Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and evolution of the Universe according to Buddhist scriptures and commentaries .
110-456: It consists of a temporal and a spatial cosmology. The temporal cosmology describes the timespan of the creation and dissolvement of alternate universes in different aeons. The spatial cosmology consists of a vertical cosmology, the various planes of beings, into which beings are reborn due to their merits and development; and a horizontal cosmology, the distribution of these world-systems into an infinite sheet of existential dimensions included in
220-404: A "historical science" because "when we look out in space, we look back in time" due to the finite nature of the speed of light . Physics and astrophysics have played central roles in shaping our understanding of the universe through scientific observation and experiment. Physical cosmology was shaped through both mathematics and observation in an analysis of the whole universe. The universe
330-425: A dharma of "possession" ( prapti ), which functions with all karmic acts, so that each act or thought, though immediately passing away, creates the "possession" of that act in the continuum of instants we experience as a person. This possession itself is momentary, but continually reproduces a similar possession in the succeeding instant, even though the original act lies in the past. Through such continual regeneration,
440-517: A dharma or existent factor itself, leaves a residual impression in the succeeding series of mental instants, causing it to undergo a process of subtle evolution eventually leading to the act’s result. Good and bad deeds performed are thus said to leave "seeds" or traces of disposition that will come to fruition. In the Theravāda Abhidhamma and commentarial traditions, karma is taken up at length. The Abhidhamma Sangaha of Anuruddhācariya offers
550-434: A great trichiliocosm. He does so by suffusing the trichiliocosm with his radiance, at which point the inhabitants of those world-system will perceive this light, and then proceeds to extend his voice and powers throughout that realm. Buddhist temporal cosmology describes how the universe comes into being and is dissolved. Like other Indian cosmologies, it assumes an infinite span of time and is cyclical. This does not mean that
660-402: A king to rule them, called Mahāsammata। महासम्मत , "the great appointed one". Some of them begin to hunt and eat the flesh of animals, which have by now come into existence. Cosmology Cosmology (from Ancient Greek κόσμος (cosmos) 'the universe, the world' and λογία (logia) 'study of') is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with
770-461: A largely speculative science into a predictive science with precise agreement between theory and observation. These advances include observations of the microwave background from the COBE , WMAP and Planck satellites, large new galaxy redshift surveys including 2dfGRS and SDSS , and observations of distant supernovae and gravitational lensing . These observations matched the predictions of
880-474: A layer of water, which is 8,000,000 yojanas in depth, going down to 8,400,000 yojanas below sea level. Below the layer of water is a "circle of wind", which is 16,000,000 yojanas in depth and also much broader in extent, supporting 1,000 different worlds upon it. Yojanas are equivalent to about 13 km (8 mi). Naraka नरक or Niraya निरय ( Tibetan : དམྱལ་བ་ , Wylie : dmyal ba ; Vietnamese : Địa Ngục hoặc Na-Lạc-Ca ; Burmese : ငရဲ ; Thai : นรก )
990-831: A location and bodies of a sort, though those bodies are composed of a subtle substance which is of itself invisible to the inhabitants of the Kāmadhātu. According to the Janavasabha Sutta, when a brahma (a being from the Brahma-world of the Rūpadhātu) wishes to visit a deva of the Trāyastriṃśa heaven (in the Kāmadhātu), he has to assume a "grosser form" in order to be visible to them. There are 16–22 Rūpadhātu in Buddhist texts,
1100-503: A physical mechanism for Kepler's laws and also allowed the anomalies in previous systems, caused by gravitational interaction between the planets, to be resolved. A fundamental difference between Newton's cosmology and those preceding it was the Copernican principle —that the bodies on Earth obey the same physical laws as all celestial bodies. This was a crucial philosophical advance in physical cosmology. Modern scientific cosmology
1210-458: A role in the theory of rebirth of earliest Buddhism, noting that "the karma doctrine may have been incidental to early Buddhist soteriology." Langer notes that originally karma may have been only one of several concepts connected with rebirth. Tillman Vetter notes that in early Buddhism rebirth is ascribed to craving or ignorance. Buswell too notes that "Early Buddhism does not identify bodily and mental motion, but desire (or thirst, trsna ), as
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#17327731387071320-566: A seed, there is a time lag during which some mysterious invisible process takes place, and then the plant pops up and can be harvested. Karma and karmaphala are fundamental concepts in Buddhism. The concepts of karma and karmaphala explain how intentional actions keep one tied to rebirth in samsara , whereas the Buddhist path, as exemplified in the Noble Eightfold Path , shows us the way out of samsara . Rebirth , ,
1430-410: A small chiliocosm. A collection of a million systems is a "thousandfold to the second power middling world-system" ( Dvisahassi Majjhima Lokadhātu ) or a medium dichiliocosm. The largest grouping, which consists of a billion world-systems, is called ( Trisahassi Mahasassi Lokadhātu ), a great trichiliocosm or The Galaxy . The Tathagata , if he so wished, could effect his voice and divine power throughout
1540-612: A system created by Mircea Eliade and his colleague Charles Long. Cosmology deals with the world as the totality of space, time and all phenomena. Historically, it has had quite a broad scope, and in many cases was found in religion. Some questions about the Universe are beyond the scope of scientific inquiry but may still be interrogated through appeals to other philosophical approaches like dialectics . Some questions that are included in extra-scientific endeavors may include: Charles Kahn, an important historian of philosophy, attributed
