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57-597: The Servicio Exterior de Falange (English: Phalanx Foreign Service), sometimes known simply as the " Falange Exterior ", was an organism of the Falange España Tradicionalista y de las JONS , the single party of the Franco regime . It was in charge of coordinating the actions of the various Falange delegations that existed outside Spanish territory. Founded at the dawn of the Civil War , after

114-661: A minister without portfolio and vice-president of the Junta Política. When Spanish troops occupied internationally administered Tangier in June 1940, Sánchez Mazas made a speech stressing the Spanish character of the city. His addition of nationalist rhetoric to a politically delicate situation earned him a severe dressing down from Franco's brother-in-law and fellow minister, Ramón Serrano Suñer , who later claimed to have been so angry that he tried to punch Sánchez Mazas in

171-655: A Catholic monarchist party, three parties that were becoming relevant in Spanish right wing politics before the civil war. The Spanish Falange and the Council of National Syndicalist Offensives were relatively small, and merged into the Spanish Falange de la JONS leading up to the 1936 election. As civil war broke out, the Falange grew rapidly in membership, and the Traditionalist Communion, already

228-581: A change in the policy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in contrast to Serrano's previous pro-Nazi stance. Ximénez de Sandoval had also seen his diplomatic career cut short in March 1942, after an incident. During the rest of the war, Fernando María Castiella (1942–1943) and Antonio Riestra del Moral (1943–1945) were in charge of the Servicio Exterior . Very weakened compared to its situation at

285-572: A government crisis and caused Franco to dismiss several ministers. Ultimately, six Falangists were convicted of the attack and one, Juan Domínguez, was executed. By the middle of the Second World War , Franco and leading Falangists, while distancing themselves from the faltering European fascists, stressed the unique "Spanish Catholic authoritarianism" of the regime and the Falange. Instructions were issued in September 1943 that henceforth

342-671: A half million members by the end of the war and provided nursing and support services for the Nationalist forces. The command of the party rested upon Manuel Hedilla as many of the first generation leaders were dead or incarcerated by the Republicans. Among them was Primo de Rivera, who was a government prisoner. As a result, he was referred to among the leadership as el Ausente , ("the Absent One"). After being sentenced to death on 18 November 1936, José Antonio Primo de Rivera

399-557: A post he would hold until the end of 1940. Another of the consequences of the end of the war was that the Servicio Exterior ceased to appear as an organization that defended the Francoist side, and came to be considered merely as the foreign organization of the single party of the Francoist Dictatorship , a regime that was also closely linked to the fascist powers. This circumstance would end up generating problems for

456-747: A prominent force, mobilized its forces to fight the leftist government. With the eruption of the Civil War in July 1936, the Falange fought on the side of the Nationalist faction against the Second Spanish Republic . Expanding rapidly from several thousand to several hundred thousand, the Falange's male membership was accompanied by a female auxiliary, the Sección Femenina . Led by José Antonio's sister Pilar Primo de Rivera , this latter subsidiary organization claimed more than

513-591: A territorial chief at the head of the entire organization in each territory. The Falange Exterior had an extensive network of charitable and social services . Its delegations abroad came to have aid services such as the Hermandad Exterior –in charge of charity with the indigent–, the Health Service, the Delegation of Culture and Recreation –which had educational and propaganda purposes–, or

570-632: The Carlist Comunión Tradicionalista to form the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS (FET y de las JONS). Franco assumed the role of jefe nacional ("National Chief"), following the model of a fascist party. All other parties supporting the rebel faction were disbanded, but former members of those parties were free to join the FET as individual members. The new party's official ideology

627-751: The Chilean Embassy in Madrid. In 1937 he attempted to flee the country, but was arrested in Barcelona in November. Confined in the prison-ship Uruguay until 24 January 1939, he was taken for execution with about fifty other inmates to the Monastery of Santa Maria del Collell in Girona . The execution was carried out on 30 January, but as the squad fired at the prisoners Sánchez Mazas leapt out of

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684-751: The Falange had established some sixty delegations throughout the country. In May 1939 the Argentine government approved a decree by which the State took control over all those foreign associations. The activities of FET y de las JONS in the country were suspended a few months later, although a new entity was created –the Hermandad Hispano-Argentina – under whose cover political activities could continue. Another Latin American country where

