standard spelling that should be as easy to master as possible. The orthography created by the missionaries was so straightforward that literacy spread very quickly among the adult population; at the same time, the Mission set more and more schools for children. In 1834, the first Hawaiian-language newspapers were published by missionaries working with locals. The missionaries also played

19482-633: The creation of the Hawaii chapter of the National Aeronautic Association , and a national flying code. The Navy decided that a Hawaiian base was a necessity, considering the Army field at Ford Island an ideal candidate. Naval Air Station Pearl Harbor, consisting of nine officers and fifty-five men, was commissioned on December 19, 1919. Although the Navy attempted to displace the Army from the island and designate it solely for naval use, U.S. Secretary of War Newton D. Baker divided

19673-548: The deepest parts of the ocean, and most of this clay is terrestrial in origin. Siliceous oozes (derived from radiolaria and diatoms) are common in the south polar region, along the equator in the Pacific, south of the Aleutian Islands, and within large parts of the Indian Ocean. Carbonate oozes are widely distributed in all of the oceans within equatorial and mid-latitude regions. In fact, clay settles everywhere in

19864-438: The department. Hawaiian was not taught initially in any school, including the all-Hawaiian Kamehameha Schools . This is largely because when these schools were founded, like Kamehameha Schools founded in 1887 (nine years before this law), Hawaiian was being spoken in the home. Once this law was enacted, individuals at these institutions took it upon themselves to enforce a ban on Hawaiian. Beginning in 1900, Mary Kawena Pukui , who

20055-440: The diagram at the start of this article ↑ . Terrigenous sediments predominate near the continents and within inland seas and large lakes. These sediments tend to be relatively coarse, typically containing sand and silt, but in some cases even pebbles and cobbles. Clay settles slowly in nearshore environments, but much of the clay is dispersed far from its source areas by ocean currents. Clay minerals are predominant over wide areas in

20246-445: The dredging. Its volcanic material is Aeolian ash , weathered tuff and basalt . Ford Island proper is a coral outcrop. There are two smaller islets near the island: Mokunui and Mokuiki. In 1991, the Navy discovered nine metals, two semi-volatile organic compounds and a polychlorinated biphenyl in Ford Island's soil , groundwater and marine sediment . Suspected sources were nine 225,000-U.S.-gallon (850-cubic-meter) fuel tanks on

20437-438: The earth. In turn, molten material from the interior returns to the surface of the earth in the form of lava flows and emissions from deep sea hydrothermal vents , ensuring the process continues indefinitely. The sediments provide habitat for a multitude of marine life , particularly of marine microorganisms . Their fossilized remains contain information about past climates , plate tectonics , ocean circulation patterns, and

20628-438: The east-central side of the island (from 1924 to 1954), a 4.4-acre (1.8 ha) landfill on the southwestern shore (from 1930 to 1960) and ordnance bunkers on the northeastern side. An investigation suggested covering the contaminated areas with clean soil. In 1994, the Navy considered removing the contaminated soil and installed six wells to monitor groundwater, but decided to follow the original recommendation in 1995 and capped

20819-585: The efforts of Hawaiian and immigrant parents to maintain their ancestral languages within the family. In 1949, the legislature of the Territory of Hawaiʻi commissioned Mary Pukui and Samuel Elbert to write a new dictionary of Hawaiian, either revising the Andrews-Parker work or starting from scratch. Pukui and Elbert took a middle course, using what they could from the Andrews dictionary, but making certain improvements and additions that were more significant than

21010-445: The endemic pueo (a subspecies of the short-eared owl ), has been seen hunting on the island. Nearly all the plant life on the island is non-native, including edible cacti from California introduced in the late 1700s by Francisco de Paula Marín. The island's harbor was important to ancient Hawaiians for its ample supply of fish, including mullet , milkfish and Hawaiian anchovy . The National Park Service oversees and administers

21201-423: The exception of Niʻihau). Thus, even pure Hawaiian children would converse daily with their schoolmates of diverse mother tongues in English, which was now not just the teachers' language but also the common language needed for everyday communication among friends and neighbours out of school as well. In only a generation English (or rather Pidgin) would become the primary and dominant language of all children, despite

21392-425: The extraction of these non-renewable resources. Evaporites are hydrogenous sediments that form when seawater evaporates, leaving the dissolved materials to precipitate into solids, particularly halite (salt, NaCl). In fact, the evaporation of seawater is the oldest form of salt production for human use, and is still carried out today. Large deposits of halite evaporites exist in a number of places, including under

