117-540: Adherents of Zoroastrianism use three distinct versions of traditional calendars for liturgical purposes . Those all derive from medieval Iranian calendars and ultimately are based on the Babylonian calendar as used in the Achaemenid empire . Qadimi ("ancient") is a traditional reckoning introduced in 1006. Shahanshahi ("imperial") is a calendar reconstructed from the 10th century text Denkard . Fasli
234-427: A dualistic cosmology of good and evil with an eschatological outlook predicting the ultimate triumph of Ahura Mazda over evil . Opinions vary among scholars as to whether Zoroastrianism is monotheistic , polytheistic , henotheistic , or a combination of all three. Zoroastrianism shaped Iranian culture and history , while scholars differ on whether it significantly influenced ancient Western philosophy and
351-439: A belief in an immanent self-creating universe with consciousness as its special attribute, thereby putting Zoroastrianism in the pantheistic fold sharing its origin with Indian Hinduism . Zoroastrianism contains multiple classes of divine beings, who are typically organised into tiers and spheres of influence. The Ahura are a class of divine beings "inherited by Zoroastrianism from the prehistoric Indo-Iranian religion. In
468-495: A bridge that narrows to a razor's edge and is full of stench until the departed falls off into the abyss towards the House of Lies. Those with a balance of good and evil go to Hamistagan , a purgatorial realm mentioned in the 9th century work Dadestan-i Denig . The House of Lies is considered temporary and reformative; punishments fit the crimes, and souls do not rest in eternal damnation. Hell contains foul smells and evil food,
585-530: A concept, it also contains a wide range of other meanings; though generally signifying (or used as an epithet of) a divinity. The origins of Yazata are varied, with many also being featured as gods in Hinduism , or other Iranian religions. In modern Zoroastrianism, the Yazata are considered holy emanations of the creator, always devoted to him and obey the will of Ahura Mazda . While subject to repression by
702-536: A major section of the Avesta called the Yasna , which forms the core of Zoroastrian liturgy. Zoroaster's religious philosophy divided the early Iranian gods of Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism into emanations of the natural world—the ahura and the daeva ; the former class consisting of divinities to be revered and the latter class consisting of divinities to be rejected and condemned. Zoroaster proclaimed that Ahura Mazda
819-421: A matching set of leap years in 2096 CE. Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism ( Persian : دین زرتشتی Dīn-e Zartoshtī ), also called Mazdayasnā ( Avestan : 𐬨𐬀𐬰𐬛𐬀𐬌𐬌𐬀𐬯𐬥𐬀 ) or Beh-dīn ( بهدین ), is an Iranian religion centred on the Avesta and the teachings of Zarathushtra Spitama , who is more commonly referred to by the name Zoroaster ( Greek : Ζωροάστρις Zōroastris ). Among
936-482: A month called Addaru II in years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14 and 19, and the month Ululu II in year 17 of the cycle. The first known intercalation is recorded for 309 BCE. The first month of the year was called Frawardin, and the first day of Frawardin was the 'New Year's Day' or Nawruz , from which all other religious observances were reckoned – this day being, in theory, the day of the northern vernal equinox . A 365-day calendar, with months largely identical to
1053-428: A pseudo-Avestan treatise written in the early Islamic period (8th or 9th century) replaces the "Age of Alexander" with an "Ageo of Zoroaster", placed "258 years before Alexander" (consistent with the date given by Ammianus Marcellinus ). By the reign of Yazdegird III (632–651 CE), the religious celebrations were again somewhat adrift with respect to their proper seasons. The calendar had continued to slip against
1170-417: A significant impact on individual and local beliefs, practices, values, and vocabulary, sometimes merging with tradition and in other cases displacing it. The ultimate purpose in the life of a practicing Zoroastrian is to become an ashavan (a master of Asha) and to bring happiness into the world, which contributes to the cosmic battle against evil. The core teachings of Zoroastrianism include: According to
1287-497: A smothering darkness, and souls are packed tightly together although they believe they are in total isolation. In ancient Zoroastrian eschatology , a 3,000-year struggle between good and evil will be fought, punctuated by evil's final assault. During the final assault, the sun and moon will darken, and humankind will lose its reverence for religion, family, and elders. The world will fall into winter, and Angra Mainyu's most fearsome miscreant, Azi Dahaka , will break free and terrorize
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#17327726730031404-405: A two-fold universe of the material and spiritual trapped and in long combat with evil. The evils of this physical world are not products of an inherent weakness but are the fault of Angra Mainyu's assault on creation. This assault turned the perfectly flat, peaceful, and daily illuminated world into a mountainous, violent place that is half night. According to Zoroastrian cosmology , in articulating
1521-575: Is 1952063. The Julian Day Number of Nowruz, the first day, of Year Y of the Yazdegirdi Era is therefore 1952063 + ( Y − 1) × 365. 22 July AD 2000 was Nowruz and the first day of 1370 Y.Z. (or 3738 ZRE) according to the Qadimi reckoning. In the Julian year 1300 CE, 669 Y.Z. began on 1 January, and 670 Y.Z. on 31 December of
1638-404: Is a temporary state in which a mortal is expected to participate actively in the continuing battle between Asha and Druj. Prior to its incarnation at the birth of the child, the urvan (soul) of an individual is still united with its fravashi (personal/higher spirit), which has existed since Ahura Mazda created the universe. Prior to the splitting off of the urvan , the fravashi participates in
1755-531: Is a term for a 1906 adaptation of the 11th century Jalali calendar following a proposal by Kharshedji Rustomji Cama made in the 1860s. A number of Calendar eras are in use: The Babylonian calendar was used in the Achaemenid Empire by the 4th century BCE for civil purposes. The earliest Zoroastrian calendar (also misleadingly called " Avestan calendar") follows the Babylonian in relating