1650-502: A treatment of the topic, with an exhaustive treatment in book five (5.3.7). The Kathāvatthu , which discusses a number of controverted points related either directly or indirectly to the notion of kamma." This involved debate with the Pudgalavādin school, which postulated the provisional existence of the person (S. pudgala , P. puggala ) to account for the ripening of karmic effects over time. The Kathāvatthu also records debate by
1760-515: Is a Sanskrit term that literally means "action" or "doing". In the Buddhist tradition, karma refers to action driven by intention ( cetanā ) which leads to future consequences. Those intentions are considered to be the determining factor in the kind of rebirth in samsara , the cycle of rebirth. Karma (Sanskrit, also karman , Pāli: kamma , Tib. las ) is a Sanskrit term that literally means "action" or "doing". The word karma derives from
1870-477: Is a common belief in all Buddhist traditions. It says that birth and death in the six realms occur in successive cycles driven by ignorance ( avidyā ), desire ( trsnā ), and hatred ( dvesa ). The cycle of rebirth is called samsāra . It is a beginningless and ever-ongoing process. Liberation from samsāra can be attained by following the Buddhist Path . This path leads to vidyā (knowledge), and
1980-614: Is a sub-branch of astronomy that is concerned with the universe as a whole. Modern physical cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang Theory which attempts to bring together observational astronomy and particle physics ; more specifically, a standard parameterization of the Big Bang with dark matter and dark energy , known as the Lambda-CDM model. Theoretical astrophysicist David N. Spergel has described cosmology as
2090-552: Is concerned with the here and now. Only after this realization did he become acquainted with the doctrine of rebirth." Bronkhorst disagrees, and concludes that the Buddha "introduced a concept of karma that differed considerably from the commonly held views of his time." According to Bronkhorst, not physical and mental activities as such were seen as responsible for rebirth, but intentions and desire. The doctrine of karma may have been especially important for common people, for whom it
2200-483: Is divided into four kalpas or "eons" (Chn/Jpn: 劫 kō ; Thai: กัป; अन्तरकल्प), each distinguished from the others by the stage of evolution of the universe during that kalpa. The four kalpas are: Each one of these kalpas is divided into twenty antarakalpas अन्तरकल्प (Pāli: antarakappa अन्तरकप्प ; Chn/Jpn: 中劫, "inside eons"; Thai: อันตรกัป) each of about the same length. For the Saṃvartasthāyikalpa this division
2310-402: Is ever born in these worlds, as a Bodhisattva must ultimately be reborn as a human being. Since these devas rise from lower planes only due to the teaching of a Buddha, they can remain empty for very long periods if no Buddha arises. However, unlike the lower worlds, the Śuddhāvāsa worlds are never destroyed by natural catastrophe. The Śuddhāvāsa devas predict the coming of a Buddha and, taking
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#17327731387072420-463: Is expressed in yojanas , a measurement of very uncertain length, but sometimes taken to be about 4,000 times the height of a man, and so approximately 4.54 miles (7.31 km). The Śuddhāvāsa ( Sanskrit : शुद्धावास ; Pali : सुद्धावास , romanized: suddhāvāsa ; Tibetan : གནས་གཙང་མ་ , Wylie : gnas gtsang ma ; Vietnamese : Tịnh Cư Thiên ; Chinese : 净居天/凈居天 ; Thai : สุทฺธาวาส ) worlds, or " Pure Abodes ", are distinct from
2530-474: Is generally understood to have begun with the Big Bang , followed almost instantaneously by cosmic inflation , an expansion of space from which the universe is thought to have emerged 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago. Cosmogony studies the origin of the universe, and cosmography maps the features of the universe. In Diderot 's Encyclopédie , cosmology is broken down into uranology (the science of
2640-465: Is kamma. Intending, one does kamma by way of body, speech, & intellect. According to Peter Harvey, It is the psychological impulse behind an action that is 'karma', that which sets going a chain of causes culminating in karmic fruit. Actions, then, must be intentional if they are to generate karmic fruits. And according to Gombrich, The Buddha defined karma as intention; whether the intention manifested itself in physical, vocal or mental form, it
2750-453: Is merely nominal, as nothing changes from one antarakalpa to the next; but for the other three kalpas it marks an interior cycle within the kalpa. The Vivartakalpa begins with the arising of the primordial wind, which begins the process of building up the structures of the universe that had been destroyed at the end of the last mahākalpa. As the extent of the destruction can vary, the nature of this evolution can vary as well, but it always takes
2860-410: Is never defined exactly, but it is meant to be very long, to be measured in billions of years if not longer. The word kalpa, means 'moment'. A maha kalpa consists of four moments (kalpa), the first of which is creation. The creation moment consists of the creation of the "receptacle", and the descent of beings from higher realms into more coarse forms of existence. During the rest of the creation moment,
2970-415: Is no set linear relationship between a particular action and its results. The karmic effect of a deed is not determined solely by the deed itself, but also by the nature of the person who commits the deed, and by the circumstances in which it is committed. Karma is also not the same as "fate" or "predestination". Karmic results are not a "judgement" imposed by a God or other all-powerful being, but rather
3080-636: Is not always clear which world they belong to, although it must always be one of the worlds of the Rūpadhātu. According to the Ayacana Sutta, Brahmā Sahampati, who advises the Buddha to teach Dhamma to the world, resides in the Śuddhāvāsa worlds. The Formless Realm ( Ārūpyadhātu ( Sanskrit ) or Arūpaloka ( Pāli )) belongs to those Devas who attained and remained in the Four Formless Absorptions ( catuḥ-samāpatti चतुःसमापत्ति ) of
