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118-454: " Fat Man " (also known as Mark III ) was the codename for the type of nuclear weapon the United States detonated over the Japanese city of Nagasaki on 9 August 1945. It was the second of the only two nuclear weapons ever used in warfare, the first being Little Boy , and its detonation marked the third nuclear explosion in history. The first one was built by scientists and engineers at Los Alamos Laboratory using plutonium manufactured at

236-522: A gun-type design in which two sub-critical masses would be brought together by firing a "bullet" into a "target". Richard C. Tolman suggested an implosion-type nuclear weapon , but the proposal attracted little interest. The feasibility of a plutonium bomb was questioned in 1942. Wallace Akers , the director of the British " Tube Alloys " project, told James Bryant Conant on 14 November that James Chadwick had "concluded that plutonium might not be

354-497: A marketing buzz for the project). Still others (such as Microsoft ) discuss code names publicly, and routinely use project code names on beta releases and such, but remove them from final product(s). In the case of Windows 95, the code name "CHICAGO" was left embedded in the INF File structure and remained required through Windows Me. At the other end of the spectrum, Apple includes the project code names for Mac OS X as part of

472-453: A "B", cargo aircraft with a "C". Training aircraft and reconnaissance aircraft were grouped under the word "miscellaneous", and received "M". The same convention applies to missiles, with air-launched ground attack missiles beginning with the letter "K" and surface-to-surface missiles (ranging from intercontinental ballistic missiles to antitank rockets) with the letter "S", air-to-air missiles "A", and surface-to-air missiles "G". Throughout

590-513: A "California Parachute" was approved, a cubical open-rear tail box outer surface with eight radial fins inside of it, four angled at 45 degrees and four perpendicular to the line of fall holding the outer square-fin box to the bomb's rear end. In drop tests in early weeks, the Fat Man missed its target by an average of 1,857 feet (566 m), but this was halved by June as the bombardiers became more proficient with it. The early Y-1222 model Fat Man

708-482: A "pivotal" role in Soviet air-strategy. Code names were adopted by the following process. Aerial or space reconnaissance would note a new aircraft at a Warsaw Pact airbase. The intelligence units would then assign it a code name consisting of the official abbreviation of the base, then a letter, for example, "Ram-A", signifying an aircraft sighted at Ramenskoye Airport . Missiles were given designations like "TT-5", for

826-754: A "very critical Marxist" who was "often contemptuous of the Soviet Union " and "bitingly sharp about the American Communist Party ", to which he was nevertheless loyal. At the beginning of 1942, he wrote the screenplay of Watch on the Rhine , based on Hellman's successful play, which received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Writing (Adapted Screenplay) . But that year the Oscar went to Casablanca . In early 1942, following

944-410: A 0.125-inch-thick (3.2 mm) shell of boron-impregnated plastic. The plastic shell had a 5-inch-diameter (130 mm) cylindrical hole running through it, like the hole in a cored apple, in order to allow insertion of the pit as late as possible. The missing tamper cylinder containing the pit could be slipped in through a hole in the surrounding 18.5-inch-diameter (470 mm) aluminum pusher. The pit

1062-713: A San Francisco jewelers, are given in: Starting in December 1925 and ending August 1926, there appeared monthly, in Western Advertising “Books Reviews by S. H.” Hammett is using not using D. but his other initial S. for Samuel. After their initial publication in pulp magazines, most of Hammett's short stories were first collected in ten digest-sized paperbacks by Mercury Publications under an imprint, either Bestsellers Mystery , A Jonathan Press Mystery or Mercury Mystery . The stories were edited by Ellery Queen (Frederic Dannay) and were abridged versions of

1180-653: A faster assembly of fissile material than was possible with the gun method, but greatly reduce the amount of material required because of the resulting higher density. The idea that, under such pressures, the plutonium metal would be compressed came from Teller, whose knowledge of how dense metals behaved under heavy pressure was influenced by his pre-war theoretical studies of the Earth's core with George Gamow . The prospect of more-efficient nuclear weapons impressed Oppenheimer, Teller, and Hans Bethe , but they decided that an expert on explosives would be required. Kistiakowsky's name

1298-724: A former student of Oppenheimer's who worked on the Manhattan Project. He chose them based on their design shapes; the Thin Man was a very long device, and the name came from the Dashiell Hammett detective novel The Thin Man and series of movies . The Fat Man was round and fat and was named after Sydney Greenstreet 's character in Hammett's The Maltese Falcon . The Little Boy uranium gun-type design came later and

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1416-631: A gun-type bomb using plutonium was agreed at a meeting in Los Alamos on 17 July 1944. All gun-type work in the Manhattan Project was re-directed towards the Little Boy, enriched uranium gun design, and the Los Alamos Laboratory was reorganized with almost all of the research focused on the problems of implosion for the Fat Man bomb. The idea of using shaped charges as three-dimensional explosive lenses came from James L. Tuck and

1534-493: A home in San Francisco , where Hammett would visit on weekends. The marriage soon fell apart; however, he continued to support his wife and daughters with the income he made from his writing. Hammett was first published in 1922 in the magazine The Smart Set . Known for the authenticity and realism of his writing, he drew on his experiences as a Pinkerton operative. Hammett wrote most of his detective fiction while he

1652-413: A letter of November 25, 1937, to his daughter Mary, Hammett referred to himself and others as "we reds". He confirmed, "in a democracy all men are supposed to have an equal say in their government", but added that "their equality need not go beyond that." He also found, "under socialism there is not necessarily... any leveling of incomes." Hellman wrote that Hammett was "most certainly" a Marxist , though

