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87-766: Palazzo Farnese ( [paˈlattso farˈneːze, -eːse] ) or Farnese Palace is one of the most important High Renaissance palaces in Rome . Owned by the Italian Republic, it was given to the French government in 1936 for a period of 99 years, and currently serves as the French embassy in Italy. First designed in 1517 for the Farnese family, the building expanded in size and conception when Alessandro Farnese became Pope Paul III in 1534, to designs by Antonio da Sangallo

174-553: A papal bull of March 14, 1566. However, Pius V relentlessly avoided delegating any real autonomous power to Bonelli. The Cardinal Nephew (also called cardinale padrone or Secretarius Papae et superintendens status ecclesiasticæ : "Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State", Italian : Sopraintendente dello Stato Ecclesiastico ) was an official legate of the Roman Curia , approximately equivalent to

261-653: A Cardinal Nephew. Alexander VIII also undid another reform of Innocent XI by restoring the revenues of the former Chancery to the Vice-Chancellor , who was, at the time, his cardinal-nephew, Pietro Ottoboni . Edith Standen, a consultant to the Metropolitan Museum of Art , calls Ottoboni the "last and certainly not least magnificent example" of the "splendor of an extinct species, the Cardinal-Nephew". Until 1692 (and sometimes thereafter),

348-418: A bull banning nepotism, which had been tediously composed between 1677 and 1686. Innocent XI refused entreaties from within the papal court to bring his only nephew, Livio Odescalchi , the prince of Sirmio , to Rome, although he did elevate Carlo Stefano Anastasio Ciceri, a distant relative, cardinal on September 2, 1686. Innocent XI's successor, Pope Alexander VIII (1689–1691), was the last Pope to create

435-455: A famed papal historian, "the evil wrought by them in and to the church has been well nigh fatal to it; and it continued to increase until increasing danger warned the Pontiffs to abstain. The worst cardinals, providing, of course, the material for the worst Popes, have been for the most part cardinal nephews, the temptation to the creation of such having been rendered too great to be resisted by

522-509: A few choices for the creation of a Cardinal Nephew. According to papal historian Frederic Baumgartner, Pope Sixtus V 's (1585–1590) reign "started badly" because Alessandro Peretti di Montalto was "his only nephew eligible for the office, but he could hardly serve the Pope as a trustworthy confidant", causing several cardinals to refuse to attend his investiture. Another papal historian Ludwig von Pastor notes that "the misfortune of Pope Pamphilj

609-764: A formal distance between the person of the pontiff and the everydayness of pontifical affairs. Gregorio Leti 's Papal Nepotism, or the True Relation of the Reasons Which Impel the Popes to make their Nephews Powerful (1667) is one example of contemporary criticism of the institution of the cardinal-nephew; Leti holds the rare distinction of having all of his publications on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books"). The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913 defended

696-675: A great explosion of creative genius, following a model of art history first proposed by the Florentine Giorgio Vasari . The paintings in the Vatican by Michelangelo and Raphael are said by some scholars such as Stephen Freedberg to represent the culmination of High Renaissance style in painting, because of the ambitious scale of these works, coupled with the complexity of their composition, closely observed human figures, and pointed iconographic and decorative references to classical antiquity , can be viewed as emblematic of

783-568: A parallel government, in which family members often figured prominently. The loss of temporal power over the Papal States ( de facto in 1870 with the " Roman Question " and de jure in 1929 with the Lateran Treaty ) also eliminated the structural conditions which had figured prominently in the family politics of earlier Popes. A Pope's nephew dies twice; the second time like all men, the first time when his uncle dies. Even into

870-446: A potential threat to any future pontiff; for example, Ludovisi came to lead the opposition against Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644), even talking about calling a council against the Pope (which never occurred as Ludovisi died in 1632) because "no one else had the standing to confront Urban's titanic temper". Nepotism is a common feature in the history of governance, particularly in cultures where identity and loyalty are determined more at

957-544: Is Anselm of Lucca , the nephew or brother of Pope Alexander II (1061–1073), although until the end of 12th the majority of the alleged cases of such appointments are dubious, either because the relationship between the Pope and cardinal is not proven, or because the cardinalate of the papal kinsman is uncertain. However, it is beyond doubt that the promotions of papal relatives to the College of Cardinals were common in 13th century . According to historian John Bargrave, "by

