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121-601: More than a set of buildings in Deptford, it had trading links with four continents: part of what has been called the first globalisation . Cattle were brought there from the great grasslands of the world: initially, from Western Europe, Austria-Hungary and the steppes of the Russian Empire 30° to the east; but later, and mostly, from the Great Plains of America, literally being rounded up by cowboys . Such

242-593: A Beadle , an ancient position which is now largely ceremonial whose main remaining function is the running of an annual Wardmote of electors, representatives and officials. At the Wardmote the ward's Alderman appoints at least one Deputy for the year ahead, and Wardmotes are also held during elections. Each ward also has a Ward Club, which is similar to a residents' association . The wards are ancient and their number has changed three times since time immemorial : Following boundary changes in 1994, and later reform of

363-415: A cattle boat in as little as 15 minutes. Some cattle, especially from Argentina, were very wild, and were best given "a wide berth". A man in regular employment could earn as much as £4 a week (about £520 purchasing power in 2018 money). These men, who killed and butchered the animals, worked in gangs of four, and earned very high wages for the era: £5 (≅ £650 2018 ) a week was not uncommon. No slaughtering

484-519: A change of government at Westminster meant the option was not taken up. The city as a distinct polity survived despite its position within the London conurbation and numerous local government reforms . Supporting this status, the city was a special parliamentary borough that elected four members to the unreformed House of Commons , who were retained after the Reform Act 1832 ; reduced to two under

605-508: A confrontation that included Lord Mayor William Walworth . In 1450, rebel forces again occupied the City during Jack Cade's Rebellion before being ousted by London citizens following a bloody battle on London Bridge. In 1550, the area south of London Bridge in Southwark came under the control of the City with the establishment of the ward of Bridge Without . The city was burnt severely on

726-421: A few days of landing, posed a challenge. Their meat would not keep — especially in hot weather — and had to be sent to market quickly, even at sacrificial prices if that market should happen to be glutted. Domestic farmers could avoid the loss by keeping their cattle back. It was not an option for foreign cattle meat traders, and it made their business risky. Accordingly, the City decided meat should be chilled;

847-464: A great impact on the world's global economy. Integration during the First globalization period can be demonstrated in many ways. The volume of international flows, the ratio of commodity trade to GDP and the cost of moving goods or factors of production across borders are a few of the measures, which help us show the increasing trade trend between 1870 and 1914. The third mentioned measure shows up in

968-666: A legacy of its uninterrupted integrity as a corporate city since the Anglo-Saxon period and its singular relationship with the Crown . Historically its system of government was not unusual, but it was not reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 and little changed by later reforms, so that it is the only local government in the UK where elections are not run on the basis of one vote for every adult citizen. It

1089-549: A major commercial centre in Roman Britain until its abandonment during the 5th century . Archaeologist Leslie Wallace notes that, because extensive archaeological excavation has not revealed any signs of a significant pre-Roman presence, "arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial." At its height, the Roman city had a population of approximately 45,000–60,000 inhabitants. Londinium

1210-488: A major meeting point for businesses. London was ranked second (after New York) in the Global Financial Centres Index , published in 2022. The insurance industry is concentrated in the eastern side of the city, around Lloyd's building . Since about the 1980s, a secondary financial district has existed outside the city, at Canary Wharf, 2.5 miles (4 km) to the east. The legal profession has

1331-538: A major presence in the northern and western sides of the City, especially in the Temple and Chancery Lane areas where the Inns of Court are located, two of which ( Inner Temple and Middle Temple ) fall within the City of London boundary. Primarily a business district, the City has a small resident population of 8,583 based on 2021 census figures, but over 500,000 are employed there (as of 2019) and some estimates put

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1452-634: A name of a street and an area of the City of Westminster between Westminster and the City of London. Following the Battle of Hastings , William the Conqueror marched on London, reaching as far as Southwark , but failed to get across London Bridge or defeat the Londoners. He eventually crossed the River Thames at Wallingford , pillaging the land as he went. Rather than continuing the war, Edgar

1573-497: A number of occasions, the worst being in 1123 and in the Great Fire of London in 1666. Both of these fires were referred to as the Great Fire. After the fire of 1666, a number of plans were drawn up to remodel the city and its street pattern into a renaissance -style city with planned urban blocks, squares and boulevards. These plans were almost entirely not taken up, and the medieval street pattern re-emerged almost intact. In

1694-461: A premium. For centuries the main cattle market for London had been held at Smithfield . There being no refrigeration, butchers bought an animal at the market, and slaughtered it themselves. The site was small and by the Victorian era the volume of trade had increased to the point that it was badly overcrowded and a public health nuisance. Driving cattle to Smithfield through the thoroughfares of

1815-427: A representative fashion. Bodies employing fewer than 10 people may appoint 1 voter; those employing 10 to 50 people 1 voter for every 5 employees; those employing more than 50 people 10 voters and 1 additional voter for each 50 employees beyond the first 50. The Act also changed other aspects of an earlier act relating to elections in the city, from 1957. Inner Temple and Middle Temple (which neighbour each other) in