1770-985: A member (and in 1941 president) of the League of American Writers, he served on its Keep America Out of War Committee in January 1940 during the period of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . Especially in Red Harvest , literary scholars have seen a Marxist critique of the social system. One Hammett biographer, Richard Layman, calls such interpretations "imaginative", but he nonetheless objects to them, since, among other reasons, no "masses of politically dispossessed people" are in this novel. Herbert Ruhm found that contemporary left-wing media already viewed Hammett's writing with skepticism, "perhaps because his work suggests no solution: no mass-action... no individual salvation... no Emersonian reconciliation and transcendence ". In

1888-425: A nameless private investigator, The Continental Op , appeared in leading crime-fiction pulp magazine Black Mask . Both Hammett and the magazine struggled in the period when Hammett became established. Because of a disagreement with editor Philip C. Cody about money owed from previous stories, Hammett briefly stopped writing for Black Mask in 1926. He then took a full-time job as an advertisement copywriter for

2006-470: A practical fissionable material for weapons because of impurities". Conant consulted Ernest Lawrence and Arthur Compton , who acknowledged that their scientists at Berkeley and Chicago, respectively, knew about the problem, but they could offer no ready solution. Conant informed Manhattan Project director Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves Jr. , who in turn assembled a special committee consisting of Lawrence, Compton, Oppenheimer, and McMillan to examine

2124-604: A radar approach. At the last minute, however, bombardier Captain Kermit K. Beahan found a hole in the clouds. The Fat Man was dropped and exploded at 11:02 local time, following a 43-second free-fall, at an altitude of about 1,650 feet (500 m). There was poor visibility due to cloud cover, and the bomb missed its intended detonation point by almost two miles, so the damage was somewhat less extensive than that in Hiroshima. An estimated 35,000–40,000 people were killed outright by

2242-479: A remarkable achievement, the last word in atrocity, cynicism and horror. Dashiell Hammett's dialogues, in which every character is trying to deceive all the others and in which the truth slowly becomes visible through a fog of deception, can be compared only with the best in Hemingway." Hammett devoted much of his life to left-wing activism . He was a strong antifascist throughout the 1930s, and in 1937 joined

2360-409: A ring with a triangular cross-section between them to keep them aligned and prevent jets forming. As plutonium was found to corrode readily, the sphere was coated with nickel. The size of the bomb was constrained by the available aircraft, which were investigated for suitability by Norman Foster Ramsey . The only Allied aircraft considered capable of carrying the Fat Man without major modification were

2478-528: A secret tour of the United States. Air Forces personnel used the code names over the phone to make it sound as though they were modifying a plane for Roosevelt and Churchill. Neddermeyer discarded Serber and Tolman's initial concept of implosion as assembling a series of pieces in favor of one in which a hollow sphere was imploded by an explosive shell. He was assisted in this work by Hugh Bradner , Charles Critchfield , and John Streib. L. T. E. Thompson

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2596-451: A solid subcritical sphere of plutonium could be compressed to a critical state, greatly simplifying the task, since earlier efforts had attempted the more-difficult compression of a hollow spherical shell. After Christy's report, the solid-plutonium core weapon was referred to as the " Christy Gadget ". The task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere. The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure

2714-461: A storm and asked if the bomb could be made ready by 9 August. Parsons agreed to try to do so. Fat Man F31 was assembled on Tinian by Project Alberta personnel, and the physics package was fully assembled and wired. It was placed inside its ellipsoidal aerodynamic bombshell, which was painted mustard yellow, and wheeled out, where it was signed by nearly 60 people, including Purnell, Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell , and Parsons. The acronym "JANCFU"

2832-710: A strike could be mounted. In March 1948, during the Berlin Blockade , all the assembly teams were in Eniwetok for the Operation Sandstone test, and the military teams were not yet qualified to assemble atomic weapons. In June 1948, General Omar Bradley , Major General Alfred Gruenther and Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe visited Sandia and Los Alamos to be shown the "special requirements" of atomic weapons. Gruenther asked Brigadier General Kenneth Nichols (hosting): "When are you going to show us

2950-574: Is a means of identification where the official nomenclature is unknown or uncertain. The policy of recognition reporting names was continued into the Cold War for Soviet, other Warsaw Pact , and Communist Chinese aircraft. Although this was started by the Air Standards Co-ordinating Committee (ASCC) formed by the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, it was extended throughout NATO as

3068-551: Is dedicated to Hellman. Why he moved away from fiction is not certain; Hellman speculated in a posthumous collection of Hammett's novels, "I think, but I only think, I know a few of the reasons: he wanted to do new kind of work; he was sick for many of those years and getting sicker." In the 1940s, Hellman and he lived at her home, Hardscrabble Farm, in Pleasantville, New York . The French novelist André Gide thought highly of Hammett, stating: "I regard his Red Harvest as

3186-504: Is dedicated to his wife Josephine. For much of 1929 and 1930, he was romantically involved with Nell Martin , a writer of short stories and several novels. He dedicated The Glass Key to her, and in turn she dedicated her novel Lovers Should Marry to him. In 1931, Hammett embarked on a 30-year romantic relationship with the playwright Lillian Hellman . Though he sporadically continued to work on material, he wrote his final novel in 1934, more than 25 years before his death. The Thin Man

3304-436: Is said to have lacked heart, yet the story he thought most of himself [ The Glass Key ] is the record of a man's devotion to a friend. He was spare, frugal, hard-boiled, but he did over and over again what only the best writers can ever do at all. He wrote scenes that seemed never to have been written before." Currently, 82 complete and standalone short stories are known to be written by Dashiell Hammett. They are listed below in