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1044-468: Is considered to have exercised "more unlimited authority" than any previous cardinal-nephew. Notably, cardinal-nephews were allowed to create facultas testandi to will the rewards of their benefices to secular family members. Gregory XV's successor, Urban VIII (1623–1644) convened two special committees of theologians, both of whom endorsed this practice. As Fabio Chigi, I had a family. As Alexander VII I have none. You won't find my name anywhere in

1131-498: Is estimated that Paul V Borghese had transferred to his family approximately 4% of the total income of the Holy See during his pontificate. Borghese's personal revenues in 1610 were 153,000 scudi compared to the mere 4,900 scudi that constituted his entire family's income in 1592. Pope Gregory XIV (1590–1591) began the practice of creating cardinal-nephews whose formal appointment coincided de facto with their nomination, and

1218-516: Is referred to in art history. The serene mood and luminous colours of paintings by Giorgione and early Titian exemplify High Renaissance style as practiced in Venice . Other recognizable pieces of this period include Leonardo da Vinci 's Mona Lisa and Raphael 's The School of Athens . Raphael's fresco, set beneath an arch, is a virtuoso work of perspective, composition and disegno . In more recent years, art historians have characterised

1305-412: Is the largest papal stemma , or coat-of-arms with papal tiara, Rome had ever seen. When Paul appeared on the balcony, the entire facade became a setting for his person. The courtyard, initially open arcades, is ringed by an academic exercise in ascending orders ( Doric , Ionic and Corinthian ). The piano nobile entablature was given a frieze with garlands, added by Michelangelo. On the garden side of

1392-485: The Farnese Hercules . Other works from the family collection of classical sculpture were also housed in the palace. One of the vault and ceiling fresco by Annibale Carracci is Galleria Farnese , an art gallery. According to Ann Sutherland Harris, "The Galleria frescoes make even more extensive use of ancient sculptural and architectural sources, and in addition take their basic structure from two ceilings by

1479-792: The Avignon Papacy , the Cardinal Nephew was responsible for the spiritual and temporal governance of the Comtat Venaissin , where the Avignon Popes had resided; in 1475, Pope Sixtus IV raised the Diocese of Avignon to the rank of an archbishopric, to the benefit of his nephew Giuliano della Rovere . The terms of the office of Cardinal Nephew were established by a papal brief developed and refined by Pius V's successors to Paul V (1605–1621). The Cardinal Nephew

1566-485: The Cardinal Secretary of State , which absorbed its functions after the office of Cardinal Nephew was abolished in 1692. The office has been likened by historians to a " prime minister ", " alter ego ", or "vice-pope". The Cardinal Nephew was generally among a Pope's first cardinal creations, and his creature was traditionally accompanied by a salute from the guns of Castel Sant'Angelo . Following

1653-1062: The Chief Secretary's Building in Sydney; the Banco di Roma in Alexandria, Egypt; the Royal Palace, Stockholm , and the Cunard Building in Liverpool. Also in England, Charles Barry 's great admiration for the building led him to use it as the model for London's Reform Club . In Puccini 's opera Tosca (1900), set in Napoleonic Rome, the heroine 's confrontation with the malevolent chief of police, Scarpia, takes place in Palazzo Farnese. The Palazzo

1740-473: The Council of Bazill , Session 21, the number of cardinals was not to be above 24, and not any nephew of the Pope or of any cardinal was to be of that number. ( Session 23.)" Pope Clement VI (1342–1352) created more cardinal-nephews than any other pontiff, including six on September 20, 1342, the greatest number of cardinal-nephews elevated at one time. The capitulation of the 1464 papal conclave limited

1827-475: The Piazza Farnese . Architectural features of the main facade include the alternating triangular and segmental pediments that cap the windows of the piano nobile , the central rusticated portal and Michelangelo's projecting cornice which throws a deep shadow on the top of the facade. Michelangelo revised the central window in 1541, adding an architrave to give a central focus to the facade, above which

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1914-694: The Sala d'Ercole or the Hercules Room, the "Sala del Mappamondo" or The Room of Maps, and the well known The Loves of the Gods (1597–1608) in the Farnese Gallery, both by the Bolognese painter Annibale Carracci . Other rooms have frescoes by Daniele da Volterra and by other artists. For generations, the room with Herculean frescoes accommodated the famous Greco-Roman antique sculpture known as