21583-557: The fastest, on the order of one metre or more per thousand years for coarser particles. However, sedimentation rates near the mouths of large rivers with high discharge can be orders of magnitude higher. Biogenous oozes accumulate at a rate of about 1 cm per thousand years, while small clay particles are deposited in the deep ocean at around one millimetre per thousand years. As described above, manganese nodules have an incredibly slow rate of accumulation, gaining 0.001 millimetres per thousand years. Marine sediments are thickest near

21774-404: The first American naval officer to visit the island. Marín's ownership claim to the island was cloudy; Hawaiians generally refused to recognize land ownership by foreigners. Kamehameha II believed that the island had been loaned to Marín and by the 1850s the island was split between Kamehameha IV —who purchased 214 acres (87 ha)—and High Chiefess Kekauōnohi , granddaughter of Kamehameha I, who

21965-422: The five vowel letters ( A, E, I, O, U ) and seven of the short diphthongs ( AE, AI, AO, AU, EI, EU, OU ). In 1826, the developers voted to eliminate some of the letters which represented functionally redundant allophones (called "interchangeable letters"), enabling the Hawaiian alphabet to approach the ideal state of one-symbol-one- phoneme , and thereby optimizing the ease with which people could teach and learn

22156-464: The fleshy "soft parts" that rapidly deteriorate after death. Macroscopic sediments contain large remains, such as skeletons, teeth, or shells of larger organisms. This type of sediment is fairly rare over most of the ocean, as large organisms do not die in enough of a concentrated abundance to allow these remains to accumulate. One exception is around coral reefs ; here there is a great abundance of organisms that leave behind their remains, in particular

22347-415: The form of calcite or aragonite . Calcareous sediments ( limestone ) are usually deposited in shallow water near land, since the carbonate is precipitated by marine organisms that need land-derived nutrients. Generally speaking, the farther from land sediments fall, the less calcareous they are. Some areas can have interbedded calcareous sediments due to storms, or changes in ocean currents. Calcareous ooze

22538-562: The fragments of the stony skeletons of corals that make up a large percentage of tropical sand. Microscopic sediment consists of the hard parts of microscopic organisms, particularly their shells, or tests . Although very small, these organisms are highly abundant and as they die by the billions every day their tests sink to the bottom to create biogenous sediments. Sediments composed of microscopic tests are far more abundant than sediments from macroscopic particles, and because of their small size they create fine-grained, mushy sediment layers. If

22729-405: The friendly-fire losses, "Somebody let fly and I never saw so many bullets in the air in my life and never expect to ... all tracer bullets at night." After the attack, ROTC cadets from the University of Hawaii were assigned to active duty guarding strategic buildings. Because of the island's lack of fresh water and electric power to the dispensary, a temporary hospital had to be set up at

22920-534: The god Lono's return at the time of the Makahiki festival. In 1820, Protestant missionaries from New England arrived in Hawaiʻi, and in a few years converted the chiefs to Congregational Protestantism, who in turn converted their subjects. To the missionaries, the thorough Christianization of the kingdom necessitated a complete translation of the Bible to Hawaiian, a previously unwritten language, and therefore

23111-435: The goddess Kaʻahupahau killed a girl on the island; remorseful, she then proclaimed a law forbidding further killing. Kaʻahupa-hau's brother Kahiʻuka (sometimes referred to by historians as her son, Ku-maninini) was said to live in an underwater cavern off Ford Island with Kanekuaʻana , a giant water lizard which supplied food to the people of ʻEwa Beach . Although no historical records provide an exact date, researchers at

23302-416: The government-recognized schools both "public and private". While it did not ban or make illegal the Hawaiian language in other contexts, its implementation in the schools had far-reaching effects. Those who had been pushing for English-only schools took this law as licence to extinguish the native language at the early education level. While the law did not make Hawaiian illegal (it was still commonly spoken at

23493-419: The halite deposits were covered by other sediments, but they still remain beneath the seafloor. Oolites are small, rounded grains formed from concentric layers of precipitation of material around a suspended particle. They are usually composed of calcium carbonate, but they may also from phosphates and other materials. Accumulation of oolites results in oolitic sand, which is found in its greatest abundance in