3422-447: Is to never have to report to anyone that their son "was killed in an operation called 'Bunnyhug' or 'Ballyhoo'." Presently, British forces tend to use one-word names, presumably in keeping with their post-World War II policy of reserving single words for operations and two-word names for exercises. British operation code names are usually randomly generated by a computer and rarely reveal its components or any political implications unlike

3540-950: The Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range in New Mexico . Two more were detonated during the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in 1946, and some 120 were produced between 1947 and 1949, when it was superseded by the Mark 4 nuclear bomb . The Fat Man was retired in 1950. Robert Oppenheimer held conferences in Chicago in June 1942, and in Berkeley, California , in July, at which various engineers and physicists discussed nuclear bomb design issues. They chose

3658-557: The Communist Party . On May 1, 1935, Hammett joined the League of American Writers (1935–1943), whose members included Lillian Hellman, Alexander Trachtenberg of International Publishers , Frank Folsom, Louis Untermeyer , I. F. Stone , Myra Page , Millen Brand , Clifford Odets , and Arthur Miller . (Members were largely either Communist Party members or fellow travelers .) He suspended his anti-fascist activities when, as

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3776-725: The Grand Slam , which was much longer but not as wide as the Fat Man. The only American bombers that could carry the Fat Man were the B-29 and the Convair B-36 . In November 1945, the Army Air Forces asked Los Alamos for 200 Fat Man bombs, but there were only two sets of plutonium cores and high-explosive assemblies at the time. The Army Air Forces wanted improvements to the design to make it easier to manufacture, assemble, handle, transport, and stockpile. The wartime Project W-47

3894-673: The Hanford Site and was dropped from the Boeing B-29 Superfortress Bockscar piloted by Major Charles Sweeney . The name Fat Man refers to the early design of the bomb because it had a wide, round shape. Fat Man was an implosion-type nuclear weapon with a solid plutonium core . The first of that type to be detonated was the Gadget in the Trinity nuclear test less than a month earlier on 16 July at

4012-737: The Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin . This archive includes manuscripts and personal correspondence, along with a small group of miscellaneous notes. The Irvin Department of Rare Books and Special Collections at the University of South Carolina holds the Dashiell Hammett family papers. Hammett's relationship with Lillian Hellman was portrayed in the 1977 film Julia . Jason Robards won an Oscar for his depiction of Hammett, and Jane Fonda

4130-559: The House Un-American Activities Committee about his own activities, but refused to cooperate with the committee. No official action was taken, but his stand caused him to be blacklisted , along with others who were blacklisted as a result of McCarthyism . Hammett became an alcoholic before working in advertising, and alcoholism continued to trouble him until 1948, when he quit under doctor's orders. However, years of heavy drinking and smoking worsened

4248-676: The Mystery Writers of America ; Red Harvest , The Glass Key and The Thin Man were also on the list. His novels and stories also had a significant influence on films, including the genres of private eye/ detective fiction , mystery thrillers, and film noir . Hammett was born near Great Mills on the "Hopewell and Aim" farm in Saint Mary's County, Maryland , to Richard Thomas Hammett and his wife Anne Bond Dashiell. His mother belonged to an old Maryland family, whose name in French

4366-698: The NATO reporting name for aircraft, rockets and missiles. These names were considered by the Soviets as being like a nickname given to one's unit by the opponents in a battle. The Soviets did not like the Sukhoi Su-25 getting the code name " Frogfoot ". However, some names were appropriate, such as "Condor" for the Antonov An-124 , or, most famously, "Fulcrum" for the Mikoyan MiG-29 , which had

4484-512: The Rhine ) was deliberately named to suggest the opposite of its purpose – a defensive "watch" as opposed to a massive blitzkrieg operation, just as was Operation Weserübung ( Weser -exercise), which signified the plans to invade Norway and Denmark in April 1940. Britain and the United States developed the security policy of assigning code names intended to give no such clues to

4602-595: The Type 91 torpedoes released in the attack on Pearl Harbor , was destroyed in the blast. After the war, two Y-1561 Fat Man bombs were used in the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific. The first was known as Gilda after Rita Hayworth 's character in the 1946 movie Gilda , and it was dropped by the B-29 Dave's Dream ; it missed its aim point by 710 yards (650 m). The second bomb

4720-611: The USAAF , invented a system for the identification of Japanese military aircraft. Initially using short, " hillbilly " boys' names such as " Pete ", " Jake ", and " Rufe ", the system was later extended to include girls' names and names of trees and birds, and became widely used by the Allies throughout the Pacific theater of war. This type of naming scheme differs from the other use of code names in that it does not have to be kept secret, but

4838-635: The attack on Pearl Harbor , Hammett again enlisted in the United States Army . Because he was 48 years old, had tuberculosis, and was a Communist, Hammett later stated he had "a hell of a time" being inducted into the Army. However, biographer Diane Johnson suggests that confusion over Hammett's forenames was the reason he was able to re-enlist. He served as an enlisted man in the Aleutian Islands and initially worked on cryptanalysis on

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4956-705: The Albert S. Samuels Co., a San Francisco jeweller. He was wooed back to writing for the Black Mask by Joseph Thompson Shaw, who became the new editor in the summer of 1926. Hammett dedicated his first novel, Red Harvest , to Shaw and his second novel, The Dain Curse , to Samuels. Both these novels and his third, The Maltese Falcon , and fourth, The Glass Key , were first serialized in Black Mask before being revised and edited for publication by Alfred A. Knopf . The Maltese Falcon , considered to be his best work,

