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78-470: The Bundesgartenschau ( German pronunciation: [ˌbʊndəsˈɡaʁtn̩ʃaʊ̯] ; abbr. BUGA) is a biennial federal horticulture show in Germany . It also covers topics like landscaping . Taking place in different cities, the location changes in a two-year cycle. This German festival article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Horticulture Typically, horticulture

156-400: A Western Australian farmer, explored the use of biochar mixed with molasses as stock fodder . He asserted that in ruminants , biochar can assist digestion and reduce methane production . He also used dung beetles to work the resulting biochar-infused dung into the soil without using machinery. The nitrogen and carbon in the dung were both incorporated into the soil rather than staying on

234-553: A 1-2% weight concentration of biochar is optimal for use in concrete mixes, from both a cost and strength standpoint. A 2 wt.% biochar solution has been shown to increase concrete flexural strength by 15% in a three-point bending test conducted after 7 days, compared to traditional OPC concrete. Biochar concrete also shows promise in high-temperature resistance and permeability reduction. A cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of biochar concrete showed decreased production emissions with higher concentrations of biochar, which tracks with

312-412: A CF of 0.70 for the sugarcane tops, which normally are burned in the field. This translates into approximately 100 MT of residue annually, which could be pyrolyzed to create energy and soil additives. Adding in the bagasse (sugarcane waste) (RPR=0.29 CF=1.0), which is otherwise burned (inefficiently) in boilers, raises the total to 230 MT of pyrolysis feedstock. Some plant residue, however, must remain on

390-421: A decrease in biochar yield, while the temperature is in the range of 350–600 °C (623–873 K). Typical yields are 60% bio-oil , 20% biochar, and 20% syngas. By comparison, slow pyrolysis can produce substantially more char (≈35%); this contributes to soil fertility. Once initialized, both processes produce net energy. For typical inputs, the energy required to run a "fast" pyrolyzer is approximately 15% of

468-554: A higher nutrient uptake, and provided greater nutrient availability. At 10% levels biochar reduced contaminant levels in plants by up to 80%, while reducing chlordane and DDX content in the plants by 68 and 79%, respectively. However, because of its high adsorption capacity, biochar may reduce pesticide efficacy. High-surface-area biochars may be particularly problematic. Biochar may be plowed into soils in crop fields to enhance their fertility and stability and for medium- to long-term carbon sequestration in these soils. It has meant

546-454: A highly efficient, simplified, precise, and low cost method of altering the genomes of species. Since 2013, CRISPR has been used to enhance a variety of species of grains, fruits, and vegetables. Crops are modified to increase their resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors such as parasites, disease, and drought as well as increase yield, nutrition, and flavour. Additionally, CRISPR has been used to edit undesirable traits, for example, reducing

624-451: A horticulturist may consider aspects based on the plants intended use and can include plant morphology, rarity, and utility. When selecting plants for the landscape, there are necessary observations of the location that must be made first. Considerations as to soil-type, temperature/climate, light, moisture, and pre-existing plants are made. These evaluations of the given environment are taken into consideration when selecting plant material for

702-477: A humic-like fluorescent component, likely associated with biochar-carbon in solution. The combined spectroscopy-microscopy approach revealed the accumulation of aromatic carbon in discrete spots in the solid phase of microaggregates and its co-localization with clay minerals for soil amended with raw residue or biochar. The co-localization of aromatic-C: polysaccharides-C was consistently reduced upon biochar application. These findings suggested that reduced C metabolism

780-813: A long period with charcoal showed a higher proportion of maize-derived carbon and decreased respiration, attributed to physical protection, C saturation of microbial communities, and, potentially, slightly higher annual primary production. Overall, this study evidences the capacity of biochar to enhance C sequestration through reduced C turnover. Biochar sequesters carbon (C) in soils because of its prolonged residence time, ranging from years to millennia. In addition, biochar can promote indirect C-sequestration by increasing crop yield while potentially reducing C-mineralization. Laboratory studies have evidenced effects of biochar on C-mineralization using C signatures. Fluorescence analysis of biochar-amended soil dissolved organic matter revealed that biochar application increased

858-419: A long-term stable carbon sink were published in the early 2000s. This technique is advocated by scientists including James Hansen and James Lovelock . A 2010 report estimated that sustainable use of biochar could reduce the global net emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ), methane , and nitrous oxide by up to 1.8  billion tonnes carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO 2 e) per year (compared to

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936-459: A means to mitigate climate change due to its potential of sequestering carbon with minimal effort. Biomass burning and natural decomposition releases large amounts of carbon dioxide and methane to the Earth's atmosphere . The biochar production process also releases CO 2 (up to 50% of the biomass); however, the remaining carbon content becomes indefinitely stable. Biochar carbon remains in