1872-666: Is an alternative form in English used as well for the faith, taking Mazda- from the name Ahura Mazda and adding the suffix -ism to suggest a belief system. Some scholars believe Zoroastrianism started as an Indo-Iranian polytheistic religion: according to Yujin Nagasawa, "like the rest of the Zoroastrian texts, the Old Avesta does not teach monotheism". By contrast, Md. Sayem characterizes Zoroastrianism as being one of
1989-473: Is at the Chinvat Bridge ("bridge of judgement" or "bridge of choice"), which each human must cross, facing a spiritual judgment, though modern belief is split as to whether it is representative of a mental decision during life to choose between good and evil or an afterworld location. Humans' actions under their free will through choice determine the outcome. According to tradition, the soul is judged by
2106-571: Is correct. The later manuscripts all date from after the fall of the Sasanian Empire, the latest being from 1288, 590 years after the fall of the Sasanian Empire. The texts that remain today are the Gathas , Yasna , Visperad and the Vendidad , of which the latter's inclusion is disputed within the faith. Along with these texts is the individual, communal, and ceremonial prayer book called
2223-554: Is frowned upon in Zoroastrianism but moderate forms are allowed within. Humata, Huxta, Huvarshta (Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds), the Threefold Path of Asha, is considered the core maxim of Zoroastrianism especially by modern practitioners. In Zoroastrianism, good transpires for those who do righteous deeds for its own sake, not for the search of reward. Those who do evil are said to be attacked and confused by
2340-433: Is generally a hypostasis of a moral or physical aspect of creation. Asha, is the main spiritual force which comes from Ahura Mazda. It is the cosmic order and is the antithesis of chaos, which is evident as druj , falsehood and disorder, that comes from Angra Mainyu. The resulting cosmic conflict involves all of creation, mental/spiritual and material, including humanity at its core, which has an active role to play in
2457-610: Is held by Zoroastrians to be particularly sacred as a symbol of Ahura Mazda himself , serving as a focal point of many ceremonies and rituals, and serving as the basis for Zoroastrian places of worship, which are known as fire temples . The name Zoroaster ( Ζωροάστηρ ) is a Greek rendering of the Avestan name Zarathustra . He is known as Zartosht and Zardosht in Persian and Zaratosht in Gujarati . The Zoroastrian name of
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#17327726730032574-494: Is in conflict with the evil spirit Angra Mainyu, the representation of evil, darkness, and deceit. Angru Mainyu's goal is to tempt humans away from Ahura Mazda. Notably, Angra Mainyu is not a creation of Ahura Mazda but an independent entity. The belief in Ahura Mazda, the "Lord of Wisdom" who is considered an all-encompassing Deity and the only existing one, is the foundation of Zoroastrianism. Mitra , also called Mithra ,
2691-491: Is limited to natural forces held as emanations of asha by the fact that early Zoroastrians had a duty to exterminate "evil" species, a dictate no longer followed in modern Zoroastrianism. Although there have been various theological statements supporting vegetarianism in Zoroastrianism's history and those who believe that Zoroaster was vegetarian. Zoroastrianism is not entirely uniform in theological and philosophical thought, especially with historical and modern influences having
2808-402: Is more systemic and less personal, representing, for instance, chaos (that opposes order); or "uncreation", evident as natural decay (that opposes creation); or more simply "the lie" (that opposes truth and goodness). Moreover, in the role as the one uncreated creator of all, Ahura Mazda is not the creator of druj , which is "nothing", anti-creation, and thus (likewise) uncreated and developed as
2925-467: Is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. This active participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept of free will , and Zoroastrianism as such rejects extreme forms of asceticism and monasticism but historically has allowed for moderate expressions of these concepts. On the fourth day after death, the urvan is reunited with its fravashi, whereupon the experiences of life in
3042-402: Is not wholly perfect and that Zoroastrianism instead has its "own form of monotheism" which combines elements of dualism and polytheism. Farhang Mehr asserts that Zoroastrianism is principally monotheistic with some dualistic elements. Lenorant and Chevallier assert that Zoroastrianism's concept of divinity covers both being and mind as immanent entities, describing Zoroastrianism as having
3159-452: Is omniscient but not omnipotent. Ahura Mazda existed in light and goodness above, while Angra Mainyu , (also referred to in later texts as "Ahriman"), the destructive spirit/mentality, existed in darkness and ignorance below. They have existed independently of each other for all time, and manifest contrary substances. In the Gathas, Ahura Mazda is noted as working through emanations known as
3276-550: Is on 16 June 632 CE. Yazdegird III was the last monarch of the Sasanian dynasty , and since the custom at that time was to count regnal years since the monarch ascended the throne, the reckoning of years was continued, in the absence of a Zoroastrian monarch, under Islamic rule. Zoroastrian dates are distinguished by the suffix Y.Z. for "Yazdegirdi Era". The usage "AY" is also found. Isolated pockets of Asia Minor use an alternative reckoning of years which predates
3393-486: Is opposed by Angra Mainyu (the Destructive or Opposing Spirit), who is born from Aka Manah (evil thought). Angra Mainyu was further developed by Middle Persian literature into Ahriman ( 𐭠𐭧𐭫𐭬𐭭𐭩 ), Ahura Mazda's direct adversary. Zoroastrian doctrine holds that, within this cosmic dichotomy, human beings have the choice between Asha (truth, cosmic order), the principle of righteousness or "rightness" that