2001-581: The Tiber which was finished in 1589. Following the death of Cardinal Odoardo Farnese in 1626, the palazzo stood virtually uninhabited for twenty years. At the conclusion of the War of Castro with the papacy, Duke Odoardo was able to regain his family properties, which had been sequestered. The resulting inventory is the oldest surviving complete inventory of Palazzo Farnese. After Odoardo's death, Pope Alexander VII allowed Queen Christina of Sweden to lodge in

2088-523: The archeology of Italy and medieval Papal history. The Ecole Française de Rome embarked on a massive project of publishing as much of the documentation of the constructing of the palazzo, its frescoes and furnishings, library and works of art, fully annotated and indexed. The first three volumes are: The Palazzo Farnese was filmed as part of the 2013 Julian Fellowes re-creation of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet starring Douglas Booth as Romeo. High Renaissance The art historian Jill Burke

2175-427: The de facto rubber stamp of the pontiff himself. Although Pope Leo XI (1605) died before he was able to elevate his nephew, Roberto Ubaldini , Ubaldini was elevated by Leo XI's successor, Pope Paul V in 1615. Some historians consider Scipione Borghese , cardinal-nephew to Pope Paul V , to be the "prototypical representative" of a cardinal-nephew, unlike those before him, created to "provide for and oversee

2262-615: The 1490s. Frederick Hartt states that Leonardo's The Last Supper , the painting of which began in 1495 and concluded in 1498, makes a complete break with the Early Renaissance and created the world in which Michelangelo and Raphael worked, while Christoph Luitpold Frommel, in his 2012 article "Bramante and the Origins of the High Renaissance," states The Last Supper is the first High Renaissance work but adds that

2349-692: The 17th century, the Roman High Baroque and Classicism . The famous Farnese sculpture collection, now in the National Archeological Museum of Naples , as well as other Farnese collections, now mostly in Capodimonte Museum in Naples , were accommodated in the palace. "The most imposing Italian palace of the 16th century", according to Sir Banister Fletcher, this palazzo was designed by Antonio da Sangallo

2436-410: The 18th century, the cardinal-nephew was a natural power broker at the conclave following his uncle's death, as a figure whom cardinals desirous of continuing the status quo could rally around. In particular, the cardinal-nephew often commanded the loyalty of his uncle's creatures , whom he generally had a role in naming. For example, Alessandro Peretti di Montalto led his uncle's creatures in

2523-840: The Cardinal Nephew as well as the institution of the cardinal-nephew declined as the power of the Cardinal Secretary of State increased and the temporal power of popes decreased in the 17th and 18th centuries. The list of cardinal-nephews includes at least fifteen, and possibly as many as nineteen popes ( Gregory IX , Alexander IV , Adrian V , Gregory XI , Boniface IX , Innocent VII , Eugene IV , Paul II , Alexander VI , Pius III , Julius II , Leo X , Clement VII , Benedict XIII , and Pius VII ; perhaps also John XIX and Benedict IX , if they were really promoted cardinals; as well as Innocent III and Benedict XII , if in fact they were related to their elevators); one antipope ( John XXIII ); and two or three saints ( Charles Borromeo , Guarinus of Palestrina , and perhaps Anselm of Lucca , if he

2610-462: The Curia. An analysis of the five papal conclaves between 1605 and 1644 shows that cardinal-nephews were generally unsuccessful in electing their chosen candidates, although the victor was usually a cardinal created by the deceased Pope. Crown-cardinals in particular, when they deigned to travel to Rome for the conclave, tended to oppose the election of cardinal-nephews, although they equally opposed

2697-521: The High Renaissance as a movement as opposed to a period, one amongst several different experimental attitudes towards art in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth century. This movement is variously characterised as conservative, as reflecting new attitudes towards beauty, a deliberate process of synthesising eclectic models, linked to fashions in literary culture, and reflecting new preoccupations with interpretation and meaning . High Renaissance sculpture, as exemplified by Michelangelo 's Pietà and

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2784-505: The High Renaissance ended in 1520 with the death of Raphael. Honour and Fleming stated the High Renaissance was the first quarter of the 16th century meaning it would have ended in 1525. By contrast, Luigi Lanzi, in his History of Italian Painting , 1795–96, stated it ended with the Sack of Rome in 1527, when several artists were killed and many other dispersed from Rome , and Stokstad agrees. Raunch asserts that 1530 has been considered to be