1936-479: A self-governing unit within the wider city. They can be described as electoral/political divisions; ceremonial, geographic and administrative entities; sub-divisions of the city. Each ward has an Alderman , who until the mid-1960s held office for life but since put themselves up for re-election at least every 6 years, and are the only directly elected Aldermen in the United Kingdom . Wards continue to have

2057-458: A sulphur chamber. Hides, horns, fleeces and offal were also disinfected; manure and litter were sterilised. A correspondent from The Times thought the market was very clean and by the standards of the day animals were slaughtered humanely. Foreign veterinarians observed for their governments. American cattle bore ear tags and, if one was found to be diseased, the American vet would telegraph

2178-569: A superintendent for the market the City interviewed 25 candidates, and chose a 28-year old Southend station-master, George Philcox. Philcox was in charge of the market for the next 40 years; when he died in 1912, it soon closed. Apparently an able and popular man, it was said "The market made him, and in turn he made it". Employment conditions in Deptford Foreign Cattle Market were investigated by social researcher Charles Booth and are described in his Life and Labour of

2299-400: A tidal basin surrounded by three ship-building sheds, each as lofty as Charing Cross station (see title image). By connecting these together Jones obtained a cattle lairage building comprising a pentagonal horseshoe with open sides facing the river and the landing piers (see Layout). To the east another lairage shed had its own pier. Animals were provided with water troughs and hay racks, and

2420-468: A veterinary scientist, warned that free trade in animals was dangerous because it would import diseases—had already done so. But the commercial interests were too powerful, and the trade continued. As European rail links improved, these cattle came from as far away as the plains of Hungary and, eventually, Russia. That country had never been free from cattle plague ( rinderpest ), an infectious disease highly mortal to immunologically naïve cattle. It got into

2541-415: Is Michael Mainelli . The City is made up of 25 wards , with administration at the historic Guildhall . Other historic sites include St Paul's Cathedral , Royal Exchange , Mansion House , Old Bailey , and Smithfield Market . Although not within the City, the adjacent Tower of London , built to dominate the City, is part of its old defensive perimeter. The City has responsibility for five bridges across

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2662-458: Is a goal worth pursuing. However, after a brief return between 1925 and 1929 came a collapse of the gold standard in the 1930s, which drove trade volumes even lower. City of London The City of London , also known as the City , is a city , ceremonial county and local government district that contains the ancient centre, and constitutes, along with Canary Wharf , the primary central business district (CBD) of London and one of

2783-532: Is administered by the City of London Corporation , headed by the Lord Mayor of London (not to be confused with the separate Mayor of London , an office created only in the year 2000), which is responsible for a number of functions and has interests in land beyond the city's boundaries. Unlike other English local authorities, the corporation has two council bodies: the (now largely ceremonial) Court of Aldermen and

2904-474: Is located at Smithfield , and is undergoing a long-awaited regeneration after doubts as to its continuing use during the 1990s. The city is the third largest UK patron of the arts. It oversees the Barbican Centre and subsidises several important performing arts companies. The London Port Health Authority, which is the responsibility of the corporation, is responsible for all port health functions on

3025-627: Is not one of the London boroughs , a status reserved for the other 32 districts (including Greater London's only other city, the City of Westminster ). It is also a separate ceremonial county, being an enclave surrounded by the ceremonial county of Greater London , and is the smallest ceremonial county in England. The City of London is known colloquially as the Square Mile , as it is 1.12 sq mi (716.80 acres; 2.90 km ) in area. Both

3146-588: Is not only about the movement of goods or factors of production. First globalization also includes technological transfers and the rise of international cultural and scientific cooperation. The 1876 World Fair in Philadelphia was the first not to take place in Europe. The modern Olympics began in 1896 . The first Nobel prizes were awarded in 1901. International trade grew for many reasons. Constant technological improvement and increased usage associated with

3267-423: Is not supported by reliable sources. One of the most unpleasant jobs was cleaning cattle and sheep intestines, which were used for making sausage skins (and, according to a later source, condoms). Originally men's work, in about 1891 they went on strike for more pay: management responded by assigning the work to women. First globalization " First globalization " is a phrase used by economists to describe

3388-706: Is unique in the United Kingdom as it is not conducted by the Electoral Commission or a local government boundary commission every 8 to 12 years, which is the case for all other wards in Great Britain . Particular churches, livery company halls and other historic buildings and structures are associated with a ward, such as St Paul's Cathedral with Castle Baynard , and London Bridge with Bridge; boundary changes in 2003 removed some of these historic connections. Each ward elects an alderman to

3509-531: The Board of Agriculture ) was authorised to "schedule" it, which meant put it on a greylist. Animals from that country, while not banned outright, must be landed at this new market, and nowhere else. It was to operate under quarantine conditions, and no animal was to leave it alive, but had to be slaughtered within 10 days. Since the new market must be in a port, a suitable site on the Thames had to be chosen. There

3630-739: The Broadgate Tower , the Heron Tower and 22 Bishopsgate . The main residential section of the City today is the Barbican Estate , constructed between 1965 and 1976. The Museum of London was based there until March 2023 (due to reopen in West Smithfield in 2026), whilst a number of other services provided by the corporation are still maintained on the Barbican Estate. The city has a unique political status,