23684-483: The harbor from the island. After the naval hangars were commissioned on January 17, 1923, by Lieutenant Commander John Rodgers , the detachment moved onto Ford Island and received Naval Aircraft Factory TS , Felixstowe F5L , Curtiss H-16 , Keystone PK-1 and Douglas DT type aircraft. To accommodate ship berthing the Navy built a concrete-and-stone quay around the entire island, and in 1926, they received Vought FU , Vought VE-7 and Vought VE-9 biplanes . During

23875-462: The headquarters of Patrol Wing 2 ; its former namesake was re-honored with a new base, Luke Air Force Base in Arizona . A September 8, 1939, presidential emergency proclamation spurred the rapid construction of new facilities to prepare the island for additional operations. This included additional barracks, a new assembly and repair hangar, an administration building, a dispensary, a control tower,

24066-454: The island at 07:57 local time, prompting the historic dispatch: "Air Raid, Pearl Harbor—this is no drill." The battleships ringing Ford Island were the Japanese attackers' primary targets. Twenty-four of the forty Japanese torpedo planes were assigned to attack Battleship Row, and five more came over to that side of Ford Island after failing to find battleships in other parts of the harbor. The planes carried 29 Type 91 aerial torpedoes , each with

24257-422: The island equally between the military branches. The Army received the west side of the island, and the Navy the southeastern side. Lieutenant Commander Robert D. Kirk-Patrick was sent to establish a naval station on the island with four airplanes and fifty-five men. Kirk-Patrick's men had two Curtiss HS2L flying boats and two N-9 planes salvaged from World War I, which they stored in two large canvas hangars across

24448-476: The island, Enterprise , and the planes. However, he reported that although he attempted to communicate with Enterprise by radio from Ford Island, the communications systems there were inadequate, and he attributed the friendly fire to ineffective radio communications. After attempting to notify as many ships and anti-aircraft batteries as possible, several planes from Enterprise and others from Ford Island's complement were again airborne within hours to search for

24639-412: The island, igniting it. Additional bombs hit Hangar 38 (a dud), the dispensary courtyard (leaving a large crater) and the road outside the repair-and-assembly hangar. Only one man, Theodore Wheeler Croft, was killed on the island while standing guard duty. The bombers' most notable success was Arizona . A bomb exploded near the forward magazines, triggering a catastrophic explosion which immediately sank

24830-513: The isotopes). O16 is the most common form, followed by O18 (O17 is rare). O16 is lighter than O18, so it evaporates more easily, leading to water vapor that has a higher proportion of O16. During periods of cooler climate, water vapor condenses into rain and snow, which forms glacial ice that has a high proportion of O16. The remaining seawater therefore has a relatively higher proportion of O18. Marine organisms which incorporate dissolved oxygen into their shells as calcium carbonate will have shells with

25021-431: The land accumulates the fastest, on the order of one metre or more per thousand years for coarser particles. However, sedimentation rates near the mouths of large rivers with high discharge can be orders of magnitude higher. Biogenous oozes accumulate at a rate of about one centimetre per thousand years, while small clay particles are deposited in the deep ocean at around one millimetre per thousand years. Sediments from

25212-401: The land are deposited on the continental margins by surface runoff , river discharge , and other processes. Turbidity currents can transport this sediment down the continental slope to the deep ocean floor. The deep ocean floor undergoes its own process of spreading out from the mid-ocean ridge, and then slowly subducts accumulated sediment on the deep floor into the molten interior of

25403-486: The land to the sea, mainly by rivers but also by dust carried by wind and by the flow of glaciers into the sea, or they are biogenic deposits from marine organisms or from chemical precipitation in seawater, as well as from underwater volcanoes and meteorite debris. Except within a few kilometres of a mid-ocean ridge , where the volcanic rock is still relatively young, most parts of the seafloor are covered in sediment . This material comes from several different sources and

25594-401: The land would be sold to the United States at $ 75 per acre. Facing a similar lawsuit and interest in its land on Ford Island, the John Papa ʻĪʻī estate settled with the United States to deed twenty-five acres at no cost. In exchange, the U.S. dropped its suit for the entire island. The military leased sections of the north and south sides of the island—25.83 acres (10.45 ha) for $ 3,000—from

25785-460: The language have increased in recent decades. Hawaiian-language "immersion" schools are now open to children whose families want to reintroduce the Hawaiian language for future generations. The ʻAha Pūnana Leo 's Hawaiian language preschools in Hilo, Hawaii , have received international recognition. The local National Public Radio station features a short segment titled "Hawaiian word of the day" and