3190-626: Is not observable. The Samyutta Nikaya makes a basic distinction between past karma (P. purānakamma ) which has already been incurred, and karma being created in the present (P. navakamma ). Therefore, in the present one both creates new karma (P. navakamma ) and encounters the result of past karma (P. kammavipāka ). Karma in the early canon is also threefold: Mental action (S. manaḥkarman ), bodily action (S. kāyakarman ) and vocal action (S. vākkarman ). Various Buddhist philosophical schools developed within Buddhism, giving various interpretations regarding more refined points of karma. A major problem
3300-545: Is not so much a location as it is the beings which compose it; it is sustained by their karma , and if the beings in a world all die or disappear, the world disappears too. Likewise, a world comes into existence when the first being is born into it. The physical separation is not so important as the difference in mental state; humans and animals, though they partially share the same physical environments, still belong to different worlds because their minds perceive and react to those environments differently. In some instances, all of
3410-408: Is one a brahmin or an outcaste, but by deeds ( kamma ). How this emphasis on intention was to be interpreted became a matter of debate in and between the various Buddhist schools. Karma leads to future consequences, karma-phala , "fruit of action". Any given action may cause all sorts of results, but the karmic results are only those results which are a consequence of both the moral quality of
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3520-421: Is the end-product of an analysis and reconciliation of cosmological comments found in the Buddhist sūtra and vinaya traditions. No single sūtra sets out the entire structure of the universe, but in several sūtras the Buddha describes other worlds and states of being, and other sūtras describe the origin and destruction of the universe. The order of the planes are found in various discourses of Gautama Buddha in
3630-485: Is the four lower dhyānas or rūpadhyānas (रुपध्यान) . However, although the beings of the Rūpadhātu can be divided into four broad grades corresponding to these four dhyānas, each of them is subdivided into further grades, three for each of the four dhyānas and five for the Śuddhāvāsa devas, for a total of seventeen grades (the Theravāda tradition counts one less grade in the highest dhyāna for a total of sixteen). Physically,
3740-407: Is the name given to one of the worlds of greatest suffering, usually translated into English as "hell" or "purgatory". These are realms of extreme sufferings. As with the other realms, a being is born into one of these worlds as a result of his karma , and resides there for a finite length of time until his karma has achieved its full result, after which he will be reborn in one of the higher worlds as
3850-567: Is the relation between the doctrine of no-self, and the "storage" of the traces of one's deeds, for which various solutions have been offered. The concept of karma originated in the Vedic religion , where it was related to the performance of rituals or the investment in good deeds to ensure the entrance to heaven after death, while other persons go to the underworld. The concept of karma may have been of minor importance in early Buddhism. Schmithausen has questioned whether karma already played
3960-479: Is therefore a protector of Buddhism. They guard and protect Buddhism on earth, and will pass into enlightenment as Arhats when they pass away from the Suddhavasa worlds. Brahma Sahampati , an inhabitant from these worlds, who appealed to the newly enlightened Buddha to teach, was an Anagami under the previous Buddha. Because a Śuddhāvāsa deva will never be reborn outside the Śuddhāvāsa worlds, no Bodhisattva
4070-550: Is widely considered to have begun in 1917 with Albert Einstein 's publication of his final modification of general relativity in the paper "Cosmological Considerations of the General Theory of Relativity" (although this paper was not widely available outside of Germany until the end of World War I ). General relativity prompted cosmogonists such as Willem de Sitter , Karl Schwarzschild , and Arthur Eddington to explore its astronomical ramifications, which enhanced
4180-597: The Trāyastriṃśa devas live on its peak, the Cāturmahārājikakāyika devas live on its slopes, and the Asuras live in the ocean at its base. Sumeru and its surrounding oceans and mountains are the home not just of these deities, but also vast assemblies of beings of popular mythology who only rarely intrude on the human world. They are even more passionate than the higher devas, and do not simply enjoy themselves but also engage in strife and fighting. The foundations of
4290-652: The Abhidharma-kośa , an extensive compendium which elaborated the positions of the Vaibhāṣika - Sarvāstivādin school on a wide range of issues raised by the early sutras. Chapter four of the Kośa is devoted to a study of karma, and chapters two and five contain formulations as to the mechanism of fruition and retribution. This became the main source of understanding of the perspective of early Buddhism for later Mahāyāna philosophers. The Dārṣṭāntika- Sautrāntika school pioneered
4400-537: The Pāli Vibhajyavāda tradition (represented by today's Theravādins) agrees, despite some minor inconsistencies of nomenclature, with the Sarvāstivāda tradition which is preserved by Mahāyāna Buddhists. The spatial cosmology displays the various worlds in which beings can be reborn. Spatial cosmology can also be divided into two branches. The vertical (or cakravāḍa; Devanagari: चक्रवाड ) cosmology describes
4510-625: The arūpadhyānas in a previous life, and now enjoy the fruits ( vipāka ) of the good karma of that accomplishment. Bodhisattvas , however, are never born in the Ārūpyadhātu even when they have attained the arūpadhyānas. The Formless Realm would have no place in a purely physical cosmology, as none of the beings inhabiting it has either shape or location; and correspondingly, the realm has no location either. The inhabitants of these realms are possessed entirely of mind. Having no physical form or location, they are unable to hear Dhamma teachings. There are four types of Formless Deva planes corresponding to