3751-832: The Carausian Revolt in Britain. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the city was under attack from Picts , Scots, and Saxon raiders. The decline continued, both for Londinium and the Empire, and in AD 410 the Romans withdrew entirely from Britain. Many of the Roman public buildings in Londinium by this time had fallen into decay and disuse, and gradually after the formal withdrawal the city became almost (if not, at times, entirely) uninhabited. The centre of trade and population moved away from

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3872-762: The City of London Police —the Common Council (the main body of the corporation) is the police authority . The corporation also run the Hampstead Heath Constabulary , Epping Forest Keepers and the City of London market constabularies (whose members are no longer attested as constables but retain the historic title). The majority of Greater London is policed by the Metropolitan Police Service , based at New Scotland Yard . The city has one hospital, St Bartholomew's Hospital , also known as 'Barts'. Founded in 1123, it

3993-552: The Court of Aldermen , and commoners (the City equivalent of a councillor ) to the Court of Common Council of the corporation. Only electors who are Freemen of the City of London are eligible to stand. The number of commoners a ward sends to the Common Council varies from two to ten, depending on the number of electors in each ward. Since the 2003 review it has been agreed that the four more residential wards: Portsoken , Queenhithe , Aldersgate and Cripplegate together elect 20 of

4114-599: The Court of Common Council . The Court of Aldermen represents the wards, with each ward (irrespective of size) returning one alderman. The chief executive of the Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London . The city is a ceremonial county which has a Commission of Lieutenancy headed by the Lord Mayor instead of a Lord-Lieutenant and has two Sheriffs instead of a High Sheriff (see list of Sheriffs of London ), quasi-judicial offices appointed by

4235-775: The Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 ; and ceased to be a separate constituency under the Representation of the People Act 1948 . Since then the city is a minority (in terms of population and area) of the Cities of London and Westminster . The city's population fell rapidly in the 19th century and through most of the 20th century, as people moved outwards in all directions to London's vast suburbs , and many residential buildings were demolished to make way for office blocks. Like many areas of London and other British cities,

4356-653: The Thames in its capacity as trustee of the Bridge House Estates : Blackfriars Bridge , Millennium Bridge , Southwark Bridge , London Bridge and Tower Bridge . The City is a major business and financial centre, with both the Bank of England and the London Stock Exchange based in the City. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the world's primary business centre, and it continues to be

4477-469: The ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Bishop of London . Within the city, the Corporation owns and runs both Smithfield Market and Leadenhall Market . It owns land beyond its boundaries, including open spaces (parks, forests and commons) in and around Greater London, including most of Epping Forest and Hampstead Heath . The Corporation owns Old Spitalfields Market and Billingsgate Fish Market , in

4598-461: The germ theory of disease had yet to be established. Quarantines and the mass slaughter of infected herds led to agitation against the foreign cattle trade. Wrote Charles Dickens : All the evidence points to one short, simple, certain, severe and somewhat costly remedy—a market exclusively reserved for foreign fat cattle at every port of debarkation, where every animal intended for the butcher should be slain, after sale, in abbatoirs provided for

4719-522: The laissez-faire period, thus mostly liberal international policies are in place. However, the trade policies of the time lacked reciprocity. This period saw financial crises comparable to those of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries and the end of the First globalisation is associated with the collapse of international trade when World War I . started. Globalization revolves around technological and social advances, which further leads to advances in trade and cultural relativism throughout

4840-470: The livery companies , an ancient political system based on the representation and protection of trades ( guilds ). Senior members of the livery companies are known as liverymen and form the Common Hall, which chooses the lord mayor, the sheriffs and certain other officers. The city is made up of 25 wards . They are survivors of the medieval government system that allowed a very local area to exist as

4961-400: The 'square mile' and held 86% of the population, and these were in fact similar to and named after four City of London wards: The city has a unique electoral system. Most of its voters are representatives of businesses and other bodies that occupy premises in the city. Its ancient wards have very unequal numbers of voters. In elections, both the businesses based in the city and the residents of

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5082-433: The 100 commoners, whereas the business-dominated remainder elect the remaining 80 commoners. 2003 and 2013 boundary changes have increased the residential emphasis of the mentioned four wards. Census data provides eight nominal rather than 25 real wards, all of varying size and population. Being subject to renaming and definition at any time, these census 'wards' are notable in that four of the eight wards accounted for 67% of

5203-521: The 1630s the Crown sought to have the Corporation of the City of London extend its jurisdiction to surrounding areas. In what is sometimes called the "great refusal", the Corporation said no to the King, which in part accounts for its unique government structure to the present. By the late 16th century, London increasingly became a major centre for banking, international trade and commerce. The Royal Exchange

5324-498: The Atlantic world , technologies had been circulating for a long time and relatively freely in the late 19th century, despite laws forbidding the emigration of skilled workers and machinery exports. The decline in transport and communication costs helped the diffusion of ideas, new goods and machines. The diffusion of technologies was also supported by the creation of international scientific and technical organizations. However, science

5445-490: The Barbican) dramatically altering the urban landscape. But the destruction of the older historic fabric allowed the construction of modern and larger-scale developments, whereas in those parts not so badly affected by bomb damage the City retains its older character of smaller buildings. The street pattern, which is still largely medieval, was altered slightly in places, although there is a more recent trend of reversing some of