3510-531: Is promoted and embodied by Ahura Mazda, and Druj (falsehood, deceit), the essential nature of Angra Mainyu that expresses itself as greed, wrath, and envy. Thus, the central moral precepts of the religion are good thoughts ( hwnata ), good words, ( hakhta ) and good deeds ( hvarshta ), which are recited in many prayers and ceremonies. Many of the practices and beliefs of ancient Iranian religion can still be seen in Zoroastrianism, such as reverence for nature and its elements, such as water ( aban ). Fire ( atar )
3627-485: Is thought to be declining due to restrictions on conversion, strict endogamy , and low birth rates. The central beliefs and practices of Zoroastrianism are contained in the Avesta, a compendium of sacred texts assembled over several centuries. Its oldest and most central component are the Gathas , purported to be the direct teachings of Zoroaster and his account of conversations with Ahura Mazda. These writings are part of
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3744-617: Is traditional in Islamic practice is not a part of Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrian women in Iran wear their head coverings displaying hair and their faces to defy mandates by the Islamic Republic of Iran . The Avesta is a collection of the central religious texts of Zoroastrianism written in the old Iranian dialect of Avestan . The history of the Avesta is speculated upon in many Pahlavi texts with varying degrees of authority, with
3861-634: The Denkart , Tansar-nāma , Ardāy Wirāz Nāmag , Bundahsin , Zand-i Wahman yasn or the transmitted oral tradition. As tradition continues, under the reign of King Valax (identified with a Vologases of the Arsacid dynasty ), an attempt was made to restore what was considered the Avesta. During the Sassanid Empire , Ardeshir ordered Tansar, his high priest , to finish the work that King Valax had started. Shapur I sent priests to locate
3978-499: The Abrahamic religions , or gradually reconciled with other religions and traditions, such as Christianity and Islam . Originating from Zoroaster's reforms of the ancient Iranian religion , Zoroastrianism may have roots in the Avestan period of the 2nd millennium BCE, but was first recorded in the mid-6th century BCE. For the following millennium, it was the official religion of successive Iranian polities, beginning with
4095-509: The Achaemenid Empire , which formalized and institutionalized many of its tenets and rituals, and ending with the Sasanian Empire , which revitalized the faith and standardized its teachings. In the 7th century CE, the rise of Islam and the ensuing Muslim conquest of Iran marked the beginning of the decline of Zoroastrianism. The persecution of Zoroastrians by the early Muslims in the nascent Rashidun Caliphate prompted much of
4212-509: The Ahuna Vairya formula, Ahura Mazda made the ultimate triumph of good against Angra Mainyu evident. Ahura Mazda will ultimately prevail over the evil Angra Mainyu , at which point reality will undergo a cosmic renovation called Frashokereti and limited time will end. In the final renovation, all of creation—even the souls of the dead that were initially banished to or chose to descend into "darkness"—will be reunited with Ahura Mazda in
4329-636: The Egyptian calendar , was introduced shortly after the conquest of Egypt by the Achaemenid ruler Cambyses ( c. 525 BCE). Scholars are divided on whether this 365 day calendar was in fact preceded by a 360-day calendar of Zoroastrian observances. Following Alexander's invasion of Persia in 330 BCE, the Seleucid (312–248 BCE) instituted the Hellenic practice of counting years from
4446-746: The Islamic Caliphate , the Yazata were often framed as " angels " to counter accusation of polytheism ( shirk ). According to the Avesta The Yazata assist Ahura Mazda in his battle against the evil spirit, and are hypostases of moral or physical aspects of creation. The yazatas collectively are "the good powers under Ahura Mazda", who is "the greatest of the yazatas". Yazatas are further divided into Amesha Spentas, their "ham-kar" or "Collaborators" who are Lower Ranking divinities, and also certain healing plants, primordial creatures,
4563-574: The Khordeh Avesta , which contains the Yashts and other important hymns, prayers, and rituals. The rest of the materials from the Avesta are called "Avestan fragments" in that they are written in Avestan, incomplete, and generally of unknown provenance. Khordad Sal Khordad Sal ( Persian : خرداد روز ) is the birth anniversary (or birthdate) of Zarathushtra . Zoroastrians all over
4680-472: The Kshatra Vairya (meaning "best dominion"), being resurrected to immortality. Zoroastrian cosmography , which refers to the description of the structure of the cosmos in Zoroastrian literature and theology, involves a primary division of the cosmos into heaven and earth. The heaven is composed of three parts: the lower-most part, which is where the fixed stars may be found; the middle part, where
4797-535: The Rig Veda , asura denotes the "older gods", such as the "Father Asura", Varuna , and Mitra , who originally ruled over the primeval undifferentiated Chaos." Ahura Mazda , also known as Oromasdes, Ohrmazd, Ormazd, Ormusd, Hoormazd, Harzoo, Hormazd, Hormaz and Hurmz, is the creator deity and the supreme god in Zoroastrianism. Ahura Mazda stands for the dual deity Mitrāˊ-Váruṇā of the Hindu holy book known as
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4914-499: The Rigveda . According to scholars, Ahura Mazda is an uncreated, omniscient, omnipotent and benevolent God who has created the spiritual and material existences out of infinite light, and maintains the cosmic law of Asha. He is the first and most invoked spirit in Yasna , and is unrivaled, has no equals and presides over all creation. In Avesta, Ahura Mazda is the only true God, and the representation of goodness, light, and truth. He
5031-527: The Solar Hejri calendar. This is strictly tied to the actual northward equinox, rather than a mathematical approximation to it. An Iranian day is reckoned to begin at midnight. Iranian time is 3.5 hours ahead of GMT . New Year's Day is defined to be the day, as reckoned by Iranian time, when the northward equinox (the precise moment in time when northern and southern hemispheres of the Earth pass through
5148-424: The "world's first proponent of ecology." The Avesta and other texts call for the protection of water, earth, fire, and air making it, in effect, an ecological religion: "It is not surprising that Mazdaism...is called the first ecological religion. The reverence for Yazatas (divine spirits) emphasizes the preservation of nature (Avesta: Yasnas 1.19, 3.4, 16.9; Yashts 6.3–4, 10.13)." However, this particular assertion