2871-538: The High Renaissance were marked by a renewed emphasis upon the classical tradition, the expansion of networks of patronage , and a gradual attenuation of figural forms into the style later termed Mannerism . Alexander Raunch in The Art of the High Renaissance and Mannerism in Rome and Central Italy , 2007, states the High Renaissance began in 1490, while Marilyn Stokstad in Art History , 2008, states it began in

2958-405: The High Renaissance. Even relatively minor painters of the period, such as Fra Bartolomeo and Mariotto Albertinelli , produced works that are still lauded for the harmony of their design and their technique. The elongated proportions and exaggerated poses in the late works of Michelangelo , Andrea del Sarto and Correggio prefigure so-called Mannerism , as the style of the later Renaissance

3045-546: The Onesti lineage, an endeavor which yielded only a circuitous connection to Saint Romualdo. After the turbulent 1800 papal conclave , Pope Pius VII (1800–1823) shunned the institution of the cardinal-nephew and instead relied on his Cardinal Secretary of State , Ercole Consalvi . During the 19th century, the only nephew of a Pope created cardinal was Gabriele della Genga Sermattei , nephew of Pope Leo XII , created cardinal by Pope Gregory XVI on February 1, 1836. Although

3132-748: The Pope it elected ( Pope Paul II ) to appointing one cardinal-nephew, along with other conditions designed to increase the power of the College of Cardinals and reduce the Pope's ability to dilute that power. The Fifth Council of the Lateran declared in 1514 that the care of relatives was to be commended, and the creation of cardinal-nephews was often recommended or justified based on the need to care for indigent family members. A cardinal-nephew could usually expect profitable appointments; for example, Alessandro Farnese , cardinal-nephew of Pope Paul III (1534–1549) held 64 benefices simultaneously in addition to

3219-559: The Younger , one of Bramante 's assistants in the design of St. Peter's and an important Renaissance architect in his own right. Construction began in 1515 after one or two years of preparation, and was commissioned by Alessandro Farnese , who had been appointed as a cardinal in 1493 at age 25 and was living a princely lifestyle. Work was interrupted by the Sack of Rome in 1527 . When, in January 1534 Alessandro became Pope Paul III ,

3306-431: The Younger . Its building history involved some of the most prominent Italian architects of the 16th century, including Michelangelo , Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola and Giacomo della Porta . At the end of the 16th century, the important fresco cycle of The Loves of the Gods in the Farnese Gallery was carried out by the Bolognese painter Annibale Carracci , marking the beginning of two divergent trends in painting during

3393-400: The alternative; for example, the college urged Pope Benedict XIII (1724–1730) to appoint a cardinal-nephew, who they hoped would replace Benedict XIII's notorious lieutenant Niccolò Coscia . Pope Gregory XIII (1572–1585) also had to be urged by key figures in the college to appoint his cardinal-nephew: Filippo Boncompagni. The cardinal-nephews of the 18th century declined in influence as

3480-403: The baptismal registers of Siena . Not all Cardinal Nephews were cardinal-nephews in the strictest sense. In fact, papal historian Valérie Pirie considers not having a nephew a "tremendous asset for a would-be Pope" as it left the position open for an ally cardinal. For example, Pope Clement X gave the office to Cardinal Paoluzzi-Altieri, whose nephew had recently married Laura Caterina Altieri,

3567-471: The cardinal-nephew (or a lay nephew) would be the chief archivist of the Pope, usually removing the archives to a family archive upon the death of the pontiff. In particular, the archival collections of the Barberini , Farnese , Chigi , and Borghese families contain important papal documents. Pope Innocent XII (1691–1700) issued a papal bull on June 22, 1692, Romanum decet pontificem , banning

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3654-578: The chief cardinal on how to create a faction of cardinals with all the requisites for the establishment of his grandeur"), discovered in the archive of the Santa Maria de Monserrato offers advice to cardinal-nephews for consolidating power within the College of Cardinals. Another text, the Ricordi dati da Gregorio XV al cardinale Lodovisio suo nipote ("Memoir addressed by Gregory XV to his Nephew Cardinal Lodovisio") offers advice for how to rise within

3741-549: The close of the 15th century, while Franz Kugler, who wrote the first "modern" survey text, Handbook of Art History in 1841, and Hugh Honour and John Fleming in The Visual Arts: A History , 2009, state the High Renaissance started at the beginning of the 16th century. Another seminal work of art which was created in the 1495–1500 timeframe was Michelangelo's Pietà , housed in St. Peter's Basilica , Vatican City , which

