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89-404: Many QDE involve a comparison of the questioned document, or components of the document, to a set of known standards. The most common type of examination involves handwriting wherein the examiner tries to address concerns about potential authorship. A document examiner is often asked to determine if a questioned item originated from the same source as the known item(s), then present their opinion on

178-424: A case that may or may not come before a court of law. Common criminal charges involved in a document examination case fall into the " white-collar crime " category. These include identity theft , forgery , counterfeiting , fraud , or uttering a forged document. Questioned documents are often important in other contexts simply because documents are used in so many contexts and for so many purposes. For example,

267-504: A peace symbol , a heart , and a penguin ( Linux mascot ), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$ 120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs. In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign , taking notice of

356-490: A clear distinction is made between the terms 'forensic document examiner' and a 'forensic handwriting expert/examiner'. In such cases, the former term refers to examiners who focus on non-handwriting examination types while the latter refers to those trained exclusively to do handwriting examinations. Even in places where the more general meaning is common, such as North America or Australia, there are many individuals who have specialized training only in relatively limited areas. As

445-454: A combination of independent discriminating elements (characteristics) that are similar and/or correspond in their relationships to one another, of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility of their occurrence by pure coincidence, and there are no inexplicable disparities, it may be concluded that they are the same in nature or are related to a common source (the principle of identification)." The evaluation of such characteristics

534-477: A document's physical characteristics and history, and which will often be carried out in conjunction with a diplomatic analysis. The term diplomatics is therefore sometimes used in a slightly wider sense, to encompass some of these other areas (as it was in Mabillon's original work, and as is implied in the definitions of both Webster and Beal quoted above). The recent development of the science in non-English Europe

623-619: A form of public art . According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles graffiti is an effective tool of social emancipation , or for the achievement of a political goal. In times of conflict graffiti has offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and has been an effective tool for establishing dialog. The Berlin Wall

712-419: A form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous to hinder prosecution. With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that

801-425: A graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up". People who appreciate graffiti often believe that it should be on display for everyone in public spaces, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for

890-455: A human with the head of a donkey on a cross with the text "Alexamenos worships [his] god." The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic , is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria , eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia . Safaitic dates from the first century BC to

979-550: A large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture , such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur . Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture. Spray paint and markers are

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1068-486: A person may commit murder and forge a suicide note. This is an example where a document is produced directly as a fundamental part of a crime. More often a questioned document is simply the by-product of normal day-to-day business or personal activities. For several years, the American Society for Testing and Materials, International (ASTM) published standards for many methods and procedures used by FDEs. E30.02

1157-455: A prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it. Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020,

1246-408: A questioned document may be a sheet of paper bearing handwriting or mechanically-produced text such as a ransom note, a forged cheque, or a business contract. It may be material not normally thought of as a "document"; FDEs define the word "document" very broadly, as any material bearing marks, signs, or symbols intended to convey a message or meaning to someone. This includes, for example, graffiti on

1335-622: A site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall . Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" (" Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman ") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel. Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa ( MENA ), especially following

1424-452: A stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies . Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological. Many analysts and art critics see artistic value in some graffiti and recognize it as

1513-420: A system of editorial signs all features of a manuscript original. The term semi-diplomatic is used for an edition or transcription that seeks to reproduce only some of these features of the original. A diplomatic edition is thus distinguished from a normalized edition , in which the editor, while not altering the original wording of the text, renders it using normal (modern) orthography . A diplomatic edition

1602-415: A tool for studying and determining the authenticity of the official charters and diplomas issued by royal and papal chanceries . It was subsequently appreciated that many of the same underlying principles could be applied to other types of official document and legal instrument , to non-official documents such as private letters , and, most recently, to the metadata of electronic records. Diplomatics

