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58-505: The Acta Triumphorum or Triumphalia , better known as the Fasti Triumphales , or Triumphal Fasti , is a calendar of Roman magistrates honoured with a celebratory procession known as a triumphus , or triumph , in recognition of an important military victory, from the earliest period down to 19 BC. Together with the related Fasti Capitolini and other, similar inscriptions found at Rome and elsewhere, they form part of

116-523: A Plebeian Tribune, the Tribune could interpose the sacrosanctity of his person ( intercessio ) to physically stop that particular action. Any resistance against the tribune was considered to be a capital offense. The most significant constitutional power that a magistrate could hold was that of "Command" ( Imperium ), which was held only by consuls and praetors. This gave a magistrate the constitutional authority to issue commands (military or otherwise). Once

174-676: A chronology referred to by various names, including the Fasti Annales or Historici , Fasti Consulares , or Consular Fasti, and frequently just the fasti . The Triumphales were originally engraved on marble tablets, which decorated one of the structures in the Roman forum . They were discovered in a fragmentary state as the portion of the forum where they were located was being cleared to provide building material for St. Peter's Basilica in 1546. Recognized by scholars as an important source of information on Roman history, they were taken to

232-644: A list of the peoples and places referred to in the Fasti follow the table. The following praenomina appear in the Fasti Triumphales . All but a few were regularly abbreviated. A few uncommon praenomina found in the Fasti Capitolini do not appear in the Fasti Triumphales . The Romans dated events counting back from certain days in each month: the Kalends, marking the beginning of each month;

290-576: A magistrate's annual term in office expired, he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again. Since this did create problems for some magistrates, these magistrates occasionally had their command powers extended, which, in effect, allowed them to retain the powers of their office as a promagistrate . The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate. Two Consuls were elected every year, and they had supreme power in both civil and military matters. Throughout

348-553: A shorthand for Marcus Tullius Cicero, and Caesar for Gaius Julius Caesar . The term "cognomen" (sometimes pluralized "cognomens") has come into use as an English noun used outside the context of Ancient Rome. According to the 2012 edition of the Random House Dictionary , cognomen can mean a "surname" or "any name, especially a nickname". The basic sense in English is "how one is well known". For example Alfred

406-403: A triumph from the legendary founding of the city by Romulus down to 19 BC. The earliest entries record triumphs by the Roman kings . The Fasti also include entries for magistrates who received an ovation , or "lesser triumph". They were evidently carved on four pilasters , each eleven feet tall. The first covered the years down to 302 BC, the second to 222, the third to 129, and the last to

464-693: Is attached; de Veientibus Sabineisque means "over the Veientes and the Sabines". Roman magistrate During the transition from monarchy to republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the executive (the Roman king ) to the Roman Senate. When the Roman Republic was founded in 509 BC, the powers that had been held by the king were transferred to the Roman consuls , of which two were to be elected each year. Magistrates of

522-581: Is feminine and plural. The name of the month to which the day belonged is treated as an adjective modifying the day, and is therefore also feminine, plural, and either ablative or accusative. A few triumphs occurred in Interkalaris, or Mercedonius , an intercalary month used prior to Caesar's calendar reforms in 46 BC, and inserted following February in some years. Some of the dates in the Fasti Triumphales refer to specific religious festivals; for instance several triumphs were held Quirinalibus , "on

580-424: Is used for missing or unknown filiations or other abbreviated praenomina . Other missing text is indicated with an ellipsis in brackets, [...]. This table uses modern conventions for distinguishing between I and J, and between U and V. Otherwise, the names and notes are given as spelled in the fasti. Archaic Roman spellings, such as Aimilius for Aemilius , have been preserved. A guide to reading Roman dates and

638-741: The Fasti Capitolini , or Capitoline Fasti, a list of the chief magistrates at Rome from at least the beginning of the Republic down to the same period as the Triumphales . Alternately, they may have been built into the wall of the Regia , an ancient building that was reconstructed in 36 BC, which was the official residence of the Pontifex Maximus , and the site where the Annales Maximi , official records of Roman history from at least