3828-659: The college, saying he had "enough to account to God for the unworthy ones he had appointed". However, cardinal-nephews were not guaranteed the leadership of their uncle's creatures ; for example, in the papal conclave, 1621 , Scipione Borghese could count only twenty-nine votes (a fraction of his uncle's fifty-six cardinals), Pietro Aldobrandini controlled only nine (of his uncle's thirteen remaining cardinals), and Montalto only five of his uncle's remaining cardinals. In fact, international rivalries sometimes overwhelmed family loyalties when cardinal-nephews were relatively "poorly organized". As Pope Innocent X (1644–1655) died with

3915-417: The election of crown-cardinals of other monarchs. In general, a cardinal-nephew had to outlive one or more successors of his uncle to become regarded as papabile , both because of their youth and their tendency to be blamed for any unpopular papal policies of their uncles. A papal election could bring a dramatic change of fortune for a cardinal-nephew, often bringing the former favorites into conflict with

4002-661: The end of the High Renaissance. Hartt adds that 1520 to 1530 was a transition period between the High Renaissance and Mannerism . Traditionally, the end of the High Renaissance in Florence is seen as marked by the end of the Republic of Florence and the beginning of the Duchy of Florence in 1532. High Renaissance style in architecture conventionally begins with Donato Bramante , whose Tempietto at S. Pietro in Montorio at Rome

4089-514: The exorbitant greatness of the power, dignity, and wealth attributed to the members of the Sacred College. The value of these great "prizes" was so enormous, that the "hat" became an object of ambition to princes, and it was the primary object with a long series of Popes to bestow it on their kinsmen." The curial office of Cardinal Secretary of State in many ways evolved from the roles formerly filled by cardinal-nephews. From 1644 to 1692,

4176-577: The first cardinal-nephew known as il cardinale padrone ("the Cardinal boss") accumulated a vast array of benefices: the bishopric of Bologna , 23 abbeys , the directorship of the Apostolic Signatura , as well as the offices of the vice-chancellor and high-chamberlain, and was able to have most of them redistributed among 17 of his kinsmen upon his death. These benefices and offices netted Ludovisi more than 200,000 scudi annually, and he

4263-463: The iconic David , is characterized by an "ideal" balance between stillness and movement. High Renaissance sculpture was normally commissioned by the public and the state, this becoming more popular for sculpture is an expensive art form. Sculpture was often used to decorate or embellish architecture, normally within courtyards where others were able to study and admire the commissioned art work. Wealthy individuals like cardinals, rulers, and bankers were

4350-535: The idea was a bold and expansive one. During the 16th century, two large granite basins from the Baths of Caracalla were adapted as fountains in the Piazza Farnese, the "urban" face of the palace. The palazzo was further modified for the papal nephew Ranuccio Farnese by Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola . It was completed for the second Cardinal Alessandro Farnese by Giacomo della Porta 's porticoed facade towards

4437-426: The institution of the cardinal-nephew as a necessary countermeasure to the intrigue of the old Church. According to Francis A. Burkle-Young, 15th century Popes in particular found it necessary to elevate their relatives to the College of Cardinals due to their distrust of the crown-cardinals , Roman baronial families, and Italian princely families who also populated the college. According to Thomas Adolphus Trollope ,

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4524-424: The institutionalization of nepotism disappeared in the 18th century, " pietas " (duty to family) remained a theme of papal administration into the 20th century, although rarely with the overt intervention of a papal uncle. Following the example of Pius VI, Popes Leo XIII (who elevated his brother, Giuseppe Pecci , cardinal on May 12, 1879) and Pius XII (1939–1958) weakened the formal curial bureaucracy in favor of

4611-632: The level of the family than that of the nation-state . The use of nephews, rather than direct descendants, is a product of the tradition of clerical celibacy within the Catholic Church , although hereditary descent from uncles to nephews is also seen in the patriarchate of the Assyrian Church of the East . The creation of relatives and known-allies as cardinals was only one way in which medieval and Renaissance Popes attempted to dilute

4698-402: The middle of the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) until Pope Innocent XII 's anti-nepotism bull (a papal charter), Romanum decet pontificem (1692), a pope without a cardinal-nephew was the exception to the rule. Every Renaissance pope who created cardinals appointed a relative to the College of Cardinals , and the nephew was the most common choice, although one of Alexander VI 's creations