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4620-489: The cosmic inflation theory, a modified Big Bang theory, and the specific version known as the Lambda-CDM model. This has led many to refer to modern times as the "golden age of cosmology". In 2014, the BICEP2 collaboration claimed that they had detected the imprint of gravitational waves in the cosmic microwave background . However, this result was later found to be spurious: the supposed evidence of gravitational waves
4730-659: The nature of the universe , the cosmos . The term cosmology was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount 's Glossographia , and in 1731 taken up in Latin by German philosopher Christian Wolff in Cosmologia Generalis . Religious or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs based on mythological , religious , and esoteric literature and traditions of creation myths and eschatology . In
4840-622: The rūpa jhānas ; and the desire realm ( Kamadhātu ). The three realms contain together thirty-one planes of existence, each corresponding to a different type of mentality. These three realms ( tridhātu , trailokya ) are the Formless Realm ( Ārūpyadhātu ), which consists of four planes; the Form Realm ( Rūpadhātu ), which consists of sixteen planes; and the Pleasure Realm ( Kāmadhātu ), which consists of fifteen planes. A world
4950-576: The Brahmin Subha, how to be born in the world of Brahma, in the Subha Sutta, when asked by him. The beings born in the Kāmadhātu कामधातु ( Pali : कामलोक , romanized: Kāmaloka ; Tibetan : འདོད་པའི་ཁམས་ , Wylie : ' dod pa'i khams ; Vietnamese : Giới Dục ; Chinese : 欲界 ; Japanese : Yoku-kai ; Thai : กามภูมิ ) differ in degree of happiness, but they are all, other than Anagamis , Arhats and Buddhas , under
5060-504: The Buddha's day until now", to understand the doctrine of karma "backwards", to explain unfavorable conditions in this life when no other explanations are available. Gaining a better rebirth may have been, and still is, the central goal for many people. The adoption, by laity, of Buddhist beliefs and practices is seen as a good thing, which brings merit and good rebirth, but does not result in Nirvana , and liberation from samsāra ,
5170-418: The Rūpadhātu consists of a series of planes stacked on top of each other, each one in a series of steps half the size of the previous one as one descends. In part, this reflects the fact that the devas are also thought of as physically larger on the higher planes. The highest planes are also broader in extent than the ones lower down, as discussed in the section on Sahasra cosmology . The height of these planes
5280-667: The Sutta Pitaka. In the Saleyyaka Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya the Buddha mentioned the planes above the human plane in ascending order. In several suttas in the Anguttara Nikaya , the Buddha described the causes of rebirth in these planes in the same order. The synthesis of this data into a single comprehensive system must have taken place early in the history of Buddhism, as the system described in
5390-520: The Theravādins with the Andhakas (who may have been Mahāsāṃghikas ) regarding whether or not old age and death are the result ( vipāka ) of karma. The Theravāda maintained that they are not—not, apparently because there is no causal relation between the two, but because they wished to reserve the term vipāka strictly for mental results--"subjective phenomena arising through the effects of kamma." In
5500-679: The ability of astronomers to study very distant objects. Physicists began changing the assumption that the universe was static and unchanging. In 1922, Alexander Friedmann introduced the idea of an expanding universe that contained moving matter. In parallel to this dynamic approach to cosmology, one long-standing debate about the structure of the cosmos was coming to a climax – the Great Debate (1917 to 1922) – with early cosmologists such as Heber Curtis and Ernst Öpik determining that some nebulae seen in telescopes were separate galaxies far distant from our own. While Heber Curtis argued for
5610-513: The act is "possessed" until the actualization of the result. The Abhidharmahṛdaya by Dharmaśrī was the first systematic exposition of Vaibhāśika-Sarvāstivāda doctrine, and the third chapter, the Karma-varga , deals with the concept of karma systematically. Another important exposition, the Mahāvibhāṣa , gives three definitions of karma: The 4th century philosopher Vasubandhu compiled
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#17327731387075720-434: The action, and of the intention behind the action. According to Reichenbach, [T]he consequences envisioned by the law of karma encompass more (as well as less) than the observed natural or physical results which follow upon the performance of an action. The "law of karma" applies ...specifically to the moral sphere[.] [It is] not concerned with the general relation between actions and their consequences, but rather with
5830-606: The air without mechanical aid, living for a very long time, and not requiring sustenance; they are more like a type of lower deity than present-day humans are. Over time, they acquire a taste for physical nutriment, and as they consume it, their bodies become heavier and more like human bodies; they lose their ability to shine, and begin to acquire differences in their appearance, and their length of life decreases. They differentiate into two sexes and begin to become sexually active. Then greed, theft and violence arise among them, and they establish social distinctions and government and elect
5940-415: The arrangement of worlds in a vertical pattern, some being higher and some lower. By contrast, the horizontal (sahasra) cosmology describes the grouping of these vertical worlds into sets of thousands, millions or billions. The vertical cosmology is divided into three realms, or dhātus : the formless realm ( Ārūpyadhātu ), corresponding to the formless jhanas; the form realm ( Rūpadhātu ), corresponding to
6050-406: The basic idea is that intentional actions, driven by kleshas ("disturbing emotions"), cetanā ("volition"), or taṇhā ("thirst", "craving") create impressions , tendencies or "seeds" in the mind. These impressions, or "seeds", will ripen into a future result or fruition . If we can overcome our kleshas , then we break the chain of causal effects that leads to rebirth in