5265-591: The 19th century, through contact with Western academics and missionaries, Zoroastrianism experienced a massive theological change that still affects it today. The Rev. John Wilson led various missionary campaigns in India against the Parsi community, disparaging the Parsis for their " dualism " and "polytheism" and as having unnecessary rituals while declaring the Avesta to not be "divinely inspired". This caused mass dismay in
5382-516: The Amesha Spenta and with the help of "other ahuras ". These divine beings called Amesha Spentas , support him and are representative and guardians of different aspects of creation and the ideal personality. Ahura Mazda is immanent in humankind and interacts with creation through these bounteous/holy divinities. In addition to these, He is assisted by a league of countless divinities called Yazatas , meaning "worthy of worship." Each Yazata
5499-422: The Avesta and also local deities and culture-heroes. Today, enclosed and covered fire temples tend to be the focus of community worship where fires of varying grades are maintained by the clergy assigned to the temples. The incorporation of cultural and local rituals is quite common and traditions have been passed down in historically Zoroastrian communities such as herbal healing practices, wedding ceremonies, and
5616-588: The Avesta and are still practiced in Zoroastrianism albeit through reduced forms such as the sacrifice of fat before meals. High rituals such as the Yasna are considered to be the purview of the Mobads with a corpus of individual and communal rituals and prayers included in the Khordeh Avesta . A Zoroastrian is welcomed into the faith through the Navjote /Sedreh Pushi ceremony, which is traditionally conducted during
5733-513: The Daena. Traditionally, the manthras (similar to the Hindu sacred utterance mantra ) prayer formulas, are believed to be of immense power and the vehicles of Asha and creation used to maintain good and fight evil. Daena should not be confused with the fundamental principle of Asha , believed to be the cosmic order which governs and permeates all existence, and the concept of which governed
5850-489: The Earth and which was the first in a chain of 2,244 mountains which, together, encircled the Earth. Although the planets are not described in early Zoroastrian sources, they entered Zoroastrian thought in the Middle Persian period: they were demonized and took on the names Anāhīd (Pahlavi for Venus ), Tīr ( Mercury ), Wahrām ( Mars ), Ohrmazd ( Jupiter ), and Kēwān ( Saturn ). Individual judgment at death
5967-666: The Fasili Society, and since the Iranian national calendar had also retained the Zoroastrian names of the months, it was not a big step to integrate the two. The Bastani calendar was duly accepted by many of the Zoroastrians. Many orthodox Iranian Zoroastrians, especially the Sharifabadis of Yazd , continued to use the Qadimi, however. In 1906 CE, Nawruz of 1276 Y.Z. fell on 15 August for followers of
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#17327726730036084-608: The Fasli calendar as Webster's online dictionary and various unreferenced sources state that the Fasli calendar follows the Gregorian, and it is shown strictly following the Gregorian calendar in the period AD 2009–2031 in the tables published by R. E. Kadva. The Gregorian calendar itself, however, will not keep 21 March as the date of the northern vernal equinox forever – it has a deviation of one day every 5025 years. The civil calendar in Iran since 31 March 1925 CE has been
6201-451: The Gatha days 15–19 March. Mareshpand Jashan is on 13 March. The leap day, 20 March, called Avardad-sal-Gah , is considered a duplication of Wahishtoisht , the fifth Gatha day, but is not reckoned as Mukhtad or Hamaspathmaidyem. 21 March 2000 CE was Nowruz and the first day of 1370 Y.Z. (or 3738 ZRE) according to the Fasli reckoning. Ali Jafarey describes
6318-435: The Julian calendar since the previous reform at the rate of one day every four years. Therefore, in 632, the new year was celebrated on 16 June. By the 9th century, the Zoroastrian theologian Zadspram had noted that the state of affairs was less than optimal, and estimated that at the time of Final Judgement the two systems would be out of sync by four years. The current mainstream Zoroastrian reckoning of years' start date
6435-508: The Qadimi calendar, and 14 September for those observing Shahanshahi. There was therefore a six-month gap between the Fasli and Qadimi New Year observances, and a seven-month gap to the Shahanshahi. Since there is exactly one Fasli year for every Gregorian year, then day one of the proleptic Fasli calendar would be 21 March (Gregorian) 631 CE, with Year 2 beginning on 21 March 632 CE. But Yazdegird III did not ascend
6552-458: The Qadimi reckoning. Other Parsis continued to use the reckoning which had become traditional in India, and call their calendar Shahanshahi . Arzan Lali the author of Zoroastrian Calendar Services (ZCS) website (zcserv.com) comments that "... adherents of other variants of the Zoroastrian calendar denigrate the Shenshai or Shahenshahi as 'royalist'." 21 August 2000 CE was Nawruz, and
6669-474: The Yazatas Mithra , Sraosha , and Rashnu , where depending on the verdict one is either greeted at the bridge by a beautiful, sweet-smelling maiden or by an ugly, foul-smelling old hag representing their Daena affected by their actions in life. The maiden leads the dead safely across the bridge, which widens and becomes pleasant for the righteous, towards the House of Song. The hag leads the dead down
6786-408: The Yazdegirdi Era is therefore 1952093 + ( Y − 1) × 365. At the start of the 20th century, Khurshedji Cama , a Bombay Parsi , founded the "Zarthosti Fasili Sal Mandal", or Zoroastrian Seasonal-Year Society. In 1906, the society published its proposal for a Zoroastrian calendar which was synchronised with the seasons. This Fasli calendar, as it became known,
6903-539: The Yazdegirdi Era, being based on a supposed date of the birth of Zoroaster on 3 March 389 BC. On this calendar, 22 July 2000 CE was the first day of Zoroastrian year 2390. Yet another form of reckoning is the Zarathushtrian (Zoroastrian) Religious Era (Z.E.R./ZRE), adopted in 1990 CE by the Zarathushtrian Assembly of California. This is based on the putative association of