5566-546: The City fell victim to large scale and highly destructive aerial bombing during World War II , especially in the Blitz . Whilst St Paul's Cathedral survived the onslaught, large swathes of the area did not and the particularly heavy raids of late December 1940 led to a firestorm called the Second Great Fire of London . There was a major rebuilding programme in the decades following the war, in some parts (such as at

5687-581: The City officials, a board was put up bearing the following inscription: "Here worked as a ship-carpenter Peter, Czar of all the Russias, afterwards Peter the Great, 1698." The market was opened for business in January 1872. In 1871 nearly half of cattle and sheep imported into the UK had been sold live at Islington, but by 1880 most were slaughtered at Deptford. That animals had to be slaughtered within

5808-406: The City vote. The City of London Corporation was not reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , because it had a more extensive electoral franchise than any other borough or city; in fact, it widened this further with its own equivalent legislation allowing one to become a freeman without being a liveryman . In 1801, the city had a population of about 130,000, but increasing development of

5929-501: The City, namely the City of London Corporation , is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council, such as being the police authority. It is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries, e.g. Hampstead Heath . The corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London (an office separate from, and much older than, the Mayor of London ). The Lord Mayor, as of November 2023,

6050-546: The Continent — over a thousand a year — came up the Thames on Sundays and Wednesdays. As the transatlantic cattle trade developed (see below), large ocean-going cattle steamers came into use, but these were reluctant to come alongside. Accordingly the market purchased three paddle steamers (named Racoon , Taurus and Claude Hamilton ) into which cattle were transshipped at Gravesend . Between them, those vessels conveyed more than 1.6 million animals to Deptford. One of

6171-431: The First globalization. Global financial integration collapse in the summer of 1914 saw the fall of the gold standard as well. The final collapse of the gold standard came in the 1930s. The beginning of World War I . has associated with a collapse of global financial integration and a decline in trade. The emerging of new borders and a rise in levels of protection shot up to trade barriers that would be still rising after

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6292-676: The Great of Russia had studied shipbuilding. The Deptford site comprised 22 acres (8.9 ha) (afterwards increased to 30 acres (12 ha), bigger than Les Halles in Paris) and had a river frontage of 1,012 feet (308 m). It was situated on a bend in the Thames, at the bottom of Limehouse Reach . It was designed to receive up to three cattle boats at once, which might conceivably arrive at any time, day or night. Hence three large, immensely strong, timber piers were constructed for disembarking cattle. Piers were provided with platforms at two levels, so that animals could be discharged no matter what

6413-590: The Metropolitan Cattle Market and rapidly spread to most parts of Great Britain. The cattle plague epidemic of 1865-7 has been described as the most dramatic event in 19th century agricultural history. Believing it to be a divine retribution for the sins of society, the Archbishop of Canterbury demanded a day of national humiliation. Little was known about rinderpest in Great Britain and it took two years to eradicate. It did not help that

6534-501: The People in London (1896). The market had about 110 direct employees. In addition 1500 casual workers, mostly drovers and slaughtermen , were paid on piecework , and at times could earn high wages, but the hours were irregular and employment was precarious. They were irregular because they depended on when ships arrived. It was precarious because the volume of trade was driven by the animal disease regulations, which kept changing. As

6655-454: The Roman evacuation and abandonment of Londinium, was rebuilt by the Saxons, but was periodically destroyed by Viking raids and storms. As the focus of trade and population was moved back to within the old Roman walls, the older Saxon settlement of Lundenwic was largely abandoned and gained the name of Ealdwic (the "old settlement"). The name survives today as Aldwych (the "old market-place"),

6776-583: The Royal Exchange. Immediately to the south of Cornhill, Lombard Street was the location from 1691 of Lloyd's Coffee House , which became the world-leading insurance market. London's insurance sector continues to be based in the area, particularly in Lime Street . In 1708, Christopher Wren 's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral , was completed on his birthday. The first service had been held on 2 December 1697, more than 10 years earlier. It replaced

6897-400: The United Kingdom , were less vulnerable to the price and rent reductions that globalization implied. Trade between industrialized economies was the prevalent form of trade before 1914. International capital market integration was impressive during this period. By 1914, foreign assets accounted for nearly 20% of the worlds GDP . A figure, that was not measured again until the 1970s. Europe

7018-555: The Viking occupation and raids. While London, and indeed England, were afterwards subjected to further periods of Viking and Danish raids and occupation, the establishment of the City of London and the Kingdom of England prevailed. In the 10th century, Athelstan permitted eight mints to be established, compared with six in his capital, Winchester , indicating the wealth of the city. London Bridge, which had fallen into ruin following

7139-457: The air removed surface moisture. It is now known that, not only the chilling, but the drying of meat surfaces inhibits the growth of micro-organisms (though excessive drying does reduce yields and make for an unsightly product). The market was surrounded by a high boundary wall. Services inside included bank branches, a postal telegraph office, and the market's own pub, the Peter the Great . It

7260-576: The borders of the City of London, most notably during this period towards the West End and Westminster. Expansion continued and became more rapid by the beginning of the 19th century, with London growing in all directions. To the East the Port of London grew rapidly during the century, with the construction of many docks, needed as the Thames at the City could not cope with the volume of trade. The arrival of