1691-627: A very active graffiti culture, and graffiti are very common in Brazilian cities. This is blamed on the high uneven distribution of income, changing laws, and disenfranchisement. Pichação is a form of graffiti found in Brazil, which involves tall characters and is usually used as a form of protest. It contrasts with the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite . Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos , Boleta, Nunca , Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. There are also

1780-432: A virtual reality classroom and may include an apprenticeship program, a correspondence course, or both. A trainee must learn how to present evidence before the court in clear, forceful testimony . Fledgling examiners in the later stages of training can get a glimpse into the legal process as well as a better sense of this aspect of their work through participation in a mock trial or by attending court hearings to observe

1869-570: A wall, stamp impressions on meat products, and covert markings hidden in a written letter. A person who desires to enter a career of forensic document examination must possess certain traits and abilities. Requirements for the "Trainee Candidate" ( Standard Guide for Minimum Training Requirements for Forensic Document Examiners ) are listed in ASTM (E2388-11) which has been moved to SWGDOC (G02-13). First and foremost, "an earned baccalaureate degree or equivalent from an accredited college or university "

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1958-448: Is a scholarly discipline centred on the critical analysis of documents : especially, historical documents . It focuses on the conventions, protocols and formulae that have been used by document creators, and uses these to increase understanding of the processes of document creation, of information transmission, and of the relationships between the facts which the documents purport to record and reality. The discipline originally evolved as

2047-770: Is accredited by the Forensic Specialties Accreditation Board, which does not have any international affiliations. The literature relating to questioned document examination is very extensive. Publications in English, French, German, and other languages are readily available. The following is a very brief list of English-language textbooks: Diplomatics Diplomatics (in American English, and in most anglophone countries), or diplomatic (in British English),

2136-413: Is also to be distinguished both from a facsimile edition , which, in the modern era, normally employs photographic or digital images; and from a type facsimile (such as Abraham Farley 's edition of Domesday Book ), which seeks to reproduce the appearance of the original through the use of a special typeface or digital font . Graffiti Graffiti (singular graffiti or graffito ,

2225-792: Is considered vandalism . Modern graffiti began in the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s and later spread to the rest of the United States and throughout the world. "Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν — graphein —meaning "to write". Most petroglyphs and geoglyphs date between 40,000 and 10,000 years old,

2314-611: Is expanding its scope to a cultural history of documentation including aspects of pragmatic literacy or symbolic communication . Christopher Brooke , a distinguished teacher of diplomatics, referred to the discipline's reputation in 1970 as that of "a formidable and dismal science ... a kind of game played by a few scholars, most of them medievalists, harmless so long as it does not dominate or obscure historical enquiry; or, perhaps, most commonly of all, an aid to understanding of considerable use to scholars and research students if only they had time to spare from more serious pursuits". In

2403-515: Is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol , England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine . In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout

2492-405: Is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist . Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He

2581-477: Is now predominantly subjective though efforts to meaningfully quantify this type of information are ongoing. Subjective evaluation does not mean that the results of properly conducted comparisons will be unreliable or inaccurate. To the contrary, scientific testing has shown that professional document examiners (as a group) out-perform lay-people when comparing handwriting or signatures to assess authorship. However, this type of subjective analysis depends greatly upon

2670-403: Is one of the auxiliary sciences of history . It should not be confused with its sister-discipline of palaeography . In fact, its techniques have more in common with those of the literary disciplines of textual criticism and historical criticism . Despite the verbal similarity, the discipline has nothing to do with diplomacy . Both terms are derived, by separate linguistic development, from

2759-652: Is required as it gives the aspirant a scientific background with which to approach the work in an objective manner, as well as bestowing necessary biological , physical , and chemical knowledge sometimes called upon in the work. Second, excellent eyesight is required to see fine details that are otherwise inconspicuous. To this end, the aspirant must successfully complete: Desirable skills also include knowledge of paper, ink, printing processes, and handwriting. There are three possible methods of instruction for an aspiring document examiner: There are some distance learning courses available as well. These are taught through