741-805: The Falange of being behind a number of incidents and events that had taken place in Latin America, such as the sinarchist movement in Mexico or the United Officers Group in Argentina. After the end of World War II, the activities of the Servicio Exterior were greatly reduced and it was finally disbanded on 10 December 1945. During the war, the Republican authorities had carried out the evacuation of thousands of minors to foreign countries, such as France, Great Britain, Belgium or

798-628: The Falange was very active was Cuba. A local section of the party was active there as early as June 1936; during the civil war in Spain it suffered numerous internal conflicts and even some splits. However, the Falange in Cuba saw the end of its activities in August 1941, as a consequence of the controversy and the bad image that surrounded this party. In the context of the Second World War −1942–

855-619: The Falange Exterior . After the end of the conflict, the headquarters of the organization, previously located in Salamanca, Burgos and San Sebastián, was installed in 1940 at 42 Alcalá Street –formerly the headquarters of the Círculo de Bellas Artes –, in Madrid. Shortly after the beginning of the Second World War, in September 1939 Ricardo Giménez-Arnau was chosen to head the Servicio Exterior , replacing Sánchez Mazas. During

912-746: The Marquis de Zayas . In the Asia-Pacific region the main section of the Falange Exterior operated in the Philippines , from 1936. A foreign section was also established in Japan, with Eduardo Herrera de la Rosa –former military attachment at the Spanish embassy in Tokyo– leading the organization in Japanese territory, since 1938. Many of the sections of the Falange in Latin America were born under

969-860: The Servicio Exterior de Falange maintained many similarities with the Auslandsorganisation (AO) of the German Nazi Party , but also with the Fasci all'Estero of the National Fascist Party . After the Decree of Unification , in the summer of 1937 the Servicio Exterior was framed as an organism of the new party of Franco's regime, FET y de las JONS . It was renamed the Delegación Nacional del Servicio Exterior de Falange (DNSEF). Several delegations of

1026-547: The Soviet Union . Even before the end of the war, Franco's government tried to repatriate minors and return them to Spain, although it sometimes encountered many difficulties in achieving this goal. From 1941 onwards, the Delegación Extraordinaria de Repatriación (Extraordinary Repatriation Delegation) became directly dependent on the Falange Exterior , so it was the latter's personnel who carried out

1083-525: The kidnapping of children evacuated abroad by the Republic. Some authors place the creation of the Servicio Exterior de Falange as early as August 1935, while others establish that it was in October 1936, with the mission of grouping together the Falange delegations already existing abroad. Wayne H. Bowen points out that it was not formally organized until the beginning of 1937, and that until then

1140-550: The "New Order" that the Axis Powers were organizing in Europe. However, the reaction of many Latin American countries to Fascist influence –and also the increasing lack of resources– seriously affected the activity of the Falange Exterior . Thus, to the detriment of political activity, they ended up opting to use cultural coverage as a platform from which to continue radiating ideological approaches. This, however, did not minimize

1197-617: The American continent. Although Falangist activities in Latin America were not related to Nazi Germany, it is certain that the Pan-Hispanic doctrine of the Falange was welcomed by the Latin American ruling elites, and constituted a challenge to North American hegemony in the area. The distrust of the Spanish-American governments went a step further when at the end of 1941 the authorities of several countries outlawed

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1254-597: The DNSEF acted in parallel to Franco's diplomacy, until 18 May 1938, when the Burgos government issued a report establishing that all Falange delegations abroad would be subordinated to Franco's diplomatic representatives. Towards the end of the civil war the Servicio Exterior had managed to establish numerous sections abroad, mainly in South American countries. The main South American delegation of FET y de las JONS

1311-628: The Falange/FET would be referred to exclusively as a "movement" and not a "party". The Falange also developed youth organizations, with members known as Flechas and Pelayos , under the umbrella of the Spanish Youths Organization . Most of these young members wore red berets . With improving relations with the United States, economic development and the rise of a group of relatively young technocrats within