4785-678: The more likely private patrons along with very wealthy families; Pope Julius II also patronized many artists. During the High Renaissance there was the development of small scale statuettes for private patrons, the creation of busts and tombs also developing. The subject matter related to sculpture was mostly religious but also with a significant strand of classical individuals in the form of tomb sculpture and paintings as well as ceilings of cathedrals. Papal nephew A cardinal-nephew ( Latin : cardinalis nepos ; Italian : cardinale nipote ; Spanish : valido de su tío ; Portuguese : cardeal-sobrinho ; French : prince de fortune )

4872-466: The most prestigious artists of the High Renaissance in Rome, the Loggia of Psyche by Raphael and Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling". Carracci adopted the quadri riportati , which the ceiling is divided into units and turned it into a collection of framed paintings, along with the cast masks among the garlands, and carved putti, and sculptures supporting the central scene. This large central scene depicts

4959-406: The new Pope. For example, Prospero Colonna and Francisco de Borja were excommunicated , and Carlo Carafa was executed . The papal conclave, May 1605 , is one example of a conclave where a candidate ( Antonmaria Sauli ) was defeated because enough other cardinals were convinced of the need for "a Pope willing to punish the cardinal-nephews for robbing the papacy". A cardinal-nephew was also

5046-434: The office of Cardinal Nephew vacant his faction proved divided and leaderless in the conclave, although his sister-in-law Olimpia Maidalchini was invited to address the cardinals from within the enclosure, the only woman ever so honored. Instruzione al cardinal Padrone circa il modo come si deve procurare una fazione di cardinali con tutti i requisiti che deve avere per lo stabilimento della sua grandezza ("Instructions to

5133-492: The office of Cardinal Nephew, limiting his successors to elevating only one cardinal relative, eliminating various sinecures traditionally reserved for cardinal-nephews, and capping the stipend or endowment the nephew of a Pope could receive to 12,000 scudi . Romanum decet pontificem was later incorporated into the Code of Canon Law of 1917 in canons 240, 2; 1414, 4; and 1432, 1. In 1694, Innocent XII's series of reforms

5220-464: The palace for several months, but she "proved a tenant from hell". After her departure for Paris, the papal authorities discovered that her unruly servants not only had stolen the silver, tapestries, and paintings, but also had "smashed up doors for firewood" and removed sections of copper roofing. Several main rooms were frescoed with elaborate allegorical programs including the Hercules cycle in

5307-747: The palace, which faced the River Tiber , Michelangelo proposed the innovatory design of a bridge which, if completed, would have linked the palace with the gardens of the Vigna Farnese, Alessandro's holding on the opposite bank, that later became incorporated into the adjacent villa belonging to the Chigi family, which the Farnese purchased in 1584 and renamed the Villa Farnesina . While the practicalities of achieving this bridge remain dubious,

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5394-431: The papal conclave of 1590 despite being only 21. According to conclave historian Frederic Baumgartner, "the purpose of such appointments was ensuring that the Pope's family would have power and influence for a much longer time than the brief period that a Pope could expect to reign". A notable exception is Pope Gregory XV (1621–1623) who declined on his death bed the request of Ludovico Ludovisi to name more relatives to

5481-475: The peak period of the High Renaissance was actually 1505 to 1513. David Piper in The Illustrated History of Art , 1991, also cites The Last Supper writing the work announced the High Renaissance and was one of the most influential paintings of the High Renaissance, but contradictorily states that the High Renaissance began just after 1500. Burchkardt stated the High Renaissance started at

5568-597: The permanent social and economic ascent of the reigning papal family into the ranks of the high Roman aristocracy". For example, in 1616, 24 of the 30 abbeys belonging to Borghese were rented out, a practice the Council of Trent had attempted to eliminate. A thorough financial analysis of Borghese's cardinalate by Volker Reinhardt (based on a series of extant account books) examines the strategies Borghese used to build up wealth during his uncle's pontificate and non-ecclesiastical assets before his uncle's death, which Volker considers to be exemplary of Baroque papal families. It

5655-430: The pontiff. Saint Charles Borromeo , cardinal-nephew of Pope Pius IV (1559–1565), had ensured the subordination of the secretarius intimus to the Cardinal Nephew, which came to be sometimes known as the secretarius maior . Pius IV was notorious for nepotism: between 1561 and 1565 he transferred more than 350,000 scudi to his relatives. Following the Council of Trent (1563), Pope Pius V (1566–1572) drew up