5074-626: The American names (e.g., the 2003 invasion of Iraq was called "Operation Telic" compared to Americans' "Operation Iraqi Freedom", obviously chosen for propaganda rather than secrecy). Americans prefer two-word names, whereas the Canadians and Australians use either. The French military currently prefer names drawn from nature (such as colors or the names of animals), for instance Opération Daguet ("brocket deer") or Opération Baliste ("Triggerfish"). The CIA uses alphabetical prefixes to designate

5192-555: The Army as a patient at Cushman Hospital in Tacoma, Washington , where he met a nurse, Josephine Dolan, whom he married on July 7, 1921, in San Francisco. Hammett and Dolan had two daughters, Mary Jane (born 1921) and Josephine (born 1926). Shortly after the birth of their second child, health services nurses informed Dolan that, owing to Hammett's tuberculosis, she and the children should not live with him full time. Dolan rented

5310-673: The British Avro Lancaster and the American Boeing B-29 Superfortress . At the time, the B-29 represented the epitome of bomber technology with significant advantages in maximum takeoff weight , range, speed, flight ceiling, and survivability. Without the availability of the B-29, dropping the bomb would likely have been impossible. However, this still constrained the bomb to a maximum length of 11 feet (3.4 m), width of 5 feet (1.5 m) and weight of 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg). Removing

5428-618: The British case names were administered and controlled by the Inter Services Security Board (ISSB) staffed by the War Office . This procedure was coordinated with the United States when it entered the war . Random lists of names were issued to users in alphabetical blocks of ten words and were selected as required. Words became available for re-use after six months and unused allocations could be reassigned at discretion and according to need. Judicious selection from

5546-484: The Gap, Dash & Lily in 2020. The book series was made into a Netflix television series. Raymond Chandler , often considered Hammett's successor, summarized his accomplishments in his essay " The Simple Art of Murder ": "Hammett gave murder back to the kind of people that commit it for reasons, not just to provide a corpse; and with the means at hand, not with hand-wrought dueling pistols, curare, and tropical fish... He

5664-471: The Manhattan Project and Fat Man. It was detonated on 29 August 1949 as part of Operation "First Lightning" . Code name During World War I , names common to the Allies referring to nations, cities, geographical features, military units, military operations, diplomatic meetings, places, and individual persons were agreed upon, adapting pre-war naming procedures in use by the governments concerned. In

5782-594: The Mod 0 ended in December 1948, by which time there were still only 53 cores available. It was replaced by improved versions known as Mods 1 and 2 which contained a number of minor changes, the most important of which was that they did not charge the X-Unit firing system's capacitors until released from the aircraft. The Mod 0s were withdrawn from service between March and July 1949, and by October they had all been rebuilt as Mods 1 and 2. Some 120 Mark III Fat Man units were added to

5900-614: The Pinkertons he was sent to Butte, Montana , during the union strikes, though some researchers doubt this really happened. The agency's role in strike-breaking eventually left him disillusioned. Hammett enlisted in 1918 and served in the United States Army Ambulance Service . He was afflicted during that time with the Spanish flu and later contracted tuberculosis . He spent most of his time in

6018-640: The Second World War, the British allocation practice favored one-word code names ( Jubilee , Frankton ). That of the Americans favored longer compound words, although the name Overlord was personally chosen by Winston Churchill himself. Many examples of both types can be cited, as can exceptions. Winston Churchill was particular about the quality of code names. He insisted that code words, especially for dangerous operations, would be not overly grand nor petty nor common. One emotional goal he mentions

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6136-636: The Southern District of New York issued subpoenas to the trustees of the CRC bail fund in an attempt to learn the whereabouts of the fugitives. Hammett testified on July 9, 1951, in front of United States District Court Judge Sylvester Ryan, facing questioning by Irving Saypol , the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York , described by Time as "the nation's number-one legal hunter of top Communists". During

6254-443: The Spook and Laggin' Dragon from the 509th Composite Group's 393d Bombardment Squadron , and another from the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit . The cores were transported to North Field, arriving on 2 August, when F31 was partly disassembled in order to check all its components. F33 was expended near Tinian during a final rehearsal on 8 August. F32 presumably would have been used for a third attack or its rehearsal. On 7 August,

6372-439: The US (just across the Bering Strait from Nome, Alaska). The names of colors are generally avoided in American practice to avoid confusion with meteorological reporting practices. Britain, in contrast, made deliberately non-meaningful use of them, through the system of rainbow codes . Although German and Italian aircraft were not given code names by their Allied opponents, in 1942, Captain Frank T. McCoy, an intelligence officer of

6490-461: The United States code names are commonly set entirely in upper case. This is not done in other countries, though for the UK in British documents the code name is in upper case while operation is shortened to OP e.g., "Op. TELIC". This presents an opportunity for a bit of public-relations ( Operation Just Cause ), or for controversy over the naming choice (Operation Infinite Justice, renamed Operation Enduring Freedom ). Computers are now used to aid in

6608-457: The aircraft to the heavy defenses of Yahata, but the bombardier was unable to drop visually. By the time of the third bomb run, Japanese anti-aircraft fire was getting close; Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser was monitoring Japanese communications, and he reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands. Sweeney then proceeded to the alternative target of Nagasaki. It was obscured by clouds as well, and Ashworth ordered Sweeney to make

6726-463: The amount of "$ 260,000 in negotiable government bonds" was posted "to free eleven men appealing against their convictions under the Smith Act for criminal conspiracy to teach and advocate the overthrow of the United States government by force and violence." On July 2, 1951, their appeals exhausted, four of the convicted men fled rather than surrender themselves to federal agents and begin serving their sentences. The United States District Court for

6844-403: The available allocation could result in clever meanings and result in an aptronym or backronym , although policy was to select words that had no obviously deducible connection with what they were supposed to be concealing. Those for the major conference meetings had a partial naming sequence referring to devices or instruments which had a number as part of their meaning, e.g., the third meeting