7381-465: The business vote in the city, there was a major boundary and electoral representation revision of the wards in 2003, and they were reviewed again in 2010 for change in 2013, though not to such a dramatic extent. The review was conducted by senior officers of the corporation and senior judges of the Old Bailey ; the wards are reviewed by this process to avoid malapportionment . The procedure of review

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7502-491: The butchers, and who are paid a few pence for so doing. When they get old enough, and begin to pick up the drover's craft, they apply to the City Corporation for a licence, which is granted on satisfactory proof of good character on the payment of a fee of 5 s , and is annually renewable without further payment. Drovers at Deptford market were paid a lump sum per vessel, George Philcox told Booth. They could unload

7623-436: The cattle boats & passenger boats been examined?" On landing, animals were examined by a veterinary surgeon who took their pulse and temperature. Suspects were set aside for observation. If one animal in a cargo was found to be contagious, it was slaughtered at once and its carcase sterilised by steam in an iron digester; its companions were put with the suspects. Drovers wore protective clothing, afterwards disinfected in

7744-664: The city as a central business district led to this falling to below 5,000 after the Second World War. It has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate . In 2009, the business vote was about 24,000, greatly exceeding residential voters. As the City of London Corporation has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, its electoral practice has become increasingly anomalous. Uniquely for city or borough elections, its elections remain independent-dominated. The business or " non-residential vote "

7865-591: The construction of tall office buildings including the 600-foot (183 m), 47-storey NatWest Tower , the first skyscraper in the UK. By the 2010s, office space development had intensified in the City, especially in the central, northern and eastern parts, with skyscrapers including 30 St. Mary Axe ("the Gherkin"'), Leadenhall Building ("the Cheesegrater"), 20 Fenchurch Street ("the Walkie-Talkie"),

7986-570: The decline in international freight rates. The development of railways lowered the transport costs, which resulted in a massive migration within Europe and from the Old World to the New World . Exchange-trade stability and reduction of uncertainty in trade made possible by the gold standard. Peace between main powers and reduction of trade barriers promoted trade. 1870-1914 is also known as

8107-424: The demand. In 1842-6 the Conservative government of Sir Robert Peel —as in its repeal of the Corn Laws —had legislated to allow all foreign cattle to be imported duty free . It was the beginning of the free trade era ("the first globalisation "). By railway the Metropolitan Cattle Market received livestock not only from most parts of Great Britain and Ireland, but increasingly from the Continent. John Gamgee ,

8228-414: The end of 1887 some 9.4 million animals had been landed at Deptford. The volume of trade fluctuated considerably, but from modest beginnings in 1872 it increased until, by about 1890, more (foreign) cattle were sent to Deptford than (British) to Islington. By 1907, according to the Westminster Gazette 78% of London's live cattle trade went to Deptford. The largest number of cattle ever landed in one year

8349-414: The end of World War I. Meanwhile, tariffs , quotas and other commercial policy barriers were on a rise. Global bodies and international conferences tried to normalize, but governments were unwilling to undo their barriers and after the Imperial Economic Conference in Ottawa in 1932 , international cooperation was no longer even an illusion. Interested parties thought that the restoration of the gold standard

8470-436: The first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht . Sæberht's uncle and overlord, Æthelberht , king of Kent , built a church dedicated to St Paul in London, as the seat of the new bishop. It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the same site as the later medieval and the present cathedrals. Alfred the Great , King of Wessex occupied and began

8591-419: The first plant was inaugurated in July 1889. A refrigeration machine, made by Alfred Seale Haslam of Derby, drove dry, very cold air through a series of chilling rooms. Carcases on hooks were conveyed to these rooms directly from the slaughterhouses on overhead rails. Each room could hold 125 sides of beef. In less than 24 hours the warm carcases were chilled to slightly above freezing point. The dryness of

8712-424: The international price gaps and for example, the price gap of wheat between Liverpool and Chicago fell from 57,6% to 15,6%, and the price gap of bacon between London and Cincinnati fell from 92,5% to 17,9%. Many factors contributed to the growth of international trade. Falling transportation cost, reduction of trade barriers and move to free trade in several countries are just a few of those factors. Europe

8833-429: The lairs were brilliantly lighted at night by gas lamps. There was enough covered accommodation for 5,000 cattle and 14,000 sheep. Later it was enlarged, and could accommodate 8,500 cattle and 20,000 sheep. Admiralty storehouses were converted into abattoirs, comprising some 70 slaughterhouses. The demise of the old naval dockyard was regretted by many, and some features dating to Henry VIII were preserved. By order of

8954-461: The leading financial centres of the world. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages , but the modern area referred to as London has since grown far beyond the City of London boundary. The City is now only a small part of the metropolis of Greater London , though it remains a notable part of central London . The City of London

9075-546: The many theories about Jack the Ripper was that he was a Portuguese cattle attendant on a boat from Porto . When it docked at Deptford, a Whitechapel murder ensued, or so insisted a customs official who claimed to see a statistical correlation. His persistence irritated the police, but his theory was noticed by Queen Victoria. "The Queen fears the Detective Department is not as efficient as it might be... Have