6160-572: The beings born in the Ārūpyadhātu and the Rūpadhātu are informally classified as "Gods" or "Deities" ( devāḥ ), along with the Gods of the Kāmadhātu, notwithstanding the fact that the Deities of the Kāmadhātu differ more from those of the Ārūpyadhātu than they do from humans. It is to be understood that deva is an imprecise term referring to any being living in a longer-lived and generally more blissful state than humans. Most of them are not "gods" in
6270-532: The canonical Theravāda view of kamma, "the belief that deeds done or ideas seized at the moment of death are particularly significant." The Milindapañha , a paracanonical Theravāda text , offers some interpretations of karma theory at variance with the orthodox position. In particular, Nāgasena allows for the possibility of the transfer of merit to humans and one of the four classes of petas , perhaps in deference to folk belief. Nāgasena makes it clear that demerit cannot be transferred. One scholar asserts that
6380-446: The cause of karmic consequences." Matthews notes that "there is no single major systematic exposition" on the subject of karma and "an account has to be put together from the dozens of places where karma is mentioned in the texts," which may mean that the doctrine was incidental to the main perspective of early Buddhist soteriology. According to Vetter, "the Buddha at first sought, and realized, "the deathless" ( amata/amrta ), which
6490-402: The common sense of the term, having little or no concern with the human world and rarely if ever interacting with it; only the lowest deities of the Kāmadhātu correspond to the gods described in many polytheistic and monotheistic religions. The term Brahmā is used both as a name and as a generic term for one of the higher devas. In its broadest sense, it can refer to any of the inhabitants of
6600-419: The cycle of samsara. The entire universe is said to be made up of five basic elements of Earth , Water , Fire , Air and Space . Buddhist cosmology is also intwined with the belief of Karma . As a result, some ages are filled with prosperity and peace due to common goodness, whereas other eras are filled with suffering, dishonesty and short lifespans. The Buddhist cosmology is not a literal description of
6710-421: The doctrine of karma and its fruits lies in the recognition of the urgency to put a stop to the whole process. The Acintita Sutta warns that "the results of kamma" is one of the four incomprehensible subjects , subjects that are beyond all conceptualization and cannot be understood with logical thought or reason. According to Gombrich, this sutra may have been a warning against the tendency, "probably from
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#17327731387076820-420: The domination of Māra and are bound by sensual desire, which causes them suffering. Birth into these planes takes place as a result of our Karma. The Sense-Sphere (Desire) Realm is the lowest of the three realms. The driving force within this realm is sensual desire. The following four worlds are bounded planes, each 80,000 yojanas square, which float in the air above the top of Mount Sumeru . Although all of
6930-418: The earth All of the structures of the earth, Sumeru and the rest, extend downward to a depth of 80,000 yojanas below sea level – the same as the height of Sumeru above sea level. Below this is a layer of "golden earth", a substance compact and firm enough to support the weight of Sumeru. It is 320,000 yojanas in depth and so extends to 400,000 yojanas below sea level. The layer of golden earth in turn rests upon
7040-466: The end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology below), that is, the column of fire does not rise high enough to reach them. After the destruction of the world, at the beginning of the vivartakalpa, the worlds are first populated by beings reborn from the Ābhāsvara worlds. The mental state of the devas of the Brahmā worlds ( Vietnamese : Sơ Thiền ; Chinese : 初禅三天 ; Thai : พรหมภูมิ ) corresponds to
7150-533: The first dhyāna, and is characterized by observation ( vitarka ) and reflection ( vicāra ) as well as delight ( prīti ) and joy ( sukha ). The Brahmā worlds, together with the other lower worlds of the universe, are destroyed by fire at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology below). One way to rebirth in the Brahma world is mastery over the first jhana. Another is through meditations on loving kindness, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity. The Buddha teaches
7260-570: The form of beings from a higher world being born into a lower world. The example of a Mahābrahmā being the rebirth of a deceased Ābhāsvara deva is just one instance of this, which continues throughout the Vivartakalpa until all the worlds are filled from the Brahmaloka down to Avīci Hell During the Vivartakalpa the first humans appear; they are not like present-day humans, but are beings shining in their own light, capable of moving through
7370-498: The form realms (rupa dhatu), a destruction of fire occurs, sparing everything from the realms of the 'radiant' gods and above (abha deva). After 7 of these destructions by 'fire', a destruction by water occurs, and everything from the realms of the 'pleasant' gods and above is spared (subha deva). After 64 of these destructions by fire and water, that is – 56 destructions by fire, and 7 by water – a destruction by wind occurs, this eliminates everything below
7480-444: The four types of arūpadhyānas: The Rūpadhātu ( Sanskrit : रूपधातु ; Pali : रूपलोक , romanized: rūpaloka ; Tibetan : གཟུགས་ཀྱི་ཁམས་ , Wylie : gzugs kyi khams ; Vietnamese : Giới Sắc ; Chinese : 色界 ; Japanese : 色界 , romanized : shiki-kai ; Burmese : ရူပဗြဟ္မာဘုံ ; Thai : รูปโลก / รูปธาตุ ) or "Form realm" is, as the name implies, the first of the physical realms; its inhabitants all have
7590-445: The fourth dhyāna, and is characterized by equanimity ( upekṣā ). The Bṛhatphala worlds form the upper limit to the destruction of the universe by wind at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology below), that is, they are spared such destruction. The mental state of the devas of the Śubhakṛtsna worlds ( Vietnamese : Tam Thiền ; Chinese : 三禅三天 ; Devanagari: शुभकृत्स्न; Thai : ศุภกฤตฺสนาภูมิ ) corresponds to