1014-571: A reduction in OPC. Compared to other SCMs from industrial waste streams (such as fly ash and silica fume ), biochar also showed decreased toxicity. Biochar mixed with liquid media such as water or organic liquids (ethanol, etc.) is an emerging fuel type known as biochar-based slurry. Adapting slow pyrolysis in large biomass fields and installations enables the generation of biochar slurries with unique characteristics. These slurries are becoming promising fuels in countries with regional areas where biomass

1092-667: A remarkable improvement in tropical soils showing positive effects in increasing soil fertility and improving disease resistance in West European soils. Gardeners taking individual action on climate change add biochar to soil, increasing plant yield and thereby drawing down more carbon. The use of biochar as a feed additive can be a way to apply biochar to pastures and to reduce methane emissions. Application rates of 2.5–20 tonnes per hectare (1.0–8.1 t/acre) appear required to improve plant yields significantly. Biochar costs in developed countries vary from $ 300–7000/tonne, which

1170-479: A shorter timespan than trees do. For crops that are not exclusively for biochar production, the Residue-to-Product Ratio (RPR) and the collection factor (CF), the percent of the residue not used for other things, measure the approximate amount of feedstock that can be obtained. For instance, Brazil harvests approximately 460 million tons (MT) of sugarcane annually, with an RPR of 0.30, and

1248-501: A special focus on horticulture for development (H4D), which involves using horticulture to reduce poverty and improve nutrition worldwide. GlobalHort is organized in a consortium of national and international organizations which collaborate in research, training, and technology-generating activities designed to meet mutually-agreed-upon objectives. GlobalHort is a non-profit organization registered in Belgium. Biochar Biochar

1326-541: A specific use. For example, guidelines published by the International Biochar Initiative provide standardized evaluation methods. Properties can be categorized in several respects, including the proximate and elemental composition, pH value, and porosity. The atomic ratios of biochar, including H/C and O/C, correlate with the properties that are relevant to organic content, such as polarity and aromaticity . A van-Krevelen diagram can show

1404-464: A variety of methods. Covering plants with plastic in the form of cones - called hot caps, or tunnels, can help to manipulate the surrounding temperature. Mulching is also an effective method to protect outdoor plants from frost during the wintertime. Inside, other frost prevention methods include the use of wind machines, heaters, and sprinklers. Plants have evolved to require different amounts of light, and lengths of daytime; their growth and development

1482-565: Is a charity in United Kingdom that leads on the encouragement and improvement of the science, art, and practice of horticulture in all its branches. The organization shares the knowledge of horticulture through its community, learning programs, and world-class gardens and shows. The Chartered Institute of Horticulture (CIH) is the Chartered professional body for horticulturists and horticultural scientists representing all sectors of

1560-539: Is abundant, and power supply relies heavily on diesel generators. This type of fuel resembles a coal slurry , but with the advantage that it can be derived from biochar from renewable resources. Biochar, also can have applications in the field of water treatment. Its porosity and properties can be modified using different methods to increase the efficiency of removal. Several contaminants such as heavy metals, dyes, organic pollutants are reported to be removed by biochar. Research into aspects involving pyrolysis/biochar

1638-500: Is characterized as the ornamental, small-scale/non-industrial cultivation of plants; horticulture is distinct from gardening by its emphasis on scientific methods, plant breeding, and technical cultivation practices, while gardening, even at a professional level, tends to focus more on the aesthetic care and maintenance of plants in gardens or landscapes. However, there are aspects of horticulture that are industrialized/commercial such as greenhouse production or CEA. Horticulture began with

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1716-415: Is charcoal, sometimes modified, that is intended for organic use, as in soil. It is the lightweight black remnants, consisting of carbon and ashes , remaining after the pyrolysis of biomass , and is a form of charcoal . Biochar is defined by the International Biochar Initiative as the "solid material obtained from the thermochemical conversion of biomass in an oxygen-limited environment". Biochar

1794-482: Is dependent on process conditions such as temperature, heating rate, and residence time . These parameters can be tuned to produce either more energy or more biochar. Temperatures of 400–500 °C (673–773 K) produce more char , whereas temperatures above 700 °C (973 K) favor the yield of liquid and gas fuel components. Pyrolysis occurs more quickly at higher temperatures, typically requiring seconds rather than hours. The increasing heating rate leads to

1872-457: Is determined by the amount of light/light intensity that they receive. Control of this may be achieved artificially through the use of fluorescent lights in an indoor setting. Manipulating the amount of light also controls flowering. Lengthening the day encourages the flowering of long-day plants and discourages the flowering of short-day plants. Water management methods involve employing irrigation/drainage systems, and controlling soil moisture to