25976-489: The language was "soon destined to extinction." When Hawaiian King David Kalākaua took a trip around the world, he brought his native language with him. When his wife, Queen Kapiʻolani , and his sister, Princess (later Queen) Liliʻuokalani , took a trip across North America and on to the British Islands, in 1887, Liliʻuokalani's composition " Aloha ʻOe " was already a famous song in the U.S. The decline of

26167-430: The language. Public Hawaiian-language immersion preschools called Pūnana Leo were established in 1984; other immersion schools followed soon after that. The first students to start in immersion preschool have now graduated from college and many are fluent Hawaiian speakers. However, the language is still classified as critically endangered by UNESCO. A creole language , Hawaiian Pidgin (or Hawaii Creole English, HCE),

26358-426: The largest with grain diameters of 256 mm or larger. Among other things, grain size represents the conditions under which the sediment was deposited. High energy conditions, such as strong currents or waves, usually results in the deposition of only the larger particles as the finer ones will be carried away. Lower energy conditions will allow the smaller particles to settle out and form finer sediments. Sorting

26549-499: The location for the new squadron and bought it from the John Papa ʻĪʻī land trust for $ 236,000, citing its access to water and winds as assets. When Currey was transferred to Washington , command of the squadron was given to Captain John B. Brooks and then Major Hugh J. Knerr , who built hangars and a runway. Early soldiers had to level the island, removing hills and boulders. All housing and major hangars were completed in 1918, including

26740-606: The lochs, although his wife, Bernice Pauahi Bishop , privately disapproved of selling Hawaiian lands. As monarch, William Charles Lunalilo , was content to let Bishop run almost all business affairs but the ceding of lands would become unpopular with the native Hawaiians. Many islanders thought that all the islands, rather than just Pearl Harbor, might be lost and opposed any cession of land. By November 1873, Lunalilo canceled negotiations and returned to drinking, against his doctor's advice; his health declined swiftly, and he died on February 3, 1874. Lunalilo left no heirs. The legislature

26931-622: The low temperatures typical of the seafloor (close to 4 °C), water and methane combine to create a substance known as methane hydrate. Within a few metres to hundreds of metres of the seafloor, the temperature is low enough for methane hydrate to be stable and hydrates accumulate within the sediment. Methane hydrate is flammable because when it is heated, the methane is released as a gas. The methane within seafloor sediments represents an enormous reservoir of fossil fuel energy. Although energy corporations and governments are anxious to develop ways to produce and sell this methane, anyone that understands

27122-660: The mid-Atlantic ridge, the East Pacific Rise (west of South America), along the trend of the Hawaiian/Emperor Seamounts (in the northern Pacific), and on the tops of many isolated seamounts. Sediment texture can be examined in several ways. The first way is grain size . Sediments can be classified by particle size according to the Wentworth scale . Clay sediments are the finest with a grain diameter of less than .004 mm and boulders are

27313-442: The mouth of Pearl Harbor(blocking the entire harbor), the decision was made to run Nevada aground at "Hospital Point". Several planes from the aircraft carrier Enterprise , near Hawaii after a mission to Wake Island , arrived in the midst of the attack; four were shot down by American air-defense friendly fire. H. L. Young, commander of Enterprise air group, attempted to man the control tower to provide communications between

27504-474: The name of the island is expressed by saying ʻO Hawaiʻi , which means "[This] is Hawaiʻi." The Cook expedition also wrote "Otaheite" rather than "Tahiti". The spelling "why" in the name reflects the [ ʍ ] pronunciation of wh in 18th-century English (still used in parts of the English-speaking world ). Why was pronounced [ʍai] . The spelling "hee" or "ee" in the name represents

27695-442: The need for better control of the US Pacific Fleet, its headquarters moved to Ford Island. During the next few weeks, the Navy set up twenty-one large winches on the island to turn Oklahoma upright so it could be re-floated and patched before being scrapped. Coral was piled between the ship and the island so the ship would roll upright, instead of sliding toward the shore. Despite recovery efforts and patching, Oklahoma sank during

27886-411: The nodule to grow over time. The composition of the nodules can vary somewhat depending on their location and the conditions of their formation, but they are usually dominated by manganese- and iron oxides. They may also contain smaller amounts of other metals such as copper, nickel and cobalt. The precipitation of manganese nodules is one of the slowest geological processes known; they grow on the order of