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2848-450: Is still widely seen as the "father" of diplomatics, a more important milestone in the formation of the battery of practical techniques which make up the modern discipline was the publication of René-Prosper Tassin and Charles-François Toustain 's Nouveau traité de diplomatique , which appeared in six volumes in 1750–65. The most significant work in English was Thomas Madox 's Formulare Anglicanum , published in 1702. In general, however,

2937-708: Is the Scope of Expertise in Forensic Document Examination document which states an examiner needs "discipline specific knowledge, skills, and abilities" that qualifies them to conduct examinations of documents to answer questions about: Some FDEs limit their work to the examination and comparison of handwriting; most inspect and examine the whole document in accordance with this standard. Documents feature prominently in all manner of business and personal affairs. Almost any type of document may become disputed in an investigation or litigation. For example,

3026-573: Is the most complex form of modern graffiti. It can be difficult for those unfamiliar with the art form to read. Wildstyle draws inspiration from calligraphy and has been described as partially abstract. The term "wildstyle" was popularized by the Wild Style graffiti crew formed by Tracy 168 of the Bronx , New York in 1974. Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged

3115-706: Is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface. Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne , where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis. Stickers, also known as slaps, are drawn or written on before being put up in public. Traditionally, free paper stickers like

3204-522: The Abbey of Saint-Denis . During the Middle Ages , the production of spurious charters and other documents had been common, either to provide written documentation of existing rights or to bolster the plausibility of claimed rights. Mabillon's work engendered a far livelier awareness of the potential presence of forged or spurious documents, in the fields of both history and law . Although Mabillon

3293-555: The Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation. Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders

3382-585: The Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates , Israel , and in Iran . The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one 's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag , has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become

3471-548: The Reformation and Counter-Reformation eras. The emergence of diplomatics as a recognisably distinct sub-discipline, however, is generally dated to the publication of Mabillon's De re diplomatica in 1681. Mabillon had begun studying old documents with a view towards establishing their authenticity as a result of the doubts raised by the Jesuit Daniel van Papenbroek over supposed Merovingian documents from

3560-484: The United States Postal Service 's Label 228 or name tags were used. Eggshell stickers, which are very difficult to remove, are also frequent. Stickers allow artists to put up their art quickly and discreetly, making them a relatively safer option for illegal graffiti. Tagging is the practice of writing ones "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to

3649-468: The anarcho-punk band Crass , who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war , anarchist , feminist , and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam , graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered in names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti, a punk magazine

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3738-430: The ancient and medieval periods, the authenticity of a document was considered to derive from the document's place of preservation and storage, in, for example, temples, public offices, and archives. As a result, those with nefarious motives were able to give forged documents a spurious authenticity by depositing them in places of authority. Diplomatics grew from a need to establish new standards of authenticity through

3827-521: The 1974 essay "The Faith of Graffiti" referred to it using the term "graffiti", which stuck. An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading " Clapton is God " in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton . Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in Islington , north London, in the autumn of 1967. The graffito

3916-607: The Forensic Expertise Profiling Laboratory (School of Human Biosciences, La Trobe University , Victoria, Australia). The European Network of Forensic Science Institutes has also published a 'Best Practice Manual for the Forensic Handwriting Examination'. Aside from E2290 mentioned above, many standard guides pertaining to the examination of questioned documents were published by ASTM International. They include

4005-720: The arrival of American graffiti and was associated more with the punk rock scene than with hip-hop. In the 1980s, American graffiti and hiphop began to influence the European graffiti scene. Modern graffiti reached Eastern Europe in the 1990s. Some of the earliest graffiti exhibitions outside of the USA were in Amsterdam , The Netherlands. Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt , Lebanon ,

4094-401: The artist that can be displayed anywhere from sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be shown to everyone for free. Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing onesself. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some