7020-404: The Zoroastrian creation myth , there is one universal, transcendent , all-good, and uncreated supreme creator deity Ahura Mazda, or the "Wise Lord" ( Ahura meaning "Lord" and Mazda meaning "Wisdom" in Avestan ). Zoroaster keeps the two attributes separate as two different concepts in most of the Gathas yet sometimes combines them into one form. Zoroaster also proclaims that Ahura Mazda
7137-494: The Zoroastrian liturgy , this term is used as a title for a lay individual who has been formally inducted into the religion in a Navjote ceremony, in contrast to the priestly titles of osta , osti , ervad (hirbod), mobed and dastur . The first surviving reference to Zoroaster in English scholarship is attributed to Thomas Browne (1605–1682), who briefly refers to Zoroaster in his 1643 Religio Medici . The term Mazdaism ( / ˈ m æ z d ə . ɪ z əm / )
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#17327726730037254-492: The antithesis of existence through choice. In this schema of asha versus druj , mortal beings (both humans and animals) play a critical role, for they too are created. Here, in their lives, they are active participants in the conflict, and it is their spiritual duty to defend Asha, which is under constant assault and would decay in strength without counter action . Throughout the Gathas , Zoroaster emphasizes deeds and actions within society and accordingly extreme asceticism
7371-453: The attention of the priests of Surat , but no consensus as to which calendar was correct was reached. Around 1740 CE, some influential priests argued that since their visitor had been from the ancient 'homeland', his version of the calendar must be correct, and their own must be wrong. On 6 June 1745 CE (Julian), a number of Parsis in and around Surat adopted the calendar which had continued in use in Iran, now to be identified as
7488-420: The basis of ritual life. In Zoroastrian cosmogony , water and fire are respectively the second and last primordial elements to have been created, and scripture considers fire to have its origin in the waters (re. which conception see Apam Napat ). A corpse is considered a host for decay, i.e., of druj . Consequently, scripture enjoins the safe disposal of the dead in a manner such that a corpse does not pollute
7605-519: The community to migrate to the Indian subcontinent , where they were granted asylum and became the progenitors of today's Parsis . Once numbering in the millions, the world's total Zoroastrian population is currently estimated to comprise between 100,000 and 200,000 people , with the majority of this figure residing in India (50,000–60,000), Iran (15,000–25,000), and North America (22,000). The religion
7722-427: The conflict. The main representative of Asha in this conflict is Spenta Mainyu , the creative spirit/mentality. Ahura Mazda then created the material and visible world itself in order to ensnare evil. He created the floating, egg-shaped universe in two parts: first the spiritual ( menog ) and 3,000 years later, the physical ( getig ). Ahura Mazda then created Gayomard , the archetypical perfect man, and Gavaevodata ,
7839-424: The current version of the Avesta dating at oldest from the times of the Sasanian Empire. The Avesta was "composed at different times, providing a series of snapshots of the religion that allow historians to see how it changed over time". According to Middle Persian tradition, Ahura Mazda created the twenty-one Nasks of the original Avesta which Zoroaster brought to Vishtaspa . Here, two copies were created, one which
7956-563: The diaspora continues to use the YZ system. The Qadimi (also Qadmi, Kadimi, Kudmi ) or "ancient" calendar is the traditional calendar in use since 1006 CE. In 1006 CE, the month Frawardin had returned to the correct position so that 1 Frawardin coincided with the northern vernal equinox. The religious festivals were therefore returned to their traditional months, with Nawruz once again being celebrated on 1 Frawardin. The Julian Day Number corresponding to 16 June 632 CE
8073-539: The domain of the moon is located, and the upper part, which is the domain of the sun and unreachable by Ahirman. Further above the highest level of the heaven/sky includes regions described as the Endless Lights, as well as the Thrones of Amahraspandān and Ohrmazd. Although this is the basic framework which occurs in Avestan texts, later Zoroastrian literature would elaborate on this picture by further subdividing
8190-420: The druj and are responsible for aligning themselves back to Asha by following this path. There is also a heavy emphasis on spreading happiness, mostly through charity, and respecting the spiritual equality and duty of both men and women. Central to Zoroastrianism is the emphasis on moral choice, to choose the responsibility and duty for which one is in the mortal world, or to give up this duty and so facilitate
8307-494: The end of the year. New Year's Day would be kept on the northward vernal equinox , and if the leap-day was applied correctly, would not drift away from the spring. The Fasli society also claimed that their calendar was an accurate religious calendar, as opposed to the other two calendars, which they asserted were only political. The new calendar received little support from the Indian Zoroastrian community, since it
8424-508: The first day of 1370 Y.Z. (or 3738 ZRE) according to the Shahanshahi reckoning. Because the one-off intercalation of 30 days happened sometime before the Nawruz of 1129 CE, we can be confident that in that Julian year, 498 YZ began on 12 February by the Qadimi reckoning, but 14 March by the recently introduced Shahanshahi. The Julian Day Number of Nawruz, the first day, of all subsequent Shahanshahi years Y of
8541-670: The five daily Gāhs and to maintain and celebrate the various holy festivals of the Zoroastrian calendar , which can differ from community to community. Zoroastrian prayers, called manthras , are conducted usually with hands outstretched in imitation of Zoroaster's prayer style described in the Gathas and are of a reflectionary and supplicant nature believed to be endowed with the ability to banish evil. Devout Zoroastrians are known to cover their heads during prayer, either with traditional topi , scarves, other headwear, or even just their hands. However, full coverage and veiling which