6962-409: The bomb assembly team, and the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project had only three teams in June 1948. The only aircraft capable of carrying the bomb were Silverplate B-29s, and the only group equipped with them was the 509th Bombardment Group at Walker Air Force Base in Roswell, New Mexico . They would first have to fly to Sandia Base to collect the bombs and then to an overseas base from which

7080-443: The bomb rails allowed a maximum width of 5.5 feet (1.7 m). Drop tests began in March 1944 and resulted in modifications to the Silverplate aircraft due to the weight of the bomb. High-speed photographs revealed that the tail fins folded under the pressure, resulting in an erratic descent. Various combinations of stabilizer boxes and fins were tested on the Fat Man shape to eliminate its persistent wobble until an arrangement dubbed

7198-402: The bomb, and recharging took 72 hours. The batteries had to be removed in any case after nine days or they corroded. The plutonium core could not be left in for much longer, because its heat damaged the high explosives. Replacing the core also required the bomb to be completely disassembled and reassembled. This required about 40 to 50 men and took between 56 and 72 hours, depending on the skill of

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7316-486: The bomb, because compressed fissile materials react more rapidly and therefore more completely. Nonetheless, it was decided that the plutonium gun would receive the bulk of the research effort, since it was the project with the least uncertainty involved. It was assumed that the uranium gun-type bomb could be easily adapted from it. The gun-type and implosion-type designs were codenamed " Thin Man " and "Fat Man", respectively. These code names were created by Robert Serber ,

7434-467: The bombing at Nagasaki. A total of 60,000–80,000 fatalities resulted, including from long-term health effects, the strongest of which was leukemia with an attributable risk of 46% for bomb victims. Others died later from related blast and burn injuries, and hundreds more from radiation illnesses from exposure to the bomb's initial radiation. Most of the direct deaths and injuries were among munitions or industrial workers. Mitsubishi's industrial production in

7552-487: The city was severed by the attack; the dockyard would have produced at 80 percent of its full capacity within three to four months, the steelworks would have required a year to get back to substantial production, the electric works would have resumed some production within two months and been back at capacity within six months, and the arms plant would have required 15 months to return to 60 to 70 percent of former capacity. The Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works, which manufactured

7670-505: The day after the bombing of Hiroshima, Rear Admiral William R. Purnell , Commodore William S. Parsons , Tibbets, General Carl Spaatz and Major General Curtis LeMay met on Guam to discuss what should be done next. Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering, they decided to proceed with their orders and drop another bomb. Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by 11 August, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to

7788-420: The density of plutonium gave inconsistent results. At first contamination was believed to be the cause, but it was soon determined that there were multiple allotropes of plutonium . The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures. Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300–450 °C (570–840 °F) range. It

7906-810: The fifth rocket seen at Tyura-Tam . When more information resulted in knowing a bit about what a missile was used for, it would be given a designation like "SS-6", for the sixth surface-to-surface missile design reported. Finally, when either an aircraft or a missile was able to be photographed with a hand-held camera, instead of a reconnaissance aircraft, it was given a name like " Flanker " or " Scud " – always an English word, as international pilots worldwide are required to learn English. The Soviet manufacturer or designation – which may be mistakenly inferred by NATO – has nothing to do with it. Jet-powered aircraft received two-syllable names like Foxbat , while propeller aircraft were designated with short names like Bull . Fighter names began with an "F", bombers with

8024-407: The fissile material present. The detonation released the energy equivalent to the detonation of 21 kilotons of TNT or 88 terajoules. About 30% of the yield came from fission of the uranium tamper. The first plutonium core was transported with its polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for

8142-404: The flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use 640 US gallons (2,400 L) of fuel carried in a reserve tank. This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back, consuming still more fuel. Replacing the pump would take hours; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well, as the bomb

8260-419: The form of the isotope plutonium-240 . This has a far higher spontaneous fission rate and radioactivity than plutonium-239 . The cyclotron -produced isotopes, on which the original measurements had been made, held much lower traces of plutonium-240. Its inclusion in reactor-bred plutonium appeared unavoidable. This meant that the spontaneous fission rate of the reactor plutonium was so high that pre-detonation

8378-466: The hearing, Hammett refused to provide the information the government wanted, specifically the list of contributors to the bail fund, "people who might be sympathetic enough to harbor the fugitives." Instead, on every question regarding the CRC or the bail fund, Hammett declined to answer, citing the Fifth Amendment , refusing to even identify his signature or initials on CRC documents the government had subpoenaed. As soon as his testimony concluded, Hammett

8496-488: The hearings. He found himself impoverished due to a combination of the cancellation of radio programs The Adventures of Sam Spade and The Adventures of the Thin Man , and a lien on his income by the Internal Revenue Service for back taxes owed since 1943. Furthermore, his books were no longer in print. During the 1950s Hammett was investigated by Congress . He testified on March 26, 1953, before

8614-548: The island of Umnak . For fear of his radical tendencies, he was transferred to the Headquarters Company where he edited an Army newspaper entitled The Adakian . In 1943, while still a member of the military, he co-authored The Battle of the Aleutians with Cpl. Robert Colodny, under the direction of an infantry intelligence officer, Major Henry W. Hall. While in the Aleutians, he developed emphysema . After

8732-623: The issue. The committee concluded that any problems could be overcome simply by requiring higher purity. Oppenheimer reviewed his options in early 1943 and gave priority to the gun-type weapon, but he created the E-5 Group at the Los Alamos Laboratory under Seth Neddermeyer to investigate implosion as a hedge against the threat of pre- detonation . Implosion-type bombs were determined to be significantly more efficient in terms of explosive yield per unit mass of fissile material in