9196-619: The metropolis e.g. Oxford Street was bad for traffic congestion and endangered life and limb. Hence in 1855 Parliament moved London's livestock market to a site in Islington . Later, Smithfield was rebuilt as a dead meat market: the one that stands today. The new Metropolitan Cattle Market was in Copenhagen Fields, Islington. A growing population and increasing money wages created a demand for more meat. The British farming industry, protected from competition, could not satisfy

9317-489: The monarch. London's chosen sheriffs also served as the sheriffs for the county of Middlesex . This meant that the City and Middlesex were regarded as one administratively for addressing crime and keeping the peace (not that the county was a dependency of the city). London's sheriffs continued to serve Middlesex until the county was given its own sheriffs again following the Local Government Act 1888 . By 1141

9438-529: The natives gave European traders a new source of labor between the continents, which also increased trade. This stage has not been officially deemed the "first era of globalization" because the world trade numbers were not increasing exponentially. World trade increased by 1% per year from 1500 to 1800, which further led to the first era of globalization. Entering the 18th century, due to new technological breakthroughs world trade started to increase rapidly. The first technological advancement that contributed to this

9559-415: The nearly deserted Roman walled city, building quays along the Thames, and laying a new city street plan. Alfred's taking of London and the rebuilding of the old Roman city was a turning point in history, not only as the permanent establishment of the City of London, but also as part of a unifying moment in early England, with Wessex becoming the dominant English kingdom and the repelling (to some degree) of

9680-540: The neighbouring London Borough of Tower Hamlets . It owns and helps fund the Old Bailey , the Central Criminal Court for England and Wales , as a gift to the nation, having begun as the City and Middlesex Sessions. The Honourable The Irish Society , a body closely linked with the corporation, also owns many public spaces in Northern Ireland . The city has its own independent police force,

9801-409: The number of workers in the City to be over 1 million. About three-quarters of the jobs in the City of London are in the financial, professional, and associated business services sectors. The Roman legions established a settlement known as "Londinium" on the current site of the City of London around AD 43. Its bridge over the River Thames turned the city into a road nexus and major port , serving as

9922-584: The original St Paul's, which had been completely destroyed in the Great Fire of London, and is considered to be one of the finest cathedrals in Britain and a fine example of Baroque architecture . The 18th century was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of the Industrial Revolution , and London's role at the centre of the evolving British Empire . The urban area expanded beyond

10043-415: The post-war modernist changes made, such as at Paternoster Square . The City suffered terrorist attacks including the 1993 Bishopsgate bombing ( IRA ) and the 7 July 2005 London bombings ( Islamist ). In response to the 1993 bombing, a system of road barriers, checkpoints and surveillance cameras referred to as the " ring of steel " has been maintained to control entry points to the city. The 1970s saw

10164-407: The purchase of £1000 worth of beef. The buyers were wholesale (and sometimes retail) butchers, who had access to slaughterhouse space on the premises, generally renting it by the year. Slaughtermen, paid by results, killed and butchered their purchases for them within the 10 days required by law; the buyers took away the meat, offal , hides and fleeces: most of the meat they resold at Smithfield. By

10285-549: The purpose. New laws followed. They encouraged the City of London to open and run a second metropolitan livestock market exclusively for imported animals, to be known as the Foreign Cattle Market. It was appreciated that, not only rinderpest, but pleuro-pneumonia and foot-and-mouth disease were contagious threats. Unless convinced that a foreign country was disease-free, the Privy Council (later,

10406-610: The railways and the Tube meant that London could expand over a much greater area. By the mid-19th century, with London still rapidly expanding in population and area, the City had already become only a small part of the wider metropolis. An attempt was made in 1894 with the Royal Commission on the Amalgamation of the City and County of London to end the distinction between the city and the surrounding County of London, but

10527-551: The resettlement of the old Roman walled area, in 886, and appointed his son-in-law Earl Æthelred of Mercia over it as part of their reconquest of the Viking occupied parts of England. The refortified Anglo-Saxon settlement was known as Lundenburh ("London Fort", a borough ). The historian Asser said that "Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more." Alfred's "restoration" entailed reoccupying and refurbishing

10648-576: The retention of the business vote argue that it is a cause of institutional inertia. The City of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002 , a private Act of Parliament, reformed the voting system and greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. Under the new system, the number of non-resident voters has doubled from 16,000 to 32,000. Previously disenfranchised firms (and other organisations) are entitled to nominate voters, in addition to those already represented, and all such bodies are now required to choose their voters in

10769-413: The rise and fall of the gold standard. During the trade boom from 1870 to 1914 one country after another joined the gold standard regime, and gradually the system spread. The gold standard allows countries to convert their currencies to gold. This reduces the exchange-rate risk, transaction costs and assures potential investors that returns are reasonably safe. The gold standard was the central pillar of

10890-547: The sea voyages most had endured long journeys on tightly packed cattle trains. Both on trains and ships severe methods were used to make recumbent cattle stand up—in case they were trampled to death. The intercontinental traffic in live animals was not actually necessary, because it was cheaper to import chilled meat, which was of good quality. Yet the Foreign Cattle Market survived for 40 years; possibly because of irrational prejudice, possibly because butchers could pass off Deptford-killed meat as Scotch or English meat, which sold at