1950-486: Is effective at retaining both water and water-soluble nutrients. Soil biologist Elaine Ingham highlighted its suitability as a habitat for beneficial soil micro organisms . She pointed out that when pre-charged with these beneficial organisms, biochar promotes good soil and plant health. Biochar reduces leaching of E-coli through sandy soils depending on application rate, feedstock, pyrolysis temperature, soil moisture content, soil texture , and surface properties of

2028-496: Is energy- and emissions-intensive to produce; cement production accounts for around 8% of global CO 2 emissions. The concrete industry has increasingly shifted to using supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), additives that reduce the volume of OPC in a mix while maintaining or improving concrete properties. Biochar has been shown to be an effective SCM, reducing concrete production emissions while maintaining required strength and ductility properties. Studies have found that

2106-644: Is extrapolated as evapotranspiration is increased, soils are degraded of their nutrients, and oxygen levels are depleted, resulting in up to a 70% loss in crop yield. Living organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, insects, weeds and native plants are sources of biotics stresses and can deprive the host of its nutrients. Plants respond to these stresses using defence mechanisms such as morphological and structural barriers, chemical compounds, proteins, enzymes and hormones. The impact of biotic stresses can be prevented using practices such as incorporate tilling, spraying or Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Care

2184-444: Is generally impractical for the farmer/horticulturalist and prohibitive for low-input field crops. In developing countries, constraints on agricultural biochar relate more to biomass availability and production time. A compromise is to use small amounts of biochar in lower-cost biochar-fertilizer complexes. Biochar soil amendments, when applied at excessive rates or with unsuitable soil type and biochar feedstock combinations, also have

2262-436: Is known as the top-down burn or conservation burn. Alternatively, more industrial methods can be used on small scales. While in a centralized system, unused biomass is brought to a central plant for processing into biochar, it is also possible for each farmer or group of farmers can operate a kiln . In this scenario, a truck equipped with a pyrolyzer can move from place to place to pyrolyze biomass. Vehicle power comes from

2340-416: Is mainly used in soils to increase soil aeration, reduce soil emissions of greenhouse gases, reduce nutrient leaching and reduce soil acidity and can increase soil water content in coarse soils. Biochar application may increase soil fertility and agricultural productivity . Biochar soil amendments, when applied at excessive rates or with unsuitable soil type and biochar feedstock combinations, also have

2418-723: Is no soil used. Growers within a greenhouse setting will often opt for a soilless mix which does not include any actual components of naturally occurring soil. These mixes offer advantages such as water absorption, sterility, and are generally very available within the industry. Soil management methods are broad, but includes the use of fertilizers, planned crop rotation to prevent the degradation of soils that are seen in monocultures, applying fertilizers, and soil analysis. Abiotic factors such as weather, light and temperature are all things that can be manipulated with enclosed environments such as cold frames, greenhouses , conservatories , poly houses and shade houses. Materials that are used in

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2496-406: Is not a priority in most cases. Smallholder farmers in developing countries easily produce their own biochar without special equipment. They make piles of crop waste (e.g., maize stalks, rice straw, or wheat straw), light the piles on the top, and quench the embers with dirt or water to make biochar. This method greatly reduces smoke compared to traditional methods of burning crop waste. This method

2574-584: Is recognized as charcoal that participates in biological processes found in soil, aquatic habitats and in animal digestive systems. Pre-Columbian Amazonians produced biochar by smoldering agricultural waste (i.e., covering burning biomass with soil) in pits or trenches. It is not known if they intentionally used biochar to enhance soil productivity. European settlers called it terra preta de Indio . Following observations and experiments, one research team working in French Guiana hypothesized that

2652-429: Is required to reduce damages and losses to horticultural crops during harvest. Compression forces occur during harvesting, and horticultural goods can be hit in a series of impacts during transport and packhouse operations. Different techniques are used to minimize mechanical injuries and wounding to plants such as: Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR/Cas9) has recently gained recognition as

2730-407: Is required to support a rapidly growing population with demands for its products. Due to global climate change, extremes in temperatures, strength of precipitation events, flood frequency, and drought length and frequency are increasing. Together with other abiotic stressors such salinity, heavy metal toxicity , UV damage, and air pollution, stressful environments are created for crop production. This

2808-513: Is under exploration as climate change adaptation effort, strengthening local communities' drought resilience and food security through the local production and application of biochar from abundant encroacher biomass . Similar solutions for rangeland affected by woody plant encroachment have been explored in Australia . In recent years, biochar has attracted interest as a wastewater filtration medium as well as for its adsorbing capacity for