1368-712: The Franco regime to spread its ideology throughout Latin American countries. The Falange Exterior also developed an important activity in the Axis countries, despite the war situation. It was very active in Germany, Morocco, Portugal and Italy. Latin America was a region of special activity for the Falange . The regime sought to recover the former privileged relationship that Spain had in this area, as well as to reinforce its image abroad, and to strengthen its political position before

1425-596: The United Kingdom and several Central American countries. In Puerto Rico , a territory under U.S. control, it had an important presence and activity. However, the Falange 's activities in Puerto Rico began to be drastically reduced after September 1942. In Spanish Morocco it also had an important presence. In Nazi Germany , on the other hand, the Falange Exterior had an important network with centers in several German cities, such as Berlin and Hamburg. Berlin

1482-618: The beginning of the war, the Servicio Exterior continued to develop its actions abroad, although each time in a more difficult context, and with a greater lack of funds. The subversive activities of the Falange in Spanish America were one of the reasons that led the Americans –there were also other reasons, especially the so-called Laurel incident – to impose an oil embargo on Franco's Spain in 1944. In March of that year, U.S. Attorney General Francis Biddle went so far as to accuse

1539-406: The children to Franco's representatives. This led the Servicio Exterior de Falange to take charge of this task, even going so far as to bet on clandestine operations and even kidnapping to obtain the repatriation of the greatest number of minors. Wherever an external delegation of the Falange was created, the complete party structure had been reproduced, except for the militia organization. Thus,

1596-420: The consequent intensification of its activities. In addition, he brought back Ximénez de Sandoval –now his chief of staff–, and in August 1941 he put him back in charge of the Falange Exterior . Serrano Suñer encouraged through the Falange Exterior the promotion of " Hispanism " in the countries of Latin America, and especially a more bellicose and anti-American Hispanism. The organization became an instrument of

1653-543: The council, and he remained an active member up until the breakout of the Civil War (July 1936-April 1939). In February 1934, he wrote Oración por los muertos de Falange . He also co-wrote Cara al Sol , the anthem of Falange Española . Sánchez Mazas was arrested and imprisoned in Madrid in March 1936, as the Falange was outlawed. He was given a short leave on the occasion of the birth of his fourth son, but he failed to report back and instead took up political asylum at

1710-403: The developing fascist movement. Returning to Spain in 1929, he became an advisor for José Antonio Primo de Rivera , the main ideologist of the Falange . In 1933, he helped to create the weekly newspaper El Fascio , which was banned by the authorities after its second issue was published. After the creation of Falange Española on 29 October 1933, Sánchez Mazas was appointed a member of

1767-573: The external delegations had a secretariat and a treasurer, as well as immigrant aid services –with the aim of attracting those immigrants with a precarious economic situation– and delegations of the Women's Section , the Auxilio Social and the Frente de Juventudes . The scale of chiefs was also reproduced abroad, with external regional headquarters, external provincial [regional] headquarters, and

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1824-465: The famous Sección Femenina (Female Section). These aid organizations also carried out other tasks, such as the granting of scholarships of different types, or even the repatriation to the peninsula of Spaniards without resources –although the activity took place in very small numbers–. It also had its own propaganda organs abroad. Through the Servicio Exterior numerous publications of Falangist ideology were published abroad. One of these publications,

1881-461: The first years of the war, under the protection of the German victories in Europe and the influence of the fascist powers, Falange tried to take advantage of that context to strengthen its action abroad. By 1940 the new Minister of Foreign Affairs, Serrano Suñer , gave a new impetus to the organization. One consequence of this new policy was an increase in the budget of the foreign organization, and

1938-464: The functions it performed were of a military nature, such as surveillance operations, covert repression, aggression, espionage and counter-espionage. Thus, all activities carried out by the Falange abroad were to be carried out through its Servicio Exterior . However, all Falangists leaving Spain on official missions were forbidden to wear their uniforms, as well as to come into contact with members of political organizations in other countries. Initially,

1995-526: The functions of coordination of the existing organizations abroad were exercised since the summer of 1936 by the Jefatura Nacional de Prensa y Propaganda (National Press and Propaganda Headquarters), headed by Luis Casaús Ardura. It was not until February 1937 that the national leader of the Falange , Manuel Hedilla , appointed a head to take charge of the Falange organization abroad: Felipe Ximénez de Sandoval . In its first moments of existence,