28077-443: The ocean and begins to break apart or melt, these particles get deposited. Most of the deposition will happen close to where the glacier meets the water, but a small amount of material is also transported longer distances by rafting, where larger pieces of ice drift far from the glacier before releasing their sediment. Gravity: Landslides, mudslides, avalanches, and other gravity-driven events can deposit large amounts of material into

28268-489: The ocean are gastroliths. Gastrolith means "stomach stone". Many animals, including seabirds, pinnipeds, and some crocodiles deliberately swallow stones and regurgitate them latter. Stones swallowed on land can be regurgitated at sea. The stones can help grind food in the stomach or act as ballast regulating buoyancy. Mostly these processes deposit lithogenous sediment close to shore. Sediment particles can then be transported farther by waves and currents, and may eventually escape

28459-444: The ocean when they happen close to shore. Waves: Wave action along a coastline will erode rocks and will pull loose particles from beaches and shorelines into the water. Volcanoes: Volcanic eruptions emit vast amounts of ash and other debris into the atmosphere, where it can then be transported by wind to eventually get deposited in the oceans. Gastroliths : Another, relatively minor, means of transporting lithogenous sediment to

28650-452: The oceans, but in areas where silica- and carbonate-producing organisms are prolific, they produce enough silica or carbonate sediment to dominate over clay. Carbonate sediments are derived from a wide range of near-surface pelagic organisms that make their shells out of carbonate. These tiny shells, and the even tinier fragments that form when they break into pieces, settle slowly through the water column, but they don't necessarily make it to

28841-411: The period from the 1830s to the 1950s. English essentially displaced Hawaiian on six of seven inhabited islands. In 2001, native speakers of Hawaiian amounted to less than 0.1% of the statewide population. Linguists were unsure if Hawaiian and other endangered languages would survive. Nevertheless, from around 1949 to the present day, there has been a gradual increase in attention to and promotion of

29032-482: The phrase "Hawaiian Language". In Hawaiian, the language is called ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi , since adjectives follow nouns. Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family . It is closely related to other Polynesian languages , such as Samoan , Marquesan , Tahitian , Māori , Rapa Nui (the language of Easter Island ) and Tongan . According to Schütz (1994), the Marquesans colonized

29223-483: The property of Dr. Seth Porter Ford by marriage and was renamed Ford Island. After Ford's death, his son sold the island to the John Papa ʻĪʻī estate and it was converted into a sugarcane plantation . In 1916, part of Ford Island was sold to the U.S. Army for use by an aviation division in Hawaii, and by 1939 the island was taken over by the U.S. Navy as a station for battleship and submarine maintenance. From

29414-513: The reading and writing of Hawaiian. For example, instead of spelling one and the same word as pule, bule, pure, and bure (because of interchangeable p/b and l/r ), the word is spelled only as pule . However, hundreds of words were very rapidly borrowed into Hawaiian from English, Greek, Hebrew, Latin, and Syriac. Although these loan words were necessarily Hawaiianized , they often retained some of their "non-Hawaiian letters" in their published forms. For example, Brazil fully Hawaiianized

29605-459: The same time, Hawaiians were very prone to intermarriage: the number of "Part-Hawaiian" students (i.e., children of mixed White-Hawaiian marriages) grew from 1573 in 1890 to 3718 in 1910. In such mixed households, the low prestige of Hawaiian led to the adoption of English as the family language. Moreover, Hawaiians lived mostly in the cities or scattered across the countryside, in direct contact with other ethnic groups and without any stronghold (with

29796-476: The seafloor (Figure 12.4.2 right). Because the nodules contain a number of commercially valuable metals, there has been significant interest in mining the nodules over the last several decades, although most of the efforts have thus far remained at the exploratory stage. A number of factors have prevented large-scale extraction of nodules, including the high costs of deep sea mining operations, political issues over mining rights, and environmental concerns surrounding

29987-435: The seafloor and the other half suspected from water column indicators and/or seafloor deposits. Manganese nodules are rounded lumps of manganese and other metals that form on the seafloor, generally ranging between 3–10 cm in diameter, although they may sometimes reach up to 30 cm. The nodules form in a manner similar to pearls; there is a central object around which concentric layers are slowly deposited, causing

30178-415: The sediment below will reflect the production occurring near the surface. The increased rate of sinking through this mechanism has been called the "fecal express". Seawater contains many different dissolved substances. Occasionally chemical reactions occur that cause these substances to precipitate out as solid particles, which then accumulate as hydrogenous sediment. These reactions are usually triggered by