7700-464: The guise of Brahmins, reveal to human beings the signs by which a Buddha can be recognized. They also ensure that a Bodhisattva in his last life will see the four signs that will lead to his renunciation. The five Śuddhāvāsa worlds are: The mental state of the devas of the Bṛhatphala worlds ( Vietnamese : Tứ Thiền ; Chinese : 四禅九天/四禪九天 ; Japanese : 四禅九天 ; Thai : เวหปฺปผลา ) corresponds to
7810-463: The heavens), aerology (the science of the air), geology (the science of the continents), and hydrology (the science of waters). Metaphysical cosmology has also been described as the placing of humans in the universe in relationship to all other entities. This is exemplified by Marcus Aurelius 's observation that a man's place in that relationship: "He who does not know what the world is does not know where he is, and he who does not know for what purpose
7920-844: The hell realms. The process by which sentient beings migrate from one state of existence to another is dependent on causes and conditions. The three causes are giving or charity, moral conduct, meditative development, and their opposites. Rebirth in the Kama-loka (desire realm) depends on a person's moral conduct and practice of giving. Rebirth in the Rupa-loka (form realm) and Arupa-loka (formless realm) also requires meditation development. Liberation from all rebirth requires eons upon eons of perfecting charity, moral conduct, and meditative development, in order to achieve Buddhahood. The Buddhist cosmology as presented in commentaries and works of Abhidharma in both Theravāda and Mahāyāna traditions,
8030-473: The human lifespan descending from 80,000 years to 10, and then back up to 80,000 again. The interval between 2 of these "intermediate" moments is the "seven day purge", in which a variety of humans will kill each other (not knowing or recognizing each other), some humans will go into hiding. At the end of this purge, they will emerge from hiding and repopulate the world. After this purge, the lifespan will increase to 80,000, reach its peak and descend, at which point
8140-399: The idea of karmic seeds (S. Bīja ) and "the special modification of the psycho-physical series" (S. saṃtatipaṇāmaviśeṣa ) to explain the workings of karma. According to Dennis Hirota, [T]he Sautrantikas [...] insisted that each act exists only in the present instant and perishes immediately. To explain causation, they taught that with each karmic act a "perfuming" occurs which, though not
8250-453: The idea of rebirth is to be reconciled with the doctrines of impermanence and no-self , is a matter of philosophical inquiry in the Buddhist traditions, for which several solutions have been proposed. In early Buddhism no explicit theory of rebirth and karma is worked out, and "the karma doctrine may have been incidental to early Buddhist soteriology ." In early Buddhism, rebirth is ascribed to craving or ignorance. In later Buddhism,
8360-515: The idea that spiral nebulae were star systems in their own right as island universes, Mount Wilson astronomer Harlow Shapley championed the model of a cosmos made up of the Milky Way star system only. This difference of ideas came to a climax with the organization of the Great Debate on 26 April 1920 at the meeting of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in Washington, D.C. The debate
8470-558: The lower five fetters, consisting of self-view, sceptical doubt, clinging to rites and ceremonies, sense desires, and ill-will. They will destroy their remaining fetters of craving for fine material existence, craving for immaterial existence, conceit, restlessness and ignorance during their existence in the Pure Abodes. Those who take rebirth here are called "non-returners" because they do not return from that world, but attain final nibbana there without coming back. Every Śuddhāvāsa deva
8580-632: The lower world. In the Western sense of the word "heaven", the term best applies to the four worlds listed below: The world-mountain of Sumeru सुमेरु ( Vietnamese : Tu Di ; Sineru सिनेरु; Thai : เขาพระสุเมรุ, สิเนรุบรรพต ) is an immense, strangely-shaped peak which arises in the center of the world, and around which the Sun and Moon revolve. Its base rests in a vast ocean, and it is surrounded by several rings of lesser mountain ranges and oceans. The three worlds listed below are all located on, or around, Sumeru:
8690-508: The moral quality of actions and their consequences, such as the pain and pleasure and good or bad experiences for the doer of the act. Good moral actions lead to wholesome rebirths, and bad moral actions lead to unwholesome rebirths. The main factor is how they contribute to the well-being of others in a positive or negative sense. Especially dāna , giving to the Buddhist order, became an increasingly important source of positive karma . How these intentional actions lead to rebirth, and how
8800-479: The most commonly given number being 18. The beings of the Form realm are not subject to the extremes of pleasure and pain, or governed by desires for things pleasing to the senses, as the beings of the Kāmadhātu are. The bodies of Form realm beings do not have sexual distinctions. Like the beings of the Ārūpyadhātu, the dwellers in the Rūpadhātu have minds corresponding to the dhyānas (Pāli: jhānas). In their case, it
8910-565: The origins of ancient Greek cosmology to Anaximander . Steady state. Λ > 0 Expands then recollapses . Spatially closed (finite). k = 0 ; Λ = 0 Critical density Λ > 0 ; Λ > |Gravity| William H. McCrea 1930s Table notes: the term "static" simply means not expanding and not contracting. Symbol G represents Newton's gravitational constant ; Λ (Lambda) is the cosmological constant . Karma in Buddhism Karma (Sanskrit: कर्म, Pāli: kamma )
9020-452: The other worlds of the Rūpadhātu in that they do not house beings who have been born there through ordinary merit or meditative attainments, but only those Anāgāmins ("Non-returners"), the third level on the path of enlightenment, who are already on the path to Arhat -hood and who will attain enlightenment directly from the Śuddhāvāsa worlds without being reborn in a lower plane. These Pure Abodes are accessible only to those who have destroyed