4183-414: The competence of an individual examiner. It follows that The examination of handwriting to assess potential authorship proceeds from the above principle of identification by applying it to a comparison of samples of handwritten material. Generally known as ACE-V, there are three stages in the process of examination. As Huber and Headrick explain in their text, these are as follows: The unknown item and

4272-496: The critical analysis of the textual and physical forms of documents. The first notable application of diplomatics was by Nicolas of Cusa , in 1433, and Lorenzo Valla , in 1440, who determined, independently, that the Donation of Constantine , which had been used for centuries to legitimize papal temporal authority, was a forgery. Diplomatic techniques were further developed as part of a wider battery of antiquarian skills during

4361-477: The death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives". Modern graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and started with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia . Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti, starting with artists like TAKI 183 and Cornbread . Later, artists began to paint throw-ups and pieces on trains on

4450-511: The difference in person, place, time, and matter, which are meant to serve as a testimony of proceedings of a legal nature". Properly speaking, and as usually understood by present-day scholars, diplomatics is concerned essentially with the analysis and interpretation of the linguistic and textual elements of a document. It is, however, closely associated with several parallel disciplines, including palaeography , sigillography , codicology , and provenance studies, all of which are concerned with

4539-672: The discipline as "the study of the Wesen [being] and Werden [becoming] of documentation, the analysis of genesis, inner constitution and transmission of documents, and of their relationship with the facts represented in them and with their creators". The Commission International de Diplomatique has defined diplomatics as "the science which studies the tradition, the form and the issuing of written documents". More pragmatically, Peter Beal defines diplomatics as "the science or study of documents and records, including their forms, language, script and meaning. It involves knowledge of such matters as

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4628-697: The discipline was always studied more intensively by continental scholars than by those in Britain. Diplomatics is often associated with the study of documents of the medieval period. However, scholars such as Luciana Duranti have argued that many of its theories and principles can be adapted and applied to contemporary archival science . The study of diplomatics is a valuable tool for historians , enabling them to determine whether alleged historical documents and archives are in fact genuine or forgeries . Its techniques may also be used to help date undated documents. Diplomatics has many similar applications in

4717-780: The documents, are presently available on the SWGDOC (The Scientific Working Group for Document Examiners) website. In 2015, the AAFS Standards Board (ASB) was formed to serve as a Standards Developing Organization (SDO). The ASB is an ANSI-accredited subsidiary of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences and the Forensic Document Examination Consensus Body within the ASB has published several relevant Standards. One of those

4806-526: The established wording and procedures of particular kinds of document, the deciphering of writing, and document analysis and authentication". Theo Kölzer defines diplomatics as "the teaching and the study of charters". He treats the terms "charter", "diploma", and "document" as broadly synonymous, and refers to the German scholar Harry Bresslau 's definition of "documents" as "written declarations recorded in compliance with certain forms alternating according to

4895-739: The events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem . South America has

4984-414: The explanation(s) for them proposed. The authors note further that "This process underlies the identification of any matter, person, or thing, by any witness, whether technical, forensic, or not." As such, it is not a formal method, but rather the elements that go into the method. ASTM published a standard guide for the examination of handwriting titled "E2290-07a: Examination of Handwritten Items" which

5073-489: The field of law . Some famous cases in which the principles of diplomatics have been employed have included: A diplomatic edition is an edition (in print or online) of an historic manuscript text that seeks to reproduce as accurately as possible in typography all significant features of the manuscript original, including spelling and punctuation, abbreviations, deletions, insertions, and other alterations. Similarly, diplomatic transcription attempts to represent by means of

5162-524: The following have been published: Organization of scientific advisory committees (OSAC) Registry includes standards for Questioned Documents on the OSAC Registry. Links are provided below Due to the nature of certification, there are many bodies that provide this service. Most provide certification to individuals from a particular country or geographic area. In some places, the term accreditation may be used instead of certification. Either way, in