30369-403: The sediment layer consists of at least 30% microscopic biogenous material, it is classified as a biogenous ooze. The remainder of the sediment is often made up of clay. Biogenous sediments can allow the reconstruction of past climate history from oxygen isotope ratios. Oxygen atoms exist in three forms, or isotopes, in ocean water: O16 , O17 and O18 (the number refers to the atomic masses of

30560-436: The sediments pile up, the deeper parts start to warm up (from geothermal heat), and bacteria get to work breaking down the contained organic matter. Because this is happening in the absence of oxygen (a.k.a. anaerobic conditions), the by-product of this metabolism is the gas methane (CH 4 ). Methane released by the bacteria slowly bubbles upward through the sediment toward the seafloor. At water depths of 500 m to 1,000 m, and at

30751-444: The shells of snails. As the organism grows, is secretes new, larger chambers in which to reside. Most foraminiferans are benthic, living on or in the sediment, but there are some planktonic species living higher in the water column. When coccolithophores and foraminiferans die, they form calcareous oozes . Older calcareous sediment layers contain the remains of another type of organism, the discoasters ; single-celled algae related to

30942-407: The ship. The island's freshwater supply was cut off when Arizona severed the main water line and the auxiliary line was destroyed at the Pearl Harbor end. USS Nevada , which was the battleship division's duty ship that morning, eventually got underway during the attack. She was hit repeatedly by dive bombers who spotted a ship escaping from Ford Island. In order to not chance blocking the channel to

31133-572: The sounds [hi] , or [i] . Putting the parts together, O-why-(h)ee reflects [o-hwai-i] , a reasonable approximation of the native pronunciation, [ʔo həwɐiʔi] . American missionaries bound for Hawaiʻi used the phrases "Owhihe Language" and "Owhyhee language" in Boston prior to their departure in October 1819 and during their five-month voyage to Hawaiʻi. They still used such phrases as late as March 1822. However, by July 1823, they had begun using

31324-416: The source. These small particles can fall into the ocean when the wind dies down, or can serve as the nuclei around which raindrops or snowflakes form. Aeolian transport is particularly important near desert areas. Glaciers and ice rafting : As glaciers grind their way over land, they pick up lots of soil and rock particles, including very large boulders, that get carried by the ice. When the glacier meets

31515-456: The sponsor made only one response and sent the wrong font size (pica instead of small pica). Thus, they could not print ā, ē, ī, ō, nor ū (at the right size), even though they wanted to. Marine sediment Marine sediment , or ocean sediment , or seafloor sediment , are deposits of insoluble particles that have accumulated on the seafloor . These particles either have their origins in soil and rocks and have been transported from

31706-589: The subject and the ʻawe representing the object. Hawaiian immersion schools teach content that both adheres to state standards and stresses Hawaiian culture and values. The existence of immersion schools in Hawaiʻi has developed the opportunity for intergenerational transmission of Hawaiian at home. The Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani College of Hawaiian Language is a college at the University of Hawaii at Hilo dedicated to providing courses and programs entirely in Hawaiian. It educates and provides training for teachers and school administrators of Hawaiian medium schools. It

31897-462: The surface. Cosmogenous sediment is fairly rare in the ocean and it does not usually accumulate in large deposits. However, it is constantly being added to through space dust that continuously rains down on Earth. About 90% of incoming cosmogenous debris is vaporized as it enters the atmosphere, but it is estimated that 5 to 300 tons of space dust land on the Earth's surface each day. Siliceous ooze

32088-459: The surrounding harbor. The land is a relatively flat plain rising from 5 to 15 feet (1.5 to 4.6 m) above mean water level, and slopes toward Pearl Harbor. It connects to the larger island of Oʻahu, surrounding Pearl Harbor, via a 4,672 ft (1,424 m) bridge at its northern tip that crosses east to Halawa Landing. The island's soil is composed primarily of volcanic material, lagoonal deposits and coralline debris, with silty sand from

32279-437: The telephone, keep extra buckets of water available for fighting fires and keep cars off the streets (parking them on lawns, if necessary). Sixty concrete revetments were constructed to protect aircraft from another attack, and the Navy laid down a 16-inch (410 mm) water main from across the harbor. A new control tower was commissioned on May 1, 1942, and the Navy built bomb shelters and gas-decontamination chambers. Due to