8658-435: The five-day festival of Hamaspathmaidyem , on the five Gatha days. The penultimate day of the twelfth month is Mareshpand Jashan . In a common year (non-leap year) of the Fasli observance, Mukhtad is observed 11–20 March, with Hamaspathmaidyem and the Gatha days 16–20 March. Mareshpand Jashan is on 14 March. In a leap year of the Fasli observance, Mukhtad is observed 10–19 March, with Hamaspathmaidyem and
8775-448: The focus of worship and pilgrimage for adherents of the religion. Early Zoroastrians were recorded as worshiping in the 5th century BCE on mounds and hills where fires were lit below the open skies. In the wake of Achaemenid expansion, shrines were constructed throughout the empire and particularly influenced the role of Mithra , Aredvi Sura Anahita , Verethragna and Tishtrya , alongside other traditional Yazata who all have hymns within
8892-479: The fravashis of the dead, and certain prayers that are themselves considered holy. The Amesha Spentas and their "ham-kar" or "collaborator" Yazatas are as follows: In Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda is the beginning and the end, the creator of everything that can and cannot be seen, the eternal and uncreated, the all-good and source of Asha. In the Gathas , the most sacred texts of Zoroastrianism thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, Zoroaster acknowledged
9009-544: The gods Mithra and Anahita . Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic, and "a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos". Brian Arthur Brown states that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in "one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism". Economist Mario Ferrero suggests that Zoroastrianism transitioned from polytheism to monotheism due to political and economic pressures. In
9126-446: The good creation. These injunctions are the doctrinal basis of the fast-fading traditional practice of ritual exposure, most commonly identified with the so-called Towers of Silence for which there is no standard technical term in either scripture or tradition. Ritual exposure is currently mainly practiced by Zoroastrian communities of the Indian subcontinent , in locations where it is not illegal and diclofenac poisoning has not led to
9243-401: The highest devotion to Ahura Mazda, with worship and adoration also given to Ahura Mazda's manifestations ( Amesha Spenta ) and the other ahuras ( Yazata ) that support Ahura Mazda. Daena ( din in modern Persian and meaning "that which is seen") is representative of the sum of one's spiritual conscience and attributes, which through one's choice Asha is either strengthened or weakened in
9360-596: The impure will be completely purified. The forces of good will ultimately triumph over evil, rendering it forever impotent but not destroyed. The Saoshyant and Ahura Mazda will offer a bull as a final sacrifice for all time and all humans will become immortal. Mountains will again flatten and valleys will rise; the House of Song will descend to the moon, and the earth will rise to meet them both. Humanity will require two judgments because there are as many aspects to our being: spiritual ( menog ) and physical ( getig ). Throughout Zoroastrian history, shrines and temples have been
9477-438: The later childhood or pre-teen years of the aspirant, though there is no defined age limit for the ritual. After the ceremony, Zoroastrians are encouraged to wear their sedreh (ritual shirt) and kushti (ritual girdle) daily as a spiritual reminder and for mystical protection, though reformist Zoroastrians tend to only wear them during festivals, ceremonies, and prayers. Historically, Zoroastrians are encouraged to pray
9594-401: The legendary king, Jamsed; in contemporary practice it is kept as the symbolic observance of Zoroaster's birthday, or Khordad Sal . Mary Boyce has argued that sometime between 399 CE and 518 CE the six-day festivals were compressed to five days. The major feasts, or gahambars , of contemporary Zoroastrian practice, are still kept as five-day observances today. The Bundahishn ,
9711-399: The life of the ancient Indo-Iranians. For these, asha was the course of everything observable—the motion of the planets and astral bodies; the progression of the seasons; and the pattern of daily nomadic herdsman life, governed by regular metronomic events such as sunrise and sunset, and was strengthened through truth-telling and following the Threefold Path. All physical creation ( getig )
9828-403: The like. Traditionally, Zoroastrian rituals have also included shamanic elements involving mystical methods such as spirit travel to the invisible realm and involving the consumption of fortified wine , Haoma , mang , and other ritual aids. In Zoroastrianism, water ( aban ) and fire ( atar ) are agents of ritual purity, and the associated purification ceremonies are considered
9945-452: The lowest part of heaven to achieve a total of six or seven layers. The Earth itself was described as possessing three primary mountains: Mount Hukairiia, whose peak was the focal point of the revolution of the star Sadwēs; Mount Haraitī, whose peak was the focal point of the revolution of the sun and the moon, and the greatest of them all, the Harā Bərəz whose peak was located at the center of
10062-470: The maintenance of creation led by Ahura Mazda. During the life of a given individual, the fravashi acts as a source of inspiration to perform good actions and as a spiritual protector. The fravashis of ancestors cultural, spiritual, and heroic, associated with illustrious bloodlines, are venerated and can be called upon to aid the living. The religion states that active and ethical participation in life through good deeds formed from good thoughts and good words
10179-442: The material world are collected for use in the continuing battle for good in the spiritual world. For the most part, Zoroastrianism does not have a notion of reincarnation ; albeit Followers of Ilm-e-Kshnoom in India, among other currently non-traditional opinions, believe in reincarnation and practice vegetarianism. Zoroastrianism's emphasis on the protection and veneration of nature and its elements has led some to proclaim it as