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696-574: The Palazzo dei Conservatori on the nearby Capitoline Hill , and reconstructed. As part of the collection of the Capitoline Museums , the Fasti Triumphales are one of the most important sources for Roman chronology. The Fasti Triumphales were probably engraved in 18 BC, in order to adorn the Arch of Augustus , which had recently been constructed in the forum. They were contemporary with

754-704: The Quirinalia ", and at least one was held on the Terminalia . The following table gives the inflected forms of the months used in the fasti: Thus, a date abbreviated "iii. Non. Oct." represents ante diem tertium Nonas Octobres , i.e. the third day before the Nones of October, or October 5, while "Idib. Dec." represents Idibus Decembribus , occurring precisely on the Ides of December, or December 13, and "pridie K. Quint." would be pridie Kalendas Quintiles , or

812-602: The agnomen . For example, Publius Cornelius Scipio received the agnomen Africanus after his victory over the Carthaginian general Hannibal at Zama, Africa ( Africanus here means "of Africa" in the sense that his fame derives from Africa, rather than being born in Africa, which would have been Afer ); and the same procedure occurred in the names of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus (conqueror of Numidia) and Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus . In contrast to

870-592: The auspices (a ritual search for omens from the Gods), and was vested with legal authority ( imperium ) by the popular assembly. The Roman magistrates were elected officials of the Roman Republic. Each Roman magistrate was vested with a degree of power. Dictators (a temporary position for emergencies) had the highest level of power. After the Dictator was the Consul (the highest position if not an emergency), and then

928-489: The "tribunician powers" and the "proconsular powers". In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or proconsuls , under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. While these distinctions were clearly defined during

986-461: The Gods or leaders of other communities, and could unilaterally decree any new law. Sometimes he submitted his decrees to either the popular assembly or to the senate for a ceremonial ratification, but a rejection did not prevent the enactment of a decree. The king chose several officers to assist him, and unilaterally granted them their powers. When the king left the city, an Urban Prefect presided over

1044-638: The Great . (This is more similar to the Roman use of agnomen than their use of cognomen.) Catalan cognom and Italian cognome , derived from the Latin cognomen , mean "family name". Maltese kunjom is derived from the Italian version and retains the same meaning. The term "cognomen" can also be applied to cultures with a clan structure and naming conventions comparable to those of Ancient Rome; thus, hereditary "cognomina" have been described as in use among

1102-467: The Ides, occurring on the fifteenth of March, May, Quintilis (July), and October, and the thirteenth of all other months; and the Nones, occurring on the seventh day of March, May, Quintilis, and October, and the fifth of all other months. Perhaps because these dates were remnants of the old lunar calendar, the Romans counted inclusively, so that the first day of the month was reckoned the first day before

1160-399: The Kalends. The last day of the previous month was ante diem ii. Kalendas , or pridie Kalendas , and the day before that was ante diem iii. Kalendas . As a highly inflected language, Latin uses different cases depending on whether an event occurs on or from a day (ablative: Kalendis, Nonis, Idibus ), or before a day (accusative: Kalendas, Nonas, Idus ), but in each case the day

1218-507: The Praetor, and then the Censor, and then the curule aedile , and finally the quaestor . Each magistrate could only veto an action that was taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of power. Since plebeian tribunes (as well as plebeian aediles ) were technically not magistrates, they relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct. If one did not comply with the orders of

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1276-488: The Roman Empire were elected individuals of the ancient Roman Empire . The powers of an emperor (his imperium ) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. The two most significant components to an emperor's imperium were the "tribunician powers" ( potestas tribunicia ) and the "proconsular powers" ( imperium proconsulare ). In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of