2052-563: The government, the Falange continued to decline. In 1965, the SEU, the movement's student organization, was officially disbanded. At the same time, the membership of the Falange as a whole was both shrinking and aging. In 1974, the average age of Falangists in Madrid was at least 55 years. The organization's relatively few new members came mostly from the conservative and devoutly Catholic areas of northern Spain. Rafael S%C3%A1nchez Mazas Rafael Sánchez Mazas (18 February 1894 – October 1966)

2109-511: The group and escaped into the forest. A manhunt was organised and he was found hiding under some bushes shortly after. However, the Republican soldier who found him decided not to report him and spared his life. After a few days he joined the Nationalist lines. As one of the camisas viejas (literally "old shirts", referring to Falangists from before the Civil War), Sánchez Mazas was appointed to Francisco Franco 's cabinet of 8 August 1939 as

2166-518: The local branches of the Nazi Party and the Falange . The possibility of Spanish intervention in the conflict also became a matter of concern for the United States, which investigated the activities of the Falange in Latin America, especially in Puerto Rico , where pro-Falange and pro-Franco sentiments were high, even among the ruling classes. Some Falangists promoted the idea of supporting

2223-703: The magazine Arriba España , was published in Buenos Aires, Havana, La Paz , Panama, San José de Costa Rica, etc. Two publications were published in the Philippines: Yugo , and later Amanecer . From 22 February 1943, a Boletín de Información del Servicio Exterior de Falange , directed by Enrique Llovet , was published. Beginning in November 1937, provincial headquarters were established in Italy, Argentina , Cuba , Chile, Brazil and Uruguay . Later, new headquarters were established in Germany, Portugal ,

2280-427: The outbreak of the conflict the organization was reorganized according to the needs of the time, serving as liaison for the Falange sections abroad. During those years it developed an active propaganda work abroad. During the World War II it played a relevant role, especially among the Spanish populations in South America and the Philippines. The Servicio Exterior was also involved in other types of operations, such as

2337-484: The outbreak of the world war, support for Franco and the Falange was high among the Spanish community in the Philippines. Through the " Philippine Falange ", the Servicio Exterior de Falange even collaborated with the Japanese forces in their fight against the U.S. military forces during the conquest of the Philippines in 1942. Serrano Suñer fell into disgrace and in September 1942 he was removed from all his posts, being replaced by Francisco Gómez-Jordana . This meant

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2394-429: The party were organized in various countries abroad, and in time these ended up becoming an instrument of the Francoist state abroad. José del Castaño Cardona , a career diplomat, would soon replace Ximénez de Sandoval as head of the organization in August 1937. The Falange Exterior already played an important role by then, as it coordinated and controlled the different Falange organizations that existed abroad. Some of

2451-484: The protection of the Servicio Exterior de Falange , although this was not the case for all of them. In the case of Argentina, for example, at the beginning of July 1936 –before the outbreak of the Civil War– an "Argentine Section of FE de las JONS " was already functioning, formed by some members of the Spanish colony who maintained contacts with Argentine nationalists. Thereafter, more Falangists moved to Argentina and developed an active work in this country. By October 1938

2508-401: The rejection in America. The threat of the fascist powers also began to be taken into account by the U.S. State Department , which considered Franco's foreign policy in South America as an instrument of Nazi Germany and fascist Italy. Thus, at the VIII Pan-American Conference, Secretary of State Cordell Hull insisted on the need to take measures to prevent the infiltration of the Axis Powers in

2565-403: The situation on the island reached such a point that even American diplomats accused the whole Spanish community of being anti-Cuban and of giving protection to the agents of the Nazi Gestapo . FET y de las JONS The FET y de las JONS began as the Spanish Falange, a Falangist party, The Council of National Syndicalist Offensives, a national syndicalist party and Traditionalist Communion,

2622-432: The struggle of the former Spanish colonies against American domination. However, the reality of post-war Spain was that the Francoist state was not in an economic position to carry out an extensive propaganda campaign; this was compounded by the determined opposition of the liberal elites and leftist movements. In addition to the activities in South America, this situation also occurred in other territories. For example, before