9130-472: The planes, from the plane of neither perception nor non-perception (nevasanna-asanna-ayatana) down to the Avīci – the "without interval" niraya – constitutes the single world-system, Cakkavāla (intimating something circular, a "wheel" or one Planetary system , but the etymology is uncertain), described above. A collection of one thousand systems are called a "thousandfold minor world-system" ( Culanika Lokadhātu ) or
9240-473: The purge will happen again. Within the duration 'moment', this purge and repeat cycle seems to happen around 18 times, the first "intermediate" moment consisting only of the descent from 80,000 – the second intermediate moment consisting of a rise and descent, and the last consisting only of an ascent. After the duration 'moment' is the dissolution moment, the hells will gradually be emptied, as well as all coarser forms of existence. The beings will flock to
9350-485: The realms of the 'fruitful' devas (vehapphala devas, literally of "great fruit"). The pure abodes (suddhavasa, meaning something like pure, unmixed, similar to the connotation of "pure bred German shepherd"), are never destroyed. Although without the appearance of a Buddha, these realms may remain empty for a long time. The inhabitants of these realms have exceedingly long life spans. The formless realms are never destroyed because they do not consist of form (rupa). The reason
9460-452: The result of a karmic deed once it has been committed. In the Anguttara Nikaya , it is stated that karmic results are experienced either in this life (P. diṭṭadhammika ) or in future lives (P. samparāyika ). The former may involve a readily observable connection between action and karmic consequence, such as when a thief is captured and tortured by the authorities, but the connection need not necessarily be that obvious and in fact usually
9570-547: The result of an earlier karma that had not yet ripened. The mentality of a being in the hells corresponds to states of extreme fear and helpless anguish in humans. Physically, Naraka is thought of as a series of layers extending below Jambudvīpa into the earth. There are several schemes for counting these Narakas and enumerating their torments. One of the more common is that of the Eight Cold Narakas and Eight Hot Narakas. Sahasra means "one thousand". All of
9680-418: The results of a natural process. Certain experiences in life are the results of previous actions, but our responses to those experiences are not predetermined, although they bear their own fruit in the future. Unjust behaviour may lead to unfavorable circumstances which make it easier to commit more unjust behavior, but nevertheless the freedom not to commit unjust behavior remains. The real importance of
9790-419: The same events occur in identical form with each cycle, but merely that, as with the cycles of day and night or summer and winter, certain natural events occur over and over to give some structure to time. The basic unit of time measurement is the mahākalpa or "Great Eon" (Chinese: 大劫 dàjié /Japanese: 大劫 daigō ; Thai: มหากัปป์ or มหากัลป์; Devanagari: महाकल्प / महाकप्प). The length of this time in human years
9900-730: The science of astronomy , cosmology is concerned with the study of the chronology of the universe . Physical cosmology is the study of the observable universe 's origin, its large-scale structures and dynamics, and the ultimate fate of the universe , including the laws of science that govern these areas. It is investigated by scientists, including astronomers and physicists , as well as philosophers , such as metaphysicians , philosophers of physics , and philosophers of space and time . Because of this shared scope with philosophy , theories in physical cosmology may include both scientific and non-scientific propositions and may depend upon assumptions that cannot be tested . Physical cosmology
10010-419: The second dhyāna, and is characterized by delight ( prīti ) as well as joy ( sukha ); the Ābhāsvara devas are said to shout aloud in their joy, crying aho sukham! ("Oh joy!"). These devas have bodies that emit flashing rays of light like lightning. They are said to have similar bodies (to each other) but diverse perceptions. The Ābhāsvara worlds form the upper limit to the destruction of the universe by fire at
10120-514: The shape of the universe ; rather, it is the universe as seen through the divyacakṣus ( Pali : dibbacakkhu दिब्बचक्खु ), the "divine eye" by which a Buddha or an arhat can perceive all beings arising (being born) and passing away (dying) within various worlds; and can tell from what state they have been reborn , and into which state they will be reborn. Beings can be reborn as devas (gods and Brahmas), humans, animals, asuras (demons), pretas ("hungry ghosts"), and as inhabitants of
10230-502: The sharing of merit "can be linked to the Vedic śrāddha , for it was Buddhist practice not to upset existing traditions when well-established custom was not antithetic to Buddhist teaching." The Petavatthu , which is fully canonical, endorses the transfer of merit even more widely, including the possibility of sharing merit with all petas. In the Yogācāra philosophical tradition, one of
10340-511: The six realms. The twelve links of dependent origination provides a theoretical framework, explaining how the disturbing emotions lead to rebirth in samsara . The Buddha's teaching of karma is not strictly deterministic, but incorporated circumstantial factors, unlike that of the Jains . It is not a rigid and mechanical process, but a flexible, fluid and dynamic process, and not all present conditions can be ascribed to karma. There
10450-433: The stilling of trsnā and dvesa . Hereby the ongoing process of rebirth is stopped. The cycle of rebirth is determined by karma , literally "action". In the Buddhist tradition, karma refers to actions driven by intention ( cetanā ), a deed done deliberately through body, speech or mind, which leads to future consequences. The Nibbedhika Sutta , Anguttara Nikaya 6.63: Intention ( cetana ) I tell you,
10560-509: The third dhyāna, and is characterized by a quiet joy ( sukha ). These devas have bodies that radiate a steady light. The Śubhakṛtsna worlds form the upper limit to the destruction of the universe by water at the end of a mahākalpa (see Temporal cosmology below), that is, the flood of water does not rise high enough to reach them. The mental state of the devas of the Ābhāsvara आभास्वर worlds ( Vietnamese : Nhị Thiền ; Chinese : 二禅三天 ; Thai : อาภัสสราภูมิ/อาภาสวราธาตุ corresponds to