1334-463: The Roman Senate back to the executive (the Roman Emperor ). Theoretically, the senate elected each new emperor; in practice each emperor chose his own successor, though the choice was often overruled by the army or civil war. The powers of an emperor (his imperium ) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. The two most significant components to an emperor's imperium were

1392-459: The ablative case: de Samnitibus means, roughly, "(he triumphed) over the Samnites"; pro cos. ex Hispania means "proconsul of (literally out of or from ) Spain". In this list, the first form is the one appearing in the fasti, and the second is the nominative, or uninflected form. The suffix -que , usually abbreviated -q. , means "and", combining the preceding words with the one to which it

1450-401: The census, the emperor had the power to assign individuals to a new social class, including the senatorial class, which gave the emperor unchallenged control over senate membership. The emperor also had the power to interpret laws and to set precedents. In addition, the emperor controlled the religious institutions , since, as emperor, he was always Pontifex Maximus , and a member of each of

1508-478: The city in place of the absent king. The king also had two Quaestors as general assistants, while several other officers assisted the king during treason cases. In war, the king occasionally commanded only the infantry, and delegated command over the cavalry to the commander of his personal bodyguards, the Tribune of the Celeres. The king sometimes deferred to precedent, often simply out of practical necessity. While

1566-466: The civil liberties of all Roman citizens. In times of military emergency, a Roman Dictator was appointed for a term of six months. Constitutional government dissolved, and the Dictator became the absolute master of the state. The Dictator then appointed a Master of the Horse to serve as his most senior lieutenant. Often the Dictator resigned his office as soon as the matter that caused his appointment

1624-416: The early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical. The traditional magistracies that survived the fall of the republic were the consulship, praetorship , plebeian tribunate , aedileship , quaestorship , and military tribunate . Mark Antony abolished the offices of dictator and Master of the Horse during his consulship in 44 BC, while

1682-471: The emperor held the same grade of military command authority as did the chief magistrates (the Roman consuls and proconsuls) under the republic. However, the emperor was not subject to the constitutional restrictions that the old consuls and proconsuls had been subject to. Eventually, he was given powers that, under the republic, had been reserved for the Roman Senate and the Roman assemblies including

1740-455: The emperor. Imperial Consuls could preside over the senate, could act as judges in certain criminal trials, and had control over public games and shows. The Praetors also lost a great deal of power, and ultimately had little authority outside of the city. The chief Praetor in Rome, the urban praetor, outranked all other Praetors, and for a brief time, they were given power over the treasury. Under

1798-458: The empire, the plebeian tribunes remained sacrosanct, and, in theory at least, retained the power to summon, or to veto, the senate and the assemblies. Augustus divided the college of Quaestors into two divisions, and assigned one division the task of serving in the senatorial provinces, and the other the task of managing civil administration in Rome. Under Augustus, the Aediles lost control over

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1856-414: The end. Each entry gives the full name of the magistrate who triumphed, beginning with his praenomen (normally abbreviated), nomen gentilicium , filiation , and cognomina (if any). Following these names are the magistracy or promagistracy held, the names of the defeated enemies or conquered territories, and the date that the triumph was celebrated. Roman numerals indicate those individuals who held

1914-505: The entries from the surviving portions of the Fasti Triumphales . The columns on the left give the years according to the Varronian chronology, which begins one year earlier than the years given in the Triumphales . The years AUC from the original inscription are given in the column on the right. Portions of names and text in square brackets have been interpolated. Periods (full stops) have been supplied for abbreviations. An em-dash

1972-415: The family from one another, and occasionally, to highlight an individual's achievement, typically in warfare. One example of this is Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus , whose cognomen Magnus was earned after his military victories under Sulla 's dictatorship. The cognomen was a form of distinguishing people who accomplished important feats, and those who already bore a cognomen were awarded another exclusive name,

2030-507: The fifth century BC down to the second, were stored. The Fasti Capitolini were most likely on the west and south sides of the Regia, and the Triumphales may have occupied part of the south wall. Both lists were discovered by the scholars Onofrio Panvinio and Pirro Ligorio , as they observed the demolition of ancient structures in the forum by a local company of quarrymen working to obtain building material for St. Peter's Basilica. Some of