2886-744: Is underway around the world, but as of 2018 was still in its infancy. From 2005 to 2012, 1,038 articles included the word "biochar" or "bio-char" in the topic indexed in the ISI Web of Science . Research is in progress by the University of Edinburgh , the University of Georgia , the Volcani Center , and the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences . Research is also ongoing on the application of biochar to coarse soils in semi-arid and degraded ecosystems. In Namibia biochar

2964-638: The International Society for Horticultural Science and the American Society of Horticultural Science . In the United Kingdom, there are two main horticulture societies. The Ancient Society of York Florists is the oldest horticultural society in the world and was founded in 1768; this organization continues to host four horticultural shows annually in York , England. Additionally, The Royal Horticultural Society , established in 1804,

3042-428: The domestication of plants around 10,000-20,000 years ago. At first, only plants for sustenance were grown and maintained, but eventually as humanity became increasingly sedentary, plants were grown for their ornamental value. Horticulture emerged as a distinct field from agriculture when humans sought to cultivate plants for pleasure on a smaller scale rather than for mere sustenance. Emerging technologies are moving

3120-502: The syngas stream, while the biochar remains on the farm. The biofuel is sent to a refinery or storage site. Factors that influence the choice of system type include the cost of transportation of the liquid and solid byproducts, the amount of material to be processed, and the ability to supply the power grid. Various companies in North America , Australia , and England also sell biochar or biochar production units. In Sweden,

3198-466: The 'Stockholm Solution' is an urban tree planting system that uses 30% biochar to support urban forest growth. At the 2009 International Biochar Conference, a mobile pyrolysis unit with a specified intake of 1,000 pounds (450 kg) was introduced for agricultural applications. Common crops used for making biochar include various tree species, as well as various energy crops . Some of these energy crops (i.e. Napier grass ) can store much more carbon on

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3276-521: The Amazonian earthworm Pontoscolex corethrurus was the main agent of fine powdering and incorporation of charcoal debris in the mineral soil. Biochar is a high-carbon, fine-grained residue that is produced via pyrolysis ; it is the direct thermal decomposition of biomass in the absence of oxygen (preventing combustion ), which produces a mixture of solids ( biochar ), liquid ( bio-oil ), and gas ( syngas ) products. Gasifiers produce most of

3354-599: The Gods, as well as were given in ceremonies to leaders to demonstrate their connection to the Gods. Plant propagation in horticulture is the process in which the multiplication of a species is performed, increasing the number of individual plants. Propagation involves both sexual and asexual methods. In sexual propagation seeds are used, while asexual propagation involves the division of plants, separation of tubers, corms, and bulbs - by use of techniques such as cutting, layering, grafting. When selecting plants to cultivate,

3432-833: The Middle Ages. Early practices in horticulture include a number of various ways that people managed the land (using an assortment of tools), with a variety of methods and types of plants cultivated for a number of uses. Methods, tools and plants grown, have always depended on the culture and climate. There are a number of traditional horticultural practices that we know of today: such as the Indigenous peoples of pre-colonized North America using biochar to enhance soil productivity by smoldering plant waste - European settlers called this soil Terra Preta de Indio . In North America, Indigenous people grew maize, squash, and sunflower - among other crops. Mesoamerican cultures focused on

3510-830: The New Zealand Horticulture Institute is another known horticultural organization. In India, the Horticultural Society of India (now Indian Academy of Horticultural Sciences) is the oldest society which was established in 1941 at Lyallpur, Punjab (now in Pakistan) but was later shifted to Delhi in 1949. The other notable organization in operation since 2005 is the Society for Promotion of Horticulture based at Bengaluru. Both these societies publish scholarly journals – Indian Journal of Horticulture and Journal of Horticultural Sciences for

3588-411: The about 50 billion tonnes emitted in 2021), without endangering food security , habitats , or soil conservation . However a 2018 study doubted enough biomass would be available to achieve significant carbon sequestration. A 2021 review estimated potential CO 2 removal from 1.6 to 3.2 billion tonnes per year, and by 2023 it had become a lucrative business renovated by carbon credits. As of 2023,

3666-679: The advancement of horticultural sciences. Horticulture in the Indian state of Kerala is spearheaded by Kerala State Horticulture Mission . The National Junior Horticultural Association (NJHA) was established in 1934 and was the first organization in the world dedicated solely to youth and horticulture. NJHA programs are designed to help young people obtain a basic understanding of horticulture and develop skills in this ever-expanding art and science. The Global Horticulture Initiative (GlobalHort) fosters partnerships and collective action among different stakeholders in horticulture. This organization has

3744-854: The amount applied, although knowledge about the important mechanisms and properties is limited. Biochar impact may depend on regional conditions including soil type, soil condition (depleted or healthy), temperature, and humidity. Modest additions of