5251-673: The following: All withdrawn standards listed above have been taken over and are presently available on the SWGDOC (The Scientific Working Group for Document Examiners) website, including links to updated versions of the documents. Not all laboratories or examiners use or follow ASTM guidelines. These are guidelines and not requirements. There are other ASTM guides of a more general nature that apply (e.g., E 1732: Terminology Relating to Forensic Science). Copies of ASTM Standards can be obtained from ASTM International . ANSI/ASB Standards and Guides for Questioned Documents are being published to replace previous ASTM/SWGDOC documents. As of 2023-12-25,

5340-521: The fourth century AD. Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet,

5429-423: The known items must, by analysis, examination, or study, be reduced to a matter of their discriminating elements. These are the habits of behaviour or of performance (i.e., features or characteristics and, in other disciplines, the properties) that serve to differentiate between products or people which may be directly observable, measurable, or otherwise perceptible aspects of the item. The discriminating elements of

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5518-518: The late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino? . Contemporary graffiti has been seen on landmarks in the US, such as Independence Rock , a national landmark along the Oregon Trail . In World War II , an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to

5607-534: The latter only used in graffiti archeology ) is writing or drawings made on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written "monikers" to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times , with examples dating back to ancient Egypt , ancient Greece , and the Roman Empire . Modern graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission

5696-452: The latter term is not often used as it may be confused with graphology . Likewise a forensic document examiner (FDE) is not to be confused with a graphologist, and vice versa. Many FDEs receive extensive training in all of the aspects of the discipline. As a result, they are competent to address a wide variety of questions about document evidence. However, this "broad specialization" approach has not been universally adopted. In some locales,

5785-787: The legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse". When graffiti is done as an art form, it often utitlises the Latin script even in countries where it is not the primary writing system. English words are also often used as monikers. Stencil graffiti artists such as Blek le Rat existed in Western Europe, especially in Paris , before

5874-457: The main tools used for tagging , throw ups , and pieces . Paint markers , paint dabbers, and scratching tools are also used. Some art companies, such as Montana Colors , make art supplies specifically for graffiti and street art. Many major cities have graffiti art stores. Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders ) to form an overall design or image. The stencil

5963-443: The matter in court as an expert witness. Other common tasks include determining what has happened to a document, determining when a document was produced, or deciphering information on the document that has been obscured, obliterated, or erased. The discipline is known by many names including forensic document examination , 'document examination', ' diplomatics ', 'handwriting examination', or sometimes 'handwriting analysis', although

6052-593: The oldest being cave paintings in Australia. Paintings in the Chauvet Cave were made 35,000 years ago, but little is known about who made them or why. Early artists created stencil graffiti of their hands with paint blown through a tube. These stencils may have functioned similarly to a modern-day tag . The oldest written graffiti was found in Ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from

6141-433: The present context, it refers to the assessment of an examiner's competency and qualifications by an independent (third-party) organization of professionals. The Forensic Science Society (UK) provided its members, not limited to UK residents, with the opportunity to obtain a Professional Postgraduate Diploma in forensic disciplines, including Questioned Document Examination, and to use the postnominal 'FSSocDip'. The program

6230-635: The ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea , they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration. In the 1790s, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt . Lord Byron 's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica , Greece. The oldest known example of graffiti monikers were found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since

6319-480: The sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti. While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer —others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch , considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. While those who did early modern graffiti called it "writing",

6408-439: The terminology varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, it is important to clarify the meaning of the title used by any individual professing to be a "forensic document examiner". A forensic document examiner is intimately linked to the legal system as a forensic scientist . Forensic science is the application of science to address issues under consideration in the legal system . FDEs examine items (documents) that form part of

6497-457: The testimony of qualified examiners. These are guidelines and not requirements. Examinations and comparisons conducted by document examiners can be diverse and may involve any of the following: The concept of 'identification' as it is applied in the forensic sciences is open to discussion and debate. Nonetheless, the traditional approach in the discipline of forensic document examination is best expressed as follows: "When any two items possess