2088-512: The four major priesthoods. Under the empire, the citizens were divided into three classes, and for members of each class, a distinct career path was available (known as the cursus honorum ). The traditional magistracies were only available to citizens of the senatorial class. The magistracies that survived the fall of the republic were (by their order of rank per the cursus honorum ) the consulship, praetorship, plebeian tribunate, aedileship, quaestorship, and military tribunate. If an individual

2146-470: The grain supply to a board of commissioners. It was not until after they lost the power to maintain order in the city, however, that they truly became powerless, and the office disappeared entirely during the 3rd century. Cognomen A cognomen ( Latin: [kɔŋˈnoːmɛn] ; pl. : cognomina ; from co- "together with" and (g)nomen "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome , under Roman naming conventions . Initially, it

2204-688: The honorary cognomina adopted by successful generals, most cognomina were based on a physical or personality quirk; for example, Rufus meaning " red-haired " or Scaevola meaning " left-handed ". Some cognomina were hereditary (such as Caesar among a branch of the Julii , Brutus and Silanus among the Junii , or Pilius and Metellus among the Caecilii ): others tended to be individual. And some names appear to have been used both as praenomen , agnomen , or non-hereditary cognomen . For instance, Vopiscus

2262-473: The king could unilaterally declare war, for example, he typically wanted to have such declarations ratified by the popular assembly. The period between the death of a king, and the election of a new king, was known as the interregnum . During the interregnum , the senate elected a senator to the office of Interrex to facilitate the election of a new king. Once the Interrex found a suitable nominee for

2320-550: The kingship, he presented this nominee to the senate for an initial approval. If the senate voted in favor of the nominee, that person stood for formal election before the People of Rome in the Curiate Assembly (the popular assembly). After the nominee was elected by the popular assembly, the senate ratified the election by passing a decree. The Interrex then formally declared the nominee to be king. The new king then took

2378-482: The last day of June. After the death of Caesar, the month of Quintilis officially became Julius (accusative feminine plural Julias , ablative Juliis ), and in 8 BC, Sextilis became Augustus (accusative feminine plural Augustas , ablative Augustis ), but the latter month does not appear in the Triumphal Fasti, which end in 19 BC. All of the people and places mentioned in the Fasti Triumphales occur in

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2436-534: The magistracy in question multiple times, or who received multiple triumphs. Each entry also has the year of the triumph indicated in the right margin. The years given in the Triumphales are one year earlier than those of the Varronian chronology. There are several gaps in the Fasti Triumphales . The first occurs following the second triumph attributed to Romulus, and presumably would have included further triumphs attributed to Romulus, or to Tullus Hostilius ,

2494-534: The markets, and over public games and shows. Quaestors usually assisted the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces with financial tasks. Though they technically were not magistrates, the Plebeian Tribunes and the Plebeian Aediles were considered to be the representatives of the people. Thus, they acted as a popular check over the senate (through their veto powers), and safeguarded

2552-670: The number of fragments of the Triumphales has grown to thirty-eight. The known portions of the fasti were published in the first volume of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum in 1863, and together with the Capitolini , they form part of the collection of the Capitoline Museums , where they are displayed in the Sala dei Fasti , the Salon of the Fasti. The Triumphal Fasti list all of the magistrates who celebrated

2610-614: The offices of Interrex and Roman censor were abolished shortly thereafter. The executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom . During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman King was the principal executive magistrate. He was the chief executive, chief priest, chief lawgiver , chief judge, and the sole commander-in-chief of the army. His powers rested on law and legal precedent, and he could only receive these powers through

2668-463: The plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or Proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical. By virtue of his proconsular powers,