10296-595: The mission of Zoroaster with the dawn of the astrological Age of Aries , calculated for this purpose to have been the northern vernal equinox of 1738 BCE. Hence the year 3738 ZRE began in 2000 CE. The Zoroastrian community, both in Iran and in diaspora, have also been said to have accepted it, the former doing so in 1993 CE. A briefing paper from the Zoroastrian Trust Funds of Europe indicates that they recognise this usage to have been pragmatically adopted by Zoroastrians in Iran, while
10413-524: The monarch's coronation was reinstated. At this point the calendar was realigned with the seasons by delaying the epagemonai by eight months (so that they now preceded the start of the ninth month) and adjusting the dates of the gahanbar (farming festivals) accordingly. This caused confusion, since the new year now fell five days earlier than before, and some people continued to observe the old date. After 46 years (226–272 CE), with 1 Frawardin now on 19 September, another calendar reform
10530-558: The northward equinox always fell at such a time that New Year's Day in Iran occurred on the day called 21 March in the Western calendar. But this equivalence was not always true before March 1960, and the exact correspondence broke down again in 1996. In 1959, and at four-year intervals back to 1927, Iranian New Year's Day fell on 22 March in the Gregorian calendar. In 1996, and subsequent Gregorian leap years, Iranian New Year's Day falls on 20 March. The pattern will shift back to
10647-505: The oldest monotheistic religions in the world. Zoroastrians treat Ahura Mazda as the supreme god, but believe in lesser divinities known as Yazatas, who share some similarities with the angels in Abrahamic religions. These yazatas ("good agents") include Anahita , Sraosha , Mithra , Rashnu , and Tishtrya . Historian Richard Foltz has put forth evidence that Iranians of pre-Islamic era worshipped all these figures; especially
10764-506: The point of the Earth's orbit when they are equally illuminated by the Sun) occurs on or before noon of that day , or during the 12 hours following the noon of the preceding day . This means that the pattern of leap years in the Iranian calendar is complex – usually following a 33-year cycle where the leap day is inserted every fourth year, but in year 33 instead of year 32, but with occasional 29 year cycles. From 1960 to 1995,
10881-403: The primordial bovine. While Ahura Mazda created the universe and humankind, Angra Mainyu, whose very nature is to destroy, miscreated demons, evil daevas , and noxious creatures ( khrafstar ) such as snakes, ants, and flies. Angra Mainyu created an opposite, evil being for each good being, except for humans, which he found he could not match. Angra Mainyu invaded the universe through the base of
10998-528: The relatively uneducated Parsi community, which blamed its priests and led to some conversions towards Christianity . The arrival of the German orientalist and philologist Martin Haug led to a rallied defense of the faith through Haug's reinterpretation of the Avesta through Christianized and European orientalist lens. Haug postulated that Zoroastrianism was solely monotheistic with all other divinities reduced to
11115-404: The religion is Mazdayasna , which combines Mazda- with the Avestan word yasna , meaning "worship, devotion". In English , an adherent of the faith is commonly called a Zoroastrian or a Zarathustrian. An older expression still used today is Behdin , meaning "of the good religion", deriving from beh < Middle Persian weh 'good' + din < Middle Persian dēn < Avestan daēnā ". In
11232-470: The same year. The Shahanshahi calendar (also Shahenshahi, Shahenshai ) or "imperial" calendar is the system described in Denkard , a 9th-century Zoroastrian text. It explicitly acknowledged several methods of intercalation: 1,461 Zoroastrian years equal 1,460 Julian years. The Denkard then states: The Denkard – which was not Zoroastrian scripture but a religious manual – therefore favoured
11349-528: The scientific text portions of the Avesta that were in the possession of the Greeks. Under Shapur II , Arderbad Mahrespandand revised the canon to ensure its orthodox character, while under Khosrow I , the Avesta was translated into Pahlavi. The compilation of the Avesta can be authoritatively traced, however, to the Sasanian Empire, of which only fraction survive today if the Middle Persian literature
11466-399: The seventh and other days of the month to Ahura Mazda . Like all ancient calendars, the Babylonian calendar was lunisolar . It used an intercalary month roughly once every six years. In the civil calendar, intercalations did not always follow a regular pattern, but during the reign of Artaxerxes II (circa 380 BCE) astronomers utilised a 19-year cycle which required the addition of
11583-465: The sky, inflicting Gayomard and the bull with suffering and death. However, the evil forces were trapped in the universe and could not retreat. The dying primordial man and bovine emitted seeds, which were protect by Mah , the Moon. From the bull's seed grew all beneficial plants and animals of the world and from the man's seed grew a plant whose leaves became the first human couple . Humans thus struggle in
11700-649: The solution of a leap-month once every 120 years, with a fall-back of adding 5 months after 600 years if this were missed. This practice was not, however, adopted by Zoroastrians living in Islamic Persia. The Parsis had knowledge of The Denkard's proposal: at some point between 1125 and 1129, the Parsi-Zoroastrians of the Indian subcontinent inserted such an embolismic month , named Aspandarmad vahizak (the month of Aspandarmad but with
11817-693: The start of a fixed era , as opposed using regnal years . The regnal era of Alexander is now referred to as the Seleucid era . The Parthians (150–224 CE), who succeeded the Seleucids, continued the Seleucid/Hellenic tradition. In 224 CE, when the Babylonian calendar was replaced by the Zoroastrian, 1 Frawardin and the New Year celebration of Nawruz had drifted to 1 October. The older custom of counting regnal years from
11934-432: The status of angels while Ahura Mazda became both omnipotent and the source of evil as well as good. Haug's thinking was subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating Haug's theory, and the idea became so popular that it is now almost universally accepted as doctrine (though being reevaluated in modern Zoroastrianism and academia). It has been argued by Almut Hintze that this designation of monotheism