5742-458: The power of the Cardinal Secretary of State increased. The church of Pope Benedict XIII (1724–1730) is described by historian Eamon Duffy as "all the evils of nepotism without the nephew". Neri Maria Corsini , cardinal-nephew of Pope Clement XII (1730–1740) was by far the most powerful cardinal-nephew of the 18th century, on account of his uncle's advanced age and blindness . However, Clement XII's successor, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758)

5829-423: The power of the College of Cardinals as an "ecclesiastical rival" and perpetuate their influence within the church after their death. The institution of the cardinal-nephew had the effect both of enriching the Pope's family with desirable benefices and of modernizing the administration of the papacy, by allowing the pontiff to rule through a proxy which was more easily deemed fallible when necessary and provided

5916-575: The power of the Cardinal Secretary of State was essentially inversely proportional to that of the Cardinal Nephew, to whom the Secretariat was subordinate. During some pontificates, for example that of Pope Pius V (1566–1572) and his nephew Michele Bonelli , the cardinal-nephew and secretary of state were one and the same. According to Baumgartner, "the rise of a centralized administration with professional bureaucrats with careers in

6003-449: The realistic depiction of both physical and psychological features, and the manipulation of light and darkness, including tone contrast, sfumato (softening the transition between colours) and chiaroscuro (contrast between light and dark), in a single unifying style which expressed total compositional order, balance and harmony. In particular, the individual parts of the painting had a complex but balanced and well-knit relationship to

6090-432: The size of the palace was increased significantly and he employed Michelangelo who completed the redesigned third story with its deep cornice and revised the courtyard as well. The post-1534 developments were not only a reflection of Alessandro's change in status but employed architecture to express the power of the Farnese family, much as at their Villa Farnese at Caprarola. The massive palace block and its facade dominate

6177-444: The sole heiress of Clement X's family. Many historians consider Olimpia Maidalchini , the sister-in-law of Pope Innocent X (1644–1655), to have been a de facto Cardinal Nephew; the position was formally held by her son, Camillo Pamphili , then her nephew, Francesco Maidalchini (after Pamphili renounced his cardinalate in order to wed), and (after Francesco proved incompetent) Camillo Astalli , her cousin. Popes often had only

6264-589: The terms for the office of the Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State, who was to handle the temporal affairs of the Papal States and the foreign relations of the Holy See . After abortively attempting to divide the duties of the Superintendent among four non-familial cardinals, Pius V acceded to the urgings of the College of Cardinals and his Spanish ambassador, and appointed his grandnephew, Michele Bonelli , as Superintendent, demarcating his duties with

6351-710: The triumphal progress of Bacchus and Ariadne. Two smaller paintings are attached to the top and bottom of the central picture, and two vertical pictures on either side, filled with sphinxes, Pan, and two satyrs. The Palazzo's design has inspired several buildings outside Italy, including the Detroit Athletic Club in Detroit, Michigan; Château Grimaldi near Aix-en-Provence , France; the National Building Museum in Washington, D.C., US;

6438-462: The vice-chancellorship. Pope Paul IV (1555–1559), in his old age, was said to have "fallen almost completely under the cardinal-nephew's influence"; Paul IV's cardinal-nephew, Carlo Carafa , was accused in August 1558 by a Theatine of seducing a Roman noble woman, Plautila de' Massimi, who had come into possession of an inordinate amount of money and jewelry, but the accusations were dismissed by

6525-400: The whole. Painting of the High Renaissance is considered to be the absolute zenith of western painting and achieved the balancing and reconciliation, in harmony, of contradictory and seemingly mutually exclusive artistic positions, such as real versus ideal, movement versus rest, freedom versus law, space versus plane, and line versus colour. The High Renaissance was traditionally viewed as

6612-533: Was a cardinal elevated by a pope who was that cardinal's relative. The practice of creating cardinal-nephews originated in the Middle Ages , and reached its apex during the 16th and 17th centuries. The last cardinal-nephew was named in 1689 and the practice was abolished in 1692. The word nepotism originally referred specifically to this practice, when it appeared in the English language about 1669. From

6699-576: Was also the correspondence liaison for all papal nuncios and gubernatorial legates , and the prefect for two congregations: the Consulta and the Congregazione del Buon Governo . The Cardinal Nephew was also the captain-general of the papal army and a "channel through which flowed benefices one way and gold the other". However, these formal functions only came into force during the pontificates of unusually weak Popes; most Cardinal Nephews were