32470-419: The time), many children who spoke Hawaiian at school, including on the playground, were disciplined. This included corporal punishment and going to the home of the offending child to advise them strongly to stop speaking it in their home. Moreover, the law specifically provided for teaching languages "in addition to the English language", reducing Hawaiian to the status of an extra language, subject to approval by

32661-463: The timing of major extinctions . Except within a few kilometres of a mid-ocean ridge , where the volcanic rock is still relatively young, most parts of the seafloor are covered in sediments. This material comes from several different sources and is highly variable in composition, depending on proximity to a continent, water depth, ocean currents, biological activity, and climate. Seafloor sediments (and sedimentary rocks ) can range in thickness from

32852-655: The two car ferries, there were several smaller "foot ferries" allowing pedestrians to travel between Ford Island and alternate landings around Pearl Harbor. Initially called "the bridge to nowhere", the Admiral Clarey Bridge was instrumental in Senator Daniel Inouye 's "rebirth" of Ford Island and enabled over $ 500 million in development with special legislation (2814 US Code). It connected 45 families and 3,000 civilian workers to Kamehameha Highway , and visitor access enabled construction of

33043-585: The vent. This superheated water contains many dissolved substances, and when it encounters the cold seawater after leaving the vent, these particles precipitate out, mostly as metal sulfides. These particles make up the "smoke" that flows from a vent, and may eventually settle on the bottom as hydrogenous sediment. Hydrothermal vents are distributed along the Earth's plate boundaries, although they may also be found at intra-plate locations such as hotspot volcanoes. Currently there are about 500 known active submarine hydrothermal vent fields, about half visually observed at

33234-403: The younger crust. As distance increases from a ridge spreading center the sediments get progressively thicker, increasing by approximately 100–200 m of sediment for every 1000 km distance from the ridge axis. With a seafloor spreading rate of about 20–40 km/million years, this represents a sediment accumulation rate of approximately 100–200 m every 25–50 million years. The diagram at

33425-434: The ʻokina are not familiar with these specific characters and/or do not have access to the appropriate fonts and input and display systems, it is sometimes written with more familiar and readily available characters: A modern Hawaiian name for the macron symbol is kahakō ( kaha 'mark' + kō 'long'). It was formerly known as mekona (Hawaiianization of macron ). It can be written as a diacritical mark which looks like

33616-960: Was Arizona alongside the repair ship Vestal . Closing the row was Nevada , alone at F-8. These battleships, from eighteen to twenty-five years old, represented all but two of those available to the Pacific Fleet. Pennsylvania was also in Pearl Harbor, being dry-docked at the Navy Yard. The ninth battleship of the fleet, Colorado , was being overhauled on the West Coast . These nine battleships taken together were one short of equaling Japan's active battle fleet. 1: California 2: Maryland 3: Oklahoma 4: Tennessee 5: West Virginia 6: Arizona 7: Nevada 8: Pennsylvania 9: Ford Island NAS 10: Hickam Field A: Oil storage tanks B: CINCPAC C: Submarine base D: Naval yard The initial bombs struck

33807-572: Was awarded 147 acres (59 ha) in the Great Māhele . On August 28, 1865, the island was bought at public auction for $ 1,040 by James I. Dowsett, who sold it to Caroline Jackson for $ 1 on December 28. Dr. Seth Porter Ford arrived in 1851 from Boston, and practiced medicine at the U.S. Seamen's Hospital. Ford married Caroline Jackson in June 1866, taking control of the island and changing its name from Marín Island to Ford Island. When Ford died in 1866, it

33998-452: Was caused by the timing of Captain Cook's arrival, which was coincidentally when the indigenous Hawaiians were celebrating the Makahiki festival , which is the annual celebration of the harvest in honor of the god Lono . The celebration lasts for the entirety of the rainy season . It is a time of peace with much emphasis on amusements, food, games, and dancing. The islanders' story foretold of

34189-530: Was considered vital for the defense of the west coast of the United States, and they were especially interested in Pu'uloa , Pearl Harbor. The sale of one of Hawaii's harbors was proposed by Charles Reed Bishop , a foreigner who had married into the Kamehameha family , had risen in the government to be Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs , and owned a country home near Pu'uloa. He showed the two U.S. officers around

34380-400: Was discouraged. Children born of these unions were considered children of the husband, not the biological father. By 1830, this activity was forbidden by Christian missionaries. The native Hawaiian people of the area were called Ke Awalau o Puʻuloa . They used the island to cultivate watermelon and to harvest pili grass for the construction of thatched roofs . According to Hawaiian legend,