11011-459: The serial number to his government: the animal's home farm could be traced within hours and a quarantine imposed if necessary. The Argentine government sent a vet too, in 1903. The quarantine rules could minimise, but could not altogether prevent, the importation of contagious diseases. The government accepted that cattle plague (1877) and foot-and-mouth disease (1880 and 1882) had escaped from Deptford market. Besides cattle, sheep and pigs, there

11132-461: The state of the tide. At low tides the water depth was at least 12 feet (3.7 m), thought to be sufficient for most steamers. These piers still stand today, though they have been interconnected. The architect was Sir Horace Jones , designer of Smithfield Market and Tower Bridge . Since time was short, Jones took a minimalist approach. The site was not cleared: the existing dockyard buildings were preserved and adapted as necessary. The dockyard had

11253-450: The terms the City and the Square Mile are often used as metonyms for the UK's trading and financial services industries, which continue a notable history of being largely based in the City. The name London is now ordinarily used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 Greater London boroughs, in addition to the City of London itself. The local authority for

11374-651: The walled Londinium to Lundenwic ("London market"), a settlement to the west, roughly in the modern-day Strand / Aldwych / Covent Garden area. During the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy , the London area came in turn under the Kingdoms of Essex , Mercia , and later Wessex , though from the mid 8th century it was frequently under threat from raids by different groups including the Vikings . Bede records that in AD 604 St Augustine consecrated Mellitus as

11495-431: The western ward of Farringdon Without are within the boundaries and liberties of the City, but can be thought of as independent enclaves . They are two of the few remaining liberties , an old name for a geographic division with special rights. They are extra-parochial areas , historically not governed by the City of London Corporation (and are today regarded as local authorities for most purposes ) and equally outside

11616-465: The whole body of the citizenry was considered to constitute a single community. This ' commune ' was the origin of the City of London Corporation and the citizens gained the right to appoint, with the king's consent, a mayor in 1189—and to directly elect the mayor from 1215. From medieval times, the city has been composed of 25 ancient wards , each headed by an alderman , who chairs Wardmotes , which still take place at least annually. A Folkmoot , for

11737-516: The whole of the City held at the outdoor cross of St Paul's Cathedral , was formerly also held. Many of the medieval offices and traditions continue to the present day, demonstrating the unique nature of the City and its Corporation . In 1381, the Peasants' Revolt affected London. The rebels took the City and the Tower of London, but the rebellion ended after its leader, Wat Tyler, was killed during

11858-483: The world's first major period of globalization of trade and finance , which took place between 1870 and 1914. The "second globalization" began in 1944 and ended in 1971. This led to the third era of globalization, which began in 1989 and continues today. The period from 1870 to 1914 represents the peak of 19th-century globalization. First globalization is known for increasing transfers of commodities, people, capital and labour between and within continents. However, it

11979-509: The world. Some economists claim that globalization was first started by the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus . This assumption is considered false due to the mass discovery of gold and silver in mines. This discovery led to the decrease in value of silver and gold in Europe, causing inflation in the Spanish and Portuguese empires . However, the discovery of the Americas and

12100-578: The Ætheling , Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria surrendered at Berkhamsted . William granted the citizens of London a charter in 1075; the city was one of a few examples of the English retaining some authority. The city was not covered by the Domesday Book . William built three castles around the city, to keep Londoners subdued: Around 1132 the City was given the right to appoint its own sheriffs rather than having sheriffs appointed by

12221-484: Was 224,831 (1897); of sheep, 783,440 (1882). Detailed statistics are set out in tables in this note. In the Edwardian era a combination of Chicago meatpackers took advantage of the loophole in the regulations — that animals need not be put up for sale on market days — to bypass the marketing system altogether. See The Beef Trust, below. Altogether 16.5 million animals were slaughtered at Deptford. Cattle boats from

12342-466: Was a large part of the First globalization. Migration rates were enormous in European countries like Italy , Greece or Ireland . Migrations were not just transoceanic, but within Europe as well. The fact that American and Australian workers earned higher wages than their European counterparts was the main reason for the mass migrations. Combined with low travel cost and liberal policies, mass migration

12463-424: Was a matter of professional pride that cattle weights were guesstimated . A journalist described it for Australian readers: The buyer runs over the lot, say, twenty or fifty, averaging the weights by calculation, and then offers a price, which is of course contemptuously rejected at first. By a gradual process of approximation the difficulty is got over, and a shake of the hand, or other mysterious sign, indicates

12584-458: Was a net exporter of manufacturers and a net importer of primary products. New World exchanged food and raw materials for European manufactured goods. This ended up being beneficial for European workers because, in the era where a large portion of income was still spent on food, cheaper transport meant cheaper food and thus higher real wages . However, it was not so beneficial for farmers. Only in countries that retained agricultural free trade, like

12705-412: Was a small trade in horses and donkeys. The rule that no animal could leave the market alive was strictly enforced. A country bumpkin from Essex brought a complaint before magistrate Montagu Williams . The Essex man, needing a good steed, had been induced by a glowing advertisement to pay £30 for a horse, viewable at Deptford Market. He did not realise it was in no condition to be ridden away. To find