6786-484: Was begun in 1510. The Tempietto, signifies a full-scale revival of ancient Roman commemorative architecture . David Watkin writes that the Tempietto, like Raphael's works in the Vatican (1509–1511), "is an attempt at reconciling Christian and humanist ideals". The High Renaissance of painting was the culmination of the varied means of expression and various advances in painting technique, such as linear perspective ,

6873-527: Was concluded with an expensive campaign to eliminate the " venality " of offices while reimbursing their current holders. These reforms are viewed by some scholars as a delayed reaction to the financial crisis created by the nepotism of Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644). However, even following Romanum decet pontificem , only three of the eight Popes of the 18th century failed to make a nephew or brother cardinal. The College of Cardinals apparently preferred rule by nephews than by favorites, which they perceived as

6960-449: Was described by Hugh Walpole as "a priest without indolence or interest, a prince without favorites, a Pope without nephews". Romualdo Braschi-Onesti , cardinal-nephew of Pius VI (1775–1799), was the penultimate cardinal-nephew. Despite Pius VI's lineage to a noble Cesena family, his only sister had married a man from the poor Onesti family. Therefore, he commissioned a genealogist to discover (and inflate) some trace of nobility in

7047-528: Was executed in 1498–99. In contrast to most of the other art historians, Manfred Wurdram, in Masterpieces of Western Art , 2007, actually states that the dawn of the High Renaissance was heralded by Leonardo's Adoration of the Magi of 1481, for which only the underpainting was completed. As far as the end of the High Renaissance is concerned Hartt, Frommel, Piper, Wundrum, and Winkelman all state that

7134-530: Was his own son. The institution of the cardinal-nephew evolved over seven centuries, tracking developments in the history of the papacy and the styles of individual popes. From 1566 until 1692, a cardinal-nephew held the curial office of the Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State , known as the Cardinal Nephew , and thus the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. The curial office of

7221-731: Was inherited from the Farnese by the Bourbon kings of Naples , from whom the French government purchased it in 1874. Though the government of Benito Mussolini ransomed it in 1936, the French Embassy remains, under a 99-year lease for which they pay the Italian government a symbolic fee of 1 euro per month. The Palazzo Farnese houses the great scholarly library amassed by the Ecole Française de Rome , concentrating especially on

7308-834: Was really a cardinal). The creation of cardinal-nephews predates the hierarchical preeminence of cardinals within the Roman Catholic Church , which grew out of the 1059 decree of Pope Nicholas II , In nomine Domini , which established cardinal bishops as the sole electors of the Pope, with the consent of cardinal deacons and cardinal priests . The first known cardinal-nephew is Lottario ( Latin : Loctarius ), seniore, cousin of Pope Benedict VIII (1012–1024), elected circa 1015. Benedict VIII also elevated his brother Giovanni (the future Pope John XIX) and his cousin Teofilatto (the future Pope Benedict IX) as cardinal-deacons. The first known cardinal-nephew after 1059

7395-431: Was that the only person in his family who would have had the qualities necessary to fill such a position was a woman". Pope Innocent XI (1676–1689) despised the practice and only accepted his election as Pope after the College of Cardinals consented to his plans for reform, which included a ban on nepotism. However, Innocent XI backed down after thrice failing to achieve the support of the majority of his cardinals for

7482-461: Was the first to trace the historical origins of the term High Renaissance . It was first coined in German by Jacob Burckhardt in German ( Hochrenaissance ) in 1855 and has its origins in the "High Style" of painting and sculpture of the time period around the early 16th century described by Johann Joachim Winckelmann in 1764. Extending the general rubric of Renaissance culture, the visual arts of

7569-622: Was thus separate from the ordinal process for creating cardinals, and, when he fell ill, he authorized his cardinal-nephew, Paolo Emilio Sfondrato , to use the Fiat ut petitur , a power which was later diminished at the urging of the college. Paul V issued a motu proprio on April 30, 1618, formally bestowing on his cardinal-nephew the same authority Pope Clement VIII had given to Pietro Aldobrandini , beginning what historian Laurain-Portemer calls "l'age classique'" of nepotism . Pope Gregory XV 's (1621–1623) cardinal-nephew, Ludovico Ludovisi ,

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