34571-440: Was empowered by the constitution to elect the monarch in these instances and chose David Kalākaua as the next monarch. The new ruler was pressured by the U.S. government to surrender Pearl Harbor to the Navy. Kalākaua was concerned that this would lead to annexation by the U.S. and to the contravening of the traditions of the Hawaiian people, who believed that the land ('Āina) was fertile, sacred, and not for sale to anyone. In 1875,

34762-557: Was enacted for the first time in any of the United States. Literacy in Hawaiian was so widespread that in 1842 a law mandated that people born after 1819 had to be literate to be allowed to marry. In his Report to the Legislature for the year 1853 Richard Armstrong , the minister of Public Instruction, bragged that 75% of the adult population could read. Use of the language among the general population might have peaked around 1881. Even so, some people worried, as early as 1854, that

34953-485: Was forced to either give up its expansion plans or find alternative raw materials to continue producing equipment for the war. Japan chose to continue with its plans, but decided it needed to neutralize any threat from the United States first. Ford Island was the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two, an important target for the first-wave airborne raiders in the December 7, 1941, Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor . Before dawn,

35144-457: Was hit by a crashing dive bomber, a bomb and fragments of another bomb. She was then unsuccessfully attacked by a Japanese midget submarine , which fired a torpedo before being sunk by the destroyer Monaghan . Hangar 6 and several patrol seaplanes and other aircraft on Ford Island (33 out of 70 of the island's planes) were destroyed. The USS Utah (BB-31) , a Florida class battleship- an older ship launched December 1909 and by 1941 in service as

35335-473: Was later the co-author of the Hawaiian–English Dictionary, was punished for speaking Hawaiian by being rapped on the forehead, allowed to eat only bread and water for lunch, and denied home visits on holidays. Winona Beamer was expelled from Kamehameha Schools in 1937 for chanting Hawaiian. Due in part to this systemic suppression of the language after the overthrow, Hawaiian is still considered

35526-418: Was open to general aviation and rendered NALF Ford Island redundant. Before the completion of the Admiral Clarey Bridge , access to Ford Island was by ferry . Two diesel-powered ferries, Waa Hele Honoa (YFB-83) and Moko Holo Hele (YFB-87), served the island. The Waa Hele Honoa (meaning ' canoe go to land ' ) was purchased in 1959 for $ 274,000, and pressed into service by the Navy on March 3, 1961. It

35717-465: Was opened to students making their first solo flights. The island's use as a training center helped relieve congestion at nearby Honolulu International Airport . After its active-duty commission on February 1, 1973, the Third Fleet moved its headquarters to Ford Island, where it remained until its 1991 move to San Diego. The island remained home to Navy officers and several naval headquarters. For

35908-493: Was transferred to his son, Seth Porter Ford, Jr. The island was managed by Sanford B. Dole on behalf of Ford's minor children until Ford, Jr. came of age and sold the island in 1891 to the John Papa ʻĪʻī land trust. Sugar had been a major export from Hawaii since Captain James Cook's arrival in 1778. During the 1850s, the U.S. import tariff on sugar from Hawaii was much higher than the import tariffs Hawaiians were charging

36099-447: Was under 0.1% of the statewide population in 1997, has risen to 2,000, out of 24,000 total who are fluent in the language, according to the US 2011 census. On six of the seven permanently inhabited islands, Hawaiian has been largely displaced by English, but on Niʻihau , native speakers of Hawaiian have remained fairly isolated and have continued to use Hawaiian almost exclusively. Niʻihau

36290-439: Was used to name the ceremony for the common people. Hawaii historian Herb Kawainui Kāne considered ʻume to be a courtship game. Those selected for ʻume (never virgins or the unmarried) would sing around a large bonfire while a tribal leader with a maile (wand) chanted, touching individual men and women. Those who were touched would find a secluded part of the island to have sex. Husbands and wives were not paired, and jealousy

36481-634: Was written by Lorrin Thurston , the Hawaiian Minister of the Interior who used the Hawaiian militia as threat against Kalākaua. Kalākaua was forced to dismiss his cabinet ministers and sign a new constitution which greatly lessened his power. It would become known as the " Bayonet Constitution " due to the force used. With support from California (because the state had profited from the import of sugar), Kalākaua again approached Congress. When

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