6586-614: The time was boasts about sexual experiences, but also includes word games such as the Sator Square , "I was here" type markings, and comments on gladiators. Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was generally not considered vandalism. Certain graffiti was seen as blasphemous and was removed, such as the Alexamenos graffito , which may contain one of the earliest depictions of Jesus . The graffito features

6675-451: The unknown, observed or determined through analysis, examination, or study, must be compared with those known, observed, or recorded of the standard item(s). Similarities or dissimilarities in discriminating elements will each have a certain value for discrimination purposes, determined by their cause, independence, or likelihood of occurrence. The weight or significance of the similarity or difference of each element must then be considered and

6764-488: The use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes ( throwies ) as new media for graffitists. Yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists. Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn , who in 1962 painting declared in

6853-476: The word diploma , which originally referred to a folded piece of writing material—and thus both to the materials which are the focus of study in diplomatics, and to accreditation papers carried by diplomats. The word diplomatics was effectively coined by the Benedictine monk Jean Mabillon , who in 1681 published his treatise, De re diplomatica ( Latin : roughly, "The Study of Documents"). From there,

6942-498: The word entered the French language as diplomatique , and then English as diplomatic or diplomatics . Webster's Dictionary (1828) defines diplomatics as the "science of diplomas, or of ancient writings, literary and public documents, letters, decrees, charters, codicils, etc., which has for its object to decipher old writings, to ascertain their authenticity, their date, signatures, etc." Giorgio Cencetti (1908–1970) defined

7031-401: The world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is

7120-649: The writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti. A number of recent examples of graffiti make use of hashtags . Throw ups, or throwies are large, bubble-writing graffiti which aim to be "throw onto" a surface as largely and quickly as possible. Throw ups can have fills or be "hollow". They prioritise minimal negative space and consistency or letter space and height. Pieces are large, elaborate, letter-based graffiti which usually use spray paint or rollers. Pieces often have multi-coloured fills and outlines, and may use highlights, shadows, backgrounds, extensions, 3D effects, and sometimes characters . Wildstyle

7209-537: The wrongs of the Old World: Austin White – Chicago, Ill – 1918 Austin White – Chicago, Ill – 1945 This is the last time I want to write my name here. During World War II and for decades after, the phrase " Kilroy was here " with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after

7298-524: Was accredited by the University of Strathclyde . The American Board of Forensic Document Examiners , Inc. (ABFDE) provides third-party certification for professional forensic document examiners from Canada, Mexico, the United States of America, Australia and New Zealand. The ABFDE is accredited by the Forensic Specialties Accreditation Board. The US Board of Forensic Document Examiners (BFDE) provides certification of forensic document examiners. The BFDE

7387-517: Was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall . Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi , MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what

7476-492: Was extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures related to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR . Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes

7565-556: Was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab   5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983. With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks

7654-508: Was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra , manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis , and people used to read and circulate them very widely. Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio , Raphael , Michelangelo , Ghirlandaio , or Filippino Lippi descended into

7743-430: Was started that was called Gallery Anus . So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s, there was already a vibrant graffiti culture. The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive,

7832-626: Was the ASTM subcommittee for Questioned Documents. These guides were under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E30 on Forensic Sciences and the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E30.02 on Questioned Documents. When the ASTM Questioned Document subcommittee was disbanded in 2012 the relevant standards moved under the Executive Subcommittee E30.90; however, those standards have all been withdrawn over time. Those standards, as well as links to updated versions of

7921-598: Was withdrawn in 2016. At that time, it was published as the SWGDOC Standard for Examination of Handwritten Items . This was superseded in 2022 by the Academy Standards Board document Standard for Examination of Handwritten Items . Some of the guides listed under "Other Examinations" below also apply to forensic handwriting comparisons (e.g., E444 or E1658). An alternative guide for the examination of handwriting and signatures has been developed by

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