12051-416: The suffix vahizak ). That month would also be the last month intercalated: subsequent generations of Parsis neglected to insert a thirteenth month. Around 1720 CE, an Iranian Zoroastrian priest named Jamasp Peshotan Velati travelled from Iran to India. Upon his arrival, he discovered that there was a difference of a month between the Parsi calendar and his own calendar. Velati brought this discrepancy to
12168-458: The throne until 19 June 632 CE (Gregorian), leading to the curious quirk that the base date for the reckoning of years ends up in Year ;2 of the Fasli calendar. The Zoroastrian year, in Qadimi and Shahanshahi observance, concludes with ten days in memory of departed souls: five Mukhtad days on the last 5 days of the 12th month, and five more Mukhtad days, which are also
12285-544: The virtual extinction of scavenger birds. The central ritual of Zoroastrianism is the Yasna , which is a recitation of the eponymous book of the Avesta and sacrificial ritual ceremony involving Haoma . Extensions to the Yasna ritual are possible through use of the Visperad and Vendidad , but such an extended ritual is rare in modern Zoroastrianism. The Yasna itself descended from Indo-Iranian sacrificial ceremonies and animal sacrifice of varying degrees are mentioned in
12402-423: The work of druj . Similarly, predestination is rejected in Zoroastrian teaching and the absolute free will of all conscious beings is core, with even divine beings having the ability to choose. Humans bear responsibility for all situations they are in, and in the way they act toward one another. Reward, punishment, happiness, and grief all depend on how individuals live their lives. In Zoroastrian tradition, life
12519-416: The world's oldest organized faiths, its adherents exalt an uncreated , benevolent , and all-wise deity known as Ahura Mazda ( 𐬀𐬵𐬎𐬭𐬋 𐬨𐬀𐬰𐬛𐬃 ), who is hailed as the supreme being of the universe. Opposed to Ahura Mazda is Angra Mainyu ( 𐬀𐬢𐬭𐬀⸱𐬨𐬀𐬌𐬥𐬌𐬌𐬎 ), who is personified as a destructive spirit and the adversary of all things that are good. As such, the Zoroastrian religion combines
12636-487: The world. According to legend, the final savior of the world, known as the Saoshyant , will be born to a virgin impregnated by the seed of Zoroaster while bathing in a lake. The Saoshyant will raise the dead—including those in all afterworlds—for final judgment, returning the wicked to hell to be purged of bodily sin. Next, all will wade through a river of molten metal in which the righteous will not burn but through which
12753-457: The world. Parties and ghambars are held. Special prayers and jashan are also held throughout the entire day. Clean, rangoli -strewn homes, children with vermilion spots on their foreheads, new clothes , fragrant flowers and delicious meals, all form part of the rituals. A grand feast is prepared to mark the occasion. Since the Parsi community is especially tight-knit, its celebrations bring kith and kin together; so does Khordad Sal. The festival
12870-609: Was based on the Jalali calendar introduced in 1079 during the reign of the Seljuk Malik Shah and which had been well received in agrarian communities. The Fasli proposal had two useful features: a leap-day once every four years, and harmony with the tropical year. The leap-day, called Avardad-sal-Gah (or in Pahlavi: Ruzevahizak ), would be inserted, when required, after the five existing Gatha days at
12987-719: Was considered to contradict the injunctions expressed in the Denkard. In Iran, however, the Fasli calendar gained momentum following a campaign in 1930 to persuade the Iranian Zoroastrians to adopt it, under the title of the Bastani (traditional) calendar. In AD 1925, the Iranian Parliament had introduced a new Iranian calendar , which (independent of the Fasli movement) incorporated both points proposed by
13104-444: Was implemented by Ardashir's grandson Hormazd I (272–273 CE). During the first years after implementation of the new Gatha days, the population had not universally adopted the new dates for religious festivals, resulting in "official" celebrations takings place five days earlier than popular celebrations. In later years the population had observed the Gatha days, but the original five day discrepancy persisted. Hormazd's reform
13221-515: Was originally an Indo-Iranian god of "covenant, agreement, treaty, alliance, promise." Mitra is considered a being worthy of worship and is "characterized by riches". The Yazata (Avestan: 𐬫𐬀𐬰𐬀𐬙𐬀) are divine beings worshiped by song and sacrifice in Zoroastrianism, in accordance with the Avesta . The word ' Yazata' is derived from 'Yazdan', the Old Persian word for 'god', and literally means "divinity worthy of worship or veneration". As
13338-458: Was put in the house of archives and the other put in the Imperial treasury. During Alexander's conquest of Persia, the Avesta (written on 1200 ox-hides) was burned, and the scientific sections that the Greeks could use were dispersed among themselves. However, there is no strong historical evidence for this and they remain contested despite affirmations from the Zoroastrian tradition, whether it be
13455-532: Was the supreme creator and sustaining force of the universe, working in gētīg (the visible material realm) and mēnōg (the invisible spiritual and mental realm) through the Amesha Spenta , a class of seven divine entities that represent various aspects of the universe and the highest moral good. Emanating from Ahura Mazda is Spenta Mainyu (the Holy or Bountiful Spirit), the source of life and goodness, which
13572-416: Was thus determined to run according to a master plan—inherent to Ahura Mazda—and violations of the order ( druj ) were violations against creation, and thus violations against Ahura Mazda. This concept of asha versus the druj should not be confused with Western and especially Christian notions of good versus evil, for although both forms of opposition express moral conflict, the asha versus druj concept
13689-465: Was to link the popular and official observance dates to form continual six-day feasts. Nawruz was an exception: the first and the sixth days of the month were celebrated as different occasions. Lesser Nawruz was observed on 1 Frawardin. 6 Frawardin became Greater Nawruz , a day of special festivity. Around the 10th century CE, the Greater Nawruz was associated with the return of
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