2679-421: The task of locating and repatriating the evacuated children. From this moment on, the number of repatriated children increased considerably. Among the main receiving countries of children evacuated by the Republic were France, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and Belgium, whose authorities cooperated closely with the Franco regime in the repatriation. However, in many cases the host families refused to cede custody of

2736-425: The unified party. Franco had sought to control the Falange after a clash between Hedilla and his main critics within the group, the legitimistas of Agustín Aznar and Sancho Dávila y Fernández de Celis , that threatened to derail the Nationalist war effort. Franco became jefe nacional and "Supreme Caudillo" of the FET. He was vested with "the most absolute authority," including the power to name his successor, and

2793-443: The various Nationalist factions within the party in 1937, tensions continued between dedicated Falangists and other groups, particularly Carlists. Such tensions erupted in violence with the Begoña Incident of August 1942, when hardline Falangist activists attacked a Carlist religious gathering in Bilbao with grenades. The attack and the response of government ministers with Carlist leanings (most notably Varela and Galarza ) led to

2850-401: The war, the party was charged with developing an ideology for Franco's regime. This job became a cursus honorum for ambitious politicians—new converts, who were called camisas nuevas ("new shirts") in opposition to the more overtly populist and ideological "old shirts" from before the war. Membership in the Falange/FET reached a peak of 932,000 in 1942. Despite the official unification of

2907-611: Was a Spanish nationalist writer and a leader of the Falange , a far-right political movement created in Spain before the Spanish Civil War . Sánchez Mazas received a law degree at the Real Colegio de Estudios Superiores de María Cristina , El Escorial and in 1915 published Pequeñas memorias de Tarín . He then wrote for the magazine Hermes and the newspapers ABC , El Sol and El Pueblo Vasco . His work brought him to Morocco in 1921 (for El Pueblo Vasco ) and Rome in 1922 (for ABC ). He lived in Italy for seven years and married Liliana Ferlosio. While there he identified with

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2964-409: Was executed on 20 November 1936 (a date since known as 20-N in Spain) in a Republican prison, giving him martyr status among the Falangists. This conviction and sentence was possible since he'd lost his parliamentary immunity after his party did not have enough votes during the last elections. On April 19, 1937, Francisco Franco issued a Unification Decree , which forcibly merged the Falange with

3021-530: Was in Uruguay, with about 1,000 members, compared to about 4,000 members in the rest of South America. In Argentina there were about sixty delegations of FET y de las JONS around 1939. Historian Stanley G. Payne has pointed out that the influence of these delegations led to the creation of independent Latin American parties inspired by Falangism, such as the Bolivian Socialist Falange or the Chilean National Falange . In contrast, by 1939 some Falange delegations had run into opposition from local authorities. This

3078-399: Was only responsible to "God and history." None of the vanquished parties in the war suffered such a toll of deaths among their leaders as did the Falange. 60% of the pre-war Falange membership lost their lives in the war. However, most of the property of all other parties and trade unions were assigned to the party. In 1938, all trade unions were unified under Falangist command. After

3135-453: Was the Falangists' 27 puntos —reduced after the unification to 26, the article barring mergers being dropped. The merged party incorporated many Falangist symbols–the blue shirt, the yoked arrows, the red and black flag, and the anthem Cara al Sol among others. Despite this, the party was in fact a wide-ranging nationalist coalition, closely controlled by Franco. Parts of the original Falange (including Hedilla) and many Carlists did not join

3192-486: Was the case of the governments of Cuba and Mexico, countries not very receptive to Franco's regime, which in fact ended up expelling several Falangist agents. However, it was the Servicio Exterior de Falange who played the leading role in the regime's propaganda activities in Latin America. The end of the civil war brought changes in the DNSEF: in May 1939 José del Castaño was replaced by Rafael Sánchez Mazas , and del Castaño became Inspector General of Falange Exterior ,

3249-400: Was the center of the Falange in Germany, and there they had a large headquarters located in Rankestraße, inaugurated in April 1939. However, by that time, in view of its large size, the organization needed to be restructured: in November 1938 the organization of the Falange in Germany was thoroughly reorganized. In Fascist Italy it had branches in several important cities, initially headed by

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