10670-505: The two principal Mahāyāna schools, the principle of karma was extended considerably. In the Yogācāra formulation, all experience without exception is said to result from the ripening of karma. Karmic seeds (S. bija ) are said to be stored in the "storehouse consciousness" (S. ālayavijñāna ) until such time as they ripen into experience. The term vāsāna ("perfuming") is also used, and Yogācārins debated whether vāsāna and bija were essentially
10780-403: The ultimate goal of the Buddha. According to the Buddhist tradition, the lord Buddha gained full and complete insight into the workings of karma at the time of his enlightenment. According to Bronkhorst, these knowledges are later additions to the story, just like the notion of "liberating insight" itself. In AN 5.292, the lord Buddha asserted that it is not possible to avoid experiencing
10890-420: The verbal root kṛ , which means "do, make, perform, accomplish." Karmaphala (Tib. rgyu 'bras ) is the "fruit" , "effect" or "result" of karma . A similar term is karmavipaka , the "maturation" or "cooking" of karma : The remote effects of karmic choices are referred to as the 'maturation' (vipāka) or 'fruit' (phala) of the karmic act." The metaphor is derived from agriculture: One sows
11000-536: The world exists, does not know who he is, nor what the world is." Physical cosmology is the branch of physics and astrophysics that deals with the study of the physical origins and evolution of the universe. It also includes the study of the nature of the universe on a large scale. In its earliest form, it was what is now known as " celestial mechanics ," the study of the heavens . Greek philosophers Aristarchus of Samos , Aristotle , and Ptolemy proposed different cosmological theories. The geocentric Ptolemaic system
11110-450: The world is destroyed by fire, water and wind, and not earth is because earth is the 'receptacle'. After the dissolution moment, this particular world system remains dissolved for a long time, this is called the 'empty' moment, but the more accurate term would be "the state of being dissolved". The beings that inhabited this realm formerly will migrate to other world systems, and perhaps return if their journeys lead here again. A mahākalpa
11220-402: The world is populated. Human beings who exist at this point have no limit on their lifespan. The second moment is the duration moment, the start of this moment is signified by the first sentient being to enter hell (niraya), the hells and nirayas not existing or being empty prior to this moment. The duration moment consists of twenty "intermediate" moments (antarakappas), which unfold in a drama of
11330-458: The worlds inhabited by devas (that is, all the worlds down to the Cāturmahārājikakāyika world and sometimes including the Asuras) are sometimes called "heavens". These devas enjoy aesthetic pleasures, long life, beauty, and certain powers. Anyone who has led a wholesome life can be born in them. These devas live in four heavens that float in the air, leaving them free from contact with the strife of
11440-407: The Ārūpyadhātu and the Rūpadhātu. In more restricted senses, it can refer to an inhabitant of one of the eleven lower worlds of the Rūpadhātu, or in its narrowest sense, to the three lowest worlds of the Rūpadhātu (Plane of Brahma's retinue). A large number of devas use the name "Brahmā", e.g. Brahmā Sahampati (ब्रह्मा सहम्पत्ति), Brahmā Sanatkumāra (ब्रह्मा सनत्कुमारः), Baka Brahmā (बकब्रह्मा), etc. It
11550-659: Was in fact due to interstellar dust. On 1 December 2014, at the Planck 2014 meeting in Ferrara , Italy , astronomers reported that the universe is 13.8 billion years old and composed of 4.9% atomic matter , 26.6% dark matter and 68.5% dark energy . Religious or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs based on mythological , religious , and esoteric literature and traditions of creation and eschatology . Creation myths are found in most religions, and are typically split into five different classifications, based on
11660-587: Was more important to cope with life's immediate demands, such as the problems of pain, injustice, and death. The doctrine of karma met these exigencies, and in time it became an important soteriological aim in its own right. The Vaibhāśika-Sarvāstivāda was widely influential in India and beyond. Their understanding of karma in the Sarvāstivāda became normative for Buddhism in India and other countries. According to Dennis Hirota, Sarvastivadins argued that there exists
11770-587: Was proposed by the Belgian priest Georges Lemaître in 1927 which was subsequently corroborated by Edwin Hubble 's discovery of the redshift in 1929 and later by the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964. These findings were a first step to rule out some of many alternative cosmologies . Since around 1990, several dramatic advances in observational cosmology have transformed cosmology from
11880-540: Was resolved when Edwin Hubble detected Cepheid Variables in the Andromeda Galaxy in 1923 and 1924. Their distance established spiral nebulae well beyond the edge of the Milky Way. Subsequent modelling of the universe explored the possibility that the cosmological constant , introduced by Einstein in his 1917 paper, may result in an expanding universe , depending on its value. Thus the Big Bang model
11990-454: Was the intention alone which had a moral character: good, bad or neutral [...] The focus of interest shifted from physical action, involving people and objects in the real world, to psychological process. According to Gombrich, this was a great innovation, which overturns brahmanical, caste-bound ethics. It is a rejection of caste-bound differences, giving the same possibility to reach liberation to all people, not just Brahmanins: Not by birth
12100-402: Was the prevailing theory until the 16th century when Nicolaus Copernicus , and subsequently Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei , proposed a heliocentric system. This is one of the most famous examples of epistemological rupture in physical cosmology. Isaac Newton 's Principia Mathematica , published in 1687, was the first description of the law of universal gravitation . It provided
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