2726-404: The political process of an election. In practice, he had no real restrictions on his power. When war broke out, he had the sole power to organize and levy troops, to select leaders for the army, and to conduct the campaign as he saw fit. He controlled all property held by the state, had the sole power to divide land and war spoils, was the chief representative of the city during dealings with either

2784-401: The republic were elected by the people of Rome , and were each vested with a degree of power called "major powers" ( maior potestas ). Dictators had more "major powers" than any other magistrate , and after the dictator was the censor , and then the consul , and then the praetor , and then the curule aedile , and then the quaestor . Any magistrate could obstruct (" veto ") an action that

2842-413: The right to declare war, to ratify treaties, and to negotiate with foreign leaders. The emperor's degree of Proconsular power gave him authority over all of Rome's military governors, and thus, over most of the Roman army. The emperor's tribunician powers gave him power over Rome's civil apparatus, as well as the power to preside over, and thus to dominate, the assemblies and the senate. When an emperor

2900-587: The stone would be reused in the structure, while other portions would be used to make cement. Recognizing the value of the inscriptions, the two ordered the sinking of new trenches, in hopes of recovering additional fragments. In all, they rescued thirty pieces of the Fasti Capitolini , and twenty-six of the Triumphales , which they brought to the Palazzo dei Conservatori on the instructions of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese . The lists were then reconstructed by Ligorio and Michelangelo . With additional excavations,

2958-498: The third King of Rome. Major gaps occur from 437 to 369 BC, from 291 to 282, 222 to 197, 187 to 178, 81 to 62, and 54 to 45. The missing sections include three of the triumphs of Camillus , the entire period of the Second Punic War , and all but the last triumph celebrated by Caesar . Shorter gaps occur from 502 to 496, 494 to 486, 329 to 326, 263 to 260, 191 to 189, 104 to 98, and 34 to 29 BC. The following table lists

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3016-433: The year, one Consul was superior in rank to the other Consul, and this ranking flipped every month, between the two Consuls. Praetors administered civil law, presided over the courts, and commanded provincial armies. Another magistrate, the Censor, conducted a census , during which time they could appoint people to the senate. Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, and were vested with powers over

3074-438: Was a nickname , but lost that purpose when it became hereditary. Hereditary cognomina were used to augment the second name, the nomen gentilicium (the family name , or clan name), in order to identify a particular branch within a family or family within a clan. The term has also taken on other contemporary meanings. Because of the limited nature of the Latin praenomen , the cognomen developed to distinguish branches of

3132-408: Was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers. By definition, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates since they were elected only by the plebeians , and as such, they were independent of all other powerful magistrates . During the transition from republic to the Roman empire, the constitutional balance of power shifted from

3190-403: Was not of the senatorial class, he could run for one of these offices if he was allowed to run by the emperor, or otherwise, he could be appointed to one of these offices by the emperor. During the transition from republic to empire, no office lost more power or prestige than the consulship, which was due, in part, to the fact that the substantive powers of republican Consuls were all transferred to

3248-423: Was resolved. When the Dictator's term ended, constitutional government was restored. The last ordinary Dictator was appointed in 202 BC. After 202 BC, extreme emergencies were addressed through the passage of the decree senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"). This suspended civil government, declared martial law , and vested the consuls with Dictatorial powers. The executive magistrates of

3306-499: Was used as both praenomen and cognomen in the Julii Caesares; likewise Nero among the early imperial Claudii , several of whom used the traditional hereditary Claudian cognomen as a praenomen. The upper-class usually used the cognomen to refer to one another. In present academic context, many prominent ancient Romans are referred to by only their cognomen ; for example, Cicero (from cicer " chickpea ") serves as

3364-410: Was vested with the tribunician powers, his office and his person became sacrosanct, and thus it became a capital offense to harm or to obstruct the emperor. The emperor also had the authority to carry out a range of duties that, under the republic, had been performed by the Roman censors. Such duties included the authority to regulate public morality ( Censorship ) and to conduct a census . As part of

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