8850-589: The last four years of his life with Hellman. "Not all of that time was easy, and some of it very bad", she wrote, but, "guessing death was not too far away, I would try for something to have afterwards." Hammett died in Lenox Hill Hospital in Manhattan on January 10, 1961, of lung cancer , diagnosed just two months beforehand. A veteran of both world wars, Hammett is buried at Arlington National Cemetery . Many of Hammett's papers are held by

8968-841: The need for him to earn money to support the family. He left school when he was 13 years old and held several jobs before working for the Pinkerton National Detective Agency . He served as an operative for Pinkerton from 1915 to February 1922, with time off to serve in World War I . While working for the Pinkerton Detective Agency in Baltimore, he learned the trade and worked in the Continental Trust Building (now known as One Calvert Plaza). He said that while with

9086-460: The official name of the final product, a practice that was started in 2002 with Mac OS X v10.2 "Jaguar". Google and the AOSP also used this for their Android operating system until 2013, where the code name was different from the release name. Dashiell Hammett Samuel Dashiell Hammett ( / ˈ d æ ʃ ə l ˈ h æ m ɪ t / DASH -əl HAM -it ; May 27, 1894 – January 10, 1961)

9204-529: The order of initial publication. Unfinished writings, fragments, drafts, screen stories, and stories that were later reworked into novels are listed separately below. All 28 Continental Op stories and one unfinished story have been collected in their original unabridged forms in The Big Book of the Continental Op (2017). Examples of Hammett's advertising copy for the Albert S. Samuels Company,

9322-441: The original publications. Some of these digests were reprinted as hardcovers by World Publishing under the imprint Tower Books . The anthologies were also republished as Dell mapbacks . An important collection, The Big Knockover and Other Stories , edited by Lillian Hellman, helped revive Hammett's literary reputation in the 1960s and fostered a new series of anthologies. However, most of these used Dannay's abridged version of

9440-507: The part of the agency supporting an operation. In many cases with the United States, the first word of the name has to do with the intent of the program. Programs with "have" as the first word, such as Have Blue for the stealth fighter development, are developmental programs, not meant to produce a production aircraft. Programs that start with Senior, such as Senior Trend for the F-117, are for aircraft in testing meant to enter production. In

9558-416: The purpose by Philip Morrison. Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a tamper. It left Kirtland Army Air Field on a C-54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group 's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on 26 July and arrived at North Field on Tinian on 28 July. Three Fat Man high-explosive pre-assemblies (designated F31, F32, and F33) were picked up at Kirtland on 28 July by three B-29s: Luke

9676-497: The real thing? Surely this laboratory monstrosity is not the only type of atomic bomb we have in stockpile?" Nichols told him that better weapons would soon become available. After the "astonishingly good" results of Operation Sandstone were available, stockpiling of improved weapons began. The Soviet Union's first nuclear weapon was based closely on Fat Man's design thanks to spies Klaus Fuchs , Theodore Hall , and David Greenglass , who provided them with secret information concerning

9794-479: The release of defendants arrested for political reasons." The trustees were Hammett, who was chairman, Robert W. Dunn , and Frederick Vanderbilt Field . The CRC was designated a Communist front group by the US Attorney General . Hammett endorsed Henry A. Wallace in the 1948 United States presidential election . The CRC's bail fund gained national attention on November 4, 1949, when bail in

9912-401: The role of Hammett in the 1992 made-for-TV film Citizen Cohn . Sam Shepard played Hammett in the 1999 Emmy -nominated biographical television film Dash and Lilly along with Judy Davis as Hellman. Hammett's influence on popular culture has continued well after his death. For example, in 1975, the film The Black Bird starred George Segal in the role of Sam Spade, Jr.; the film

10030-408: The same." The bomb was 128.375 inches (3.2607 m) long and 60.25 inches (153.0 cm) in diameter. It weighed 10,265 pounds (4,656 kg). The plutonium pit was 3.62 inches (92 mm) in diameter and contained an "Urchin" modulated neutron initiator that was 0.8 inches (20 mm) in diameter. The depleted uranium tamper was an 8.75-inch-diameter (222 mm) sphere, surrounded by

10148-452: The selection. And further, there is a distinction between the secret names during former wars and the published names of recent ones. A project code name is a code name (usually a single word, short phrase or acronym) which is given to a project being developed by industry , academia , government, and other concerns. Project code names are typically used for several reasons: Different organizations have different policies regarding

10266-460: The sleuths in Hammett's Thin Man series. The book was made into a film of the same name and released in 2008. Later, Rachel Cohn and David Levithan authored several books whose main characters are named for Hammett and his partner. In 2011, they published the YA suspenseful romance, Dash & Lily's Book of Dares . That was followed by the sequels The Twelve Days of Dash and Lily in 2016 and Mind

10384-493: The stockpile between 1947 and 1949, when it was superseded by the Mark 4 nuclear bomb . The Mark III Fat Man was retired in 1950. A nuclear strike would have been a formidable undertaking in the post-war 1940s due to the limitations of the Mark III Fat Man. The lead-acid batteries which powered the fuzing system remained charged for only 36 hours, after which they needed to be recharged. To do this meant disassembling

10502-406: The stories. The first collection that prints stories in their original unedited forms is Crime Stories & Other Writings (2001) edited by Steven Marcus (especially after the third printing that incorporates the original text of This King Business ). Subsequent collections that print the original texts include Lost Stories (2005), The Hunter and Other Stories (2013), and The Big Book of