12826-501: Was abolished in other UK local council elections by the Representation of the People Act 1969 , but was preserved in the City of London. The principal reason given by successive UK governments for retaining this mechanism for giving businesses representation, is that the city is "primarily a place for doing business". About 330,000 non-residents constitute the day-time population and use most of its services, far outnumbering residents, who number around 7,000 (2011). By contrast, opponents of

12947-580: Was an ethnically diverse city, with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe , the Middle East, and North Africa. The Romans built the London Wall some time between AD 190 and 225. The boundaries of the Roman city were similar to those of the City of London today, though the City extends further west than Londinium's Ludgate , and the Thames

13068-410: Was common in high-wage, insecure jobs that attracted improvident men, there was much insobriety, said Booth's researchers. Unemployment at the market might cause severe hardship in Deptford, where it was already high because people migrated to the district to find work. There is a record of market workers sending a wreath to the funeral of George Joseph Cooper MP, admired because at one time Argentina

13189-432: Was done on Saturdays; on other days it varied according to demand, and for a rush order might last up to 20 hours on end. The work was said to be brutalising "and conducive to drink". A carefully aimed blow at the head with a poleaxe was the usual method of stunning used in Britain. While The Times reported favourably on the relative humanity practised at Deptford, it came from the skill acquired by regular repetition; it

13310-410: Was founded in 1565 by Sir Thomas Gresham as a centre of commerce for London's merchants, and gained Royal patronage in 1571. Although no longer used for its original purpose, its location at the corner of Cornhill and Threadneedle Street continues to be the geographical centre of the city's core of banking and financial services, with the Bank of England moving to its present site in 1734, opposite

13431-544: Was inevitable. However, migration had the greatest impact on the European workers living standard during the First Globalization. Lowering the labour supply pushed up real wages. On the other hand, migration hurt their counterparts overseas. Immigration in the United States lowered unskilled wages. This resulted in tightening restrictions on immigration in the main destination countries. In Europe and

13552-481: Was lobbying for the market to be on the river's north bank, since many traders, especially the butchers of Whitechapel , did not want to have to travel to south London to buy their meat; but there were few adequate sites and access to these was poor. Eventually the defunct royal dockyard at Deptford was chosen. Here in times past Elizabeth I had come to knight Francis Drake aboard the Golden Hind , and Peter

13673-447: Was not an auction market. Trading was by private bargain, and in live animals only. Exporters consigned cattle, sheep and pigs to salesmen who worked on commission. Salesmen and buyers intermingled around the animal pens. Market days were Mondays and Thursdays, but there was nothing to stop animals being sold in their lairs on other days, and this was often done, especially when a shipload arrived late. Weighbridges were seldom used: it

13794-475: Was not infallible. A tanner , examining the lesions on a sample 100 cattle hides — albeit not from Deptford — noted that 45% showed signs of more than one blow i.e., they were not stunned by the first stroke. An advocate of the Jewish shechita method (which was also used at the market) said that he had observed that it often took five blows to fell an ox at Deptford. That women slaughtered animals at Deptford

13915-404: Was not to internationalize production but to facilitate access to raw materials, which Europe was not able to produce in great quantities. Therefore, international investment was highly concentrated. Investment mainly went into the construction of railways , land improvement, housing and other social projects that made it more pleasant for workers and beneficial for European consumers. Migration

14036-415: Was put on the blacklist and he had tried very hard to get it removed. In 1924, years after the market had closed, efforts were still being made to get it re-opened. It was their job to drive the animals off the boats, or to transship them from the transatlantic steamers at Gravesend. Nearly all the drovers begin their life in the market as "ochre boys", that is, boys who mark the animals with ochre for

14157-418: Was seen as one of the weapons in the struggle between European nations. Between France and Germany , each hoped to tighten their links with allied and neutral countries, especially the United States . Later restrictive policies, aimed at import substitution, resulted in firms setting up production in foreign countries and transforming themselves into multinationals. The period of the First globalization saw

14278-500: Was the steam engine , introduced in the 17th century. This led to major progress in international trade among the economic powers of the world. The invention of the steamship had a great impact on the first wave of globalization. Before its invention, trade routes were reliant on wind patterns, but steamships reduced shipping time and shipping cost. By 1850, nearly 129 countries used steamships for trade, and approximately 5,000 imports and exports were made to 5,000 cities, thus making

14399-489: Was the main moving power. In 1914, over 87% of total foreign investment belonged to European countries. While economic institutions and policies helped with the expend of international capital integration, the absence of military conflict between main lending countries and reduction in exchange-rate risk and transaction due to the gold standard kicked off the trend. Investment went in economies with exploitable natural resources rather than economies with cheap labour. The target

14520-464: Was the volume and quality of the trade that it had an appreciable impact on the livestock industry of the American and Canadian West. Boats also brought live animals across the equator from the pampas of Argentina, and even from the other side of the globe: Australia and New Zealand. In stormy weather numbers of animals were fatally injured, washed overboard, or jettisoned to save the vessel; others were stifled to death under closed hatches. Prior to

14641-420: Was undredged and thus wider than it is today, with Londinium's shoreline slightly north of the city's present shoreline. The Romans built a bridge across the river, as early as AD 50, near to today's London Bridge. By the time the London Wall was constructed, the city's fortunes were in decline, and it faced problems of plague and fire. The Roman Empire entered a long period of instability and decline , including

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