10620-456: The tuberculosis he contracted in World War I, and then, according to Hellman, "jail had made a thin man thinner, a sick man sicker ... I knew he would now always be sick." Hellman wrote that during the 1950s, Hammett became "a hermit", his decline evident in the clutter of his rented "ugly little country cottage", where "signs of sickness were all around: now the phonograph was unplayed,

10738-420: The typewriter untouched, the beloved foolish gadgets unopened in their packages." He may have meant to start a new literary life with the novel Tulip , but left it unfinished, perhaps because he was "just too ill to care, too worn out to listen to plans or read contracts. The fact of breathing, just breathing, took up all the days and nights." Hammett could no longer live alone, and they both knew it, so he spent

10856-658: The uninitiated. For example, the British counter measures against the V-2 was called Operation Crossbow . The atomic bomb project centered in New Mexico was called the Manhattan Project , derived from the Manhattan Engineer District which managed the program. The code name for the American A-12 / SR-71 spy plane project, producing the fastest, highest-flying aircraft in the world,

10974-438: The use and publication of project code names. Some companies take great pains to never discuss or disclose project code names outside of the company (other than with outside entities who have a need to know, and typically are bound with a non-disclosure agreement ). Other companies never use them in official or formal communications, but widely disseminate project code names through informal channels (often in an attempt to create

11092-617: The war, Hammett returned to political activism, "but he played that role with less fervour than before". He was elected president of the Civil Rights Congress (CRC) on June 5, 1946, at a meeting held at the Hotel Diplomat in New York City, and "devoted the largest portion of his working time to CRC activities". In 1946, a bail fund was created by the CRC "to be used at the discretion of three trustees to gain

11210-436: The weaponeer in charge of the bomb. Bockscar lifted off at 03:47 on 9 August 1945, with Kokura as the primary target and Nagasaki the secondary target. The weapon was already armed but with the green electrical safety plugs still engaged. Ashworth changed them to red after ten minutes so that Sweeney could climb to 17,000 feet (5,200 m) in order to get above storm clouds. During the pre-flight inspection of Bockscar ,

11328-612: Was Oxcart . The American group that planned that country's first ICBM was called the Teapot Committee . Although the word could stand for a menace to shipping (in this case, that of Japan), the American code name for the attack on the subtropical island of Okinawa in World War II was Operation Iceberg . The Soviet Union's project to base missiles in Cuba was named Operation Anadyr after their closest bomber base to

11446-555: Was "TRIDENT". Joseph Stalin , whose last name means "man of steel", was given the name "GLYPTIC", meaning "an image carved out of stone". Ewen Montagu , a British Naval intelligence officer, discloses in Beyond Top Secret Ultra that during World War II , Nazi Germany habitually used ad hoc code names as nicknames which often openly revealed or strongly hinted at their content or function. Some German code names: Conversely, Operation Wacht am Rhein (Watch on

11564-711: Was De Chiel. He had an elder sister, Aronia, and a younger brother, Richard Jr. Known as Sam, Hammett was baptized a Catholic and grew up in Philadelphia and Baltimore . Hammett's family moved to Baltimore when he was four years old in 1898, and for the most part, it was the city where he lived until he left permanently in 1920 when he was 26 years old. As a teen, Hammett attended the Baltimore Polytechnic Institute, but his formal education ended during his first year of high school; he dropped out in 1908 due to his father's declining health and

11682-548: Was a sequel and parody of the Maltese Falcon . The 1976 comedic film Murder by Death spoofed a number of famous literary sleuths, including several of Hammett's. The film's characters included Sam Diamond and Dick and Dora Charleston, which were parodies of Hammett's Sam Spade and Nick and Nora Charles. In 2006, Rachel Cohn published the YA novel, Nick & Norah's Infinite Playlist , whose main characters were named for

11800-533: Was an American writer of hard-boiled detective novels and short stories. He was also a screenwriter and political activist. Among the characters he created are Sam Spade ( The Maltese Falcon ), Nick and Nora Charles ( The Thin Man ), The Continental Op ( Red Harvest and The Dain Curse ) and the comic strip character Secret Agent X-9 . Hammett is regarded as one of the very best mystery writers. In his obituary in The New York Times , he

11918-503: Was assembled with just 90 bolts. On 16 July 1945, a Y-1561 model Fat Man, known as the Gadget, was detonated in a test explosion at a remote site in New Mexico , known as the " Trinity " test. It gave a yield of about 25 kilotonnes (100 TJ). Some minor changes were made to the design as a result of the Trinity test. Philip Morrison recalled that "There were some changes of importance... The fundamental thing was, of course, very much

12036-737: Was assembled with some 1,500 bolts. This was superseded by the Y-1291 design in December 1944. This redesign work was substantial, and only the Y-1222 tail design was retained. Later versions included the Y-1560, which had 72 detonators; the Y-1561, which had 32; and the Y-1562, which had 132. There were also the Y-1563 and Y-1564, which were practice bombs with no detonators at all. The final wartime Y-1561 design

12154-865: Was brought in as a consultant and discussed the problem with Neddermeyer in June 1943. Thompson was skeptical that an implosion could be made sufficiently symmetric. Oppenheimer arranged for Neddermeyer and Edwin McMillan to visit the National Defense Research Committee 's Explosives Research Laboratory near the laboratories of the Bureau of Mines in Bruceton, Pennsylvania (a Pittsburgh suburb), where they spoke to George Kistiakowsky and his team. But Neddermeyer's efforts in July and August at imploding tubes to produce cylinders tended to produce objects that resembled rocks. Neddermeyer

12272-812: Was continued, and drop tests resumed in January 1946. The Mark III Mod 0 Fat Man was ordered into production in mid-1946. High explosives were manufactured by the Salt Wells Pilot Plant , which had been established by the Manhattan Project as part of Project Camel , and a new plant was established at the Iowa Army Ammunition Plant . Mechanical components were made or procured by the Rock Island Arsenal ; electrical and mechanical components for about 50 bombs were stockpiled at Kirtland Army Air Field by August 1946, but only nine plutonium cores were available. Production of

12390-533: Was described as "the dean of the... 'hard-boiled' school of detective fiction." Time included Hammett's 1929 novel Red Harvest on its list of the 100 best English-language novels published between 1923 and 2005. In 1990, the Crime Writers' Association picked three of his five novels for their list of The Top 100 Crime Novels of All Time . Five years later, The Maltese Falcon placed second on The Top 100 Mystery Novels of All Time as selected by

12508-415: Was developed by von Neumann. The success of the bomb relied on absolute precision in all of the plates moving inward at the same time. To overcome the difficulty of synchronizing multiple detonations, Luis Alvarez and Lawrence Johnston invented exploding-bridgewire detonators to replace the less precise primacord detonation system. Robert Christy is credited with doing the calculations that showed how

12626-440: Was found guilty of contempt of court . Hammett served time in a West Virginia federal penitentiary, where, according to Lillian Hellman, he was assigned to clean toilets. Hellman noted in her eulogy of Hammett that he submitted to prison rather than reveal the names of the contributors to the fund because "he had come to the conclusion that a man should keep his word." By 1952, Hammett's popularity had declined as result of

12744-433: Was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum, but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with alpha particles , which would exacerbate the pre-ignition problem. The metallurgists then hit upon a plutonium–gallium alloy , which stabilized the δ phase and could be hot pressed into the desired shape. They found it easier to cast hemispheres than spheres. The core consisted of two hemispheres with

12862-403: Was highly likely and that the bomb would blow itself apart during the initial formation of critical mass , creating a " fizzle ." The distance required to accelerate the plutonium to speeds where pre--detonation would be less likely would need a gun barrel too long for any existing or planned bomber. The only way to use plutonium in a workable bomb was therefore implosion. The impracticability of

12980-526: Was immediately suggested, and Kistiakowsky was brought into the project as a consultant in October. The implosion project remained a backup until April 1944, when experiments by Emilio G. Segrè and his P-5 Group at Los Alamos on the newly reactor-produced plutonium from the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge and the B Reactor at the Hanford Site showed that it contained impurities in

13098-412: Was live. Colonel Paul Tibbets and Sweeney therefore elected to have Bockscar continue the mission. Kokura was obscured by clouds and drifting smoke from fires started by a major firebombing raid by 224 B-29s on nearby Yahata the previous day. This covered 70% of the area over Kokura, obscuring the aiming point. Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes, burning fuel and repeatedly exposing

13216-449: Was living in San Francisco in the 1920s; streets and other locations in San Francisco are frequently mentioned in his stories. He said, "I do take most of my characters from real life." His novels were some of the first to use dialogue that sounded authentic to the era. "I distrust a man that says when . If he's got to be careful not to drink too much, it's because he's not to be trusted when he does." The bulk of his early work, featuring

13334-602: Was named only to contrast with the Thin Man. Los Alamos's Thin Man and Fat Man code names were adopted by the United States Army Air Forces in their involvement in the Manhattan Project, codenamed Silverplate . A cover story was devised that Silverplate was about modifying a Pullman car for use by President Franklin Roosevelt (Thin Man) and United Kingdom Prime Minister Winston Churchill (Fat Man) on

13452-565: Was nicknamed Helen of Bikini and was placed without its tail fin assembly in a steel caisson made from a submarine's conning tower; it was detonated 90 feet (27 m) beneath the landing craft USS LSM-60 . The two weapons yielded about 23 kilotonnes (96 TJ) each. The Los Alamos Laboratory and the Army Air Forces had already commenced work on improving the design. The North American B-45 Tornado , Convair XB-46 , Martin XB-48 , and Boeing B-47 Stratojet bombers had bomb bays sized to carry

13570-482: Was nominated for her portrayal of Lillian Hellman. Hammett was the subject of a 1982 prime time PBS biography, The Case of Dashiell Hammett , that won a Peabody Award and a special Edgar Allan Poe Award from the Mystery Writers of America. Frederic Forrest portrayed Hammett semifictionally as the protagonist in the 1982 film Hammett , based on the novel of the same name by Joe Gores . He would reprise

13688-572: Was stenciled on the bomb's nose, standing for "Joint Army-Navy-Civilian Fuckup", a play on the acronym " SNAFU ". It was then wheeled to the bomb bay of the B-29 Superfortress named Bockscar after the plane's command pilot Captain Frederick C. Bock , who flew The Great Artiste with his crew on the mission. Bockscar was flown by Major Charles W. Sweeney and his crew, with Commander Frederick L. Ashworth from Project Alberta as

13806-488: Was the only person who believed that implosion was practical, and only his enthusiasm kept the project alive. Oppenheimer brought John von Neumann to Los Alamos in September to take a fresh look at implosion. After reviewing Neddermeyer's studies, and discussing the matter with Edward Teller , von Neumann suggested the use of high explosives in shaped charges to implode a sphere, which he showed could not only result in

13924-406: Was warm to the touch, emitting 2.4 W/kg-Pu, about 15 W for the 6.19-kilogram (13.6 lb) core. The explosion symmetrically compressed the plutonium to twice its normal density before the "Urchin" added free neutrons to initiate a fission chain reaction . The result was the fission of about 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of the 6.19 kilograms (13.6 lb) of plutonium in the pit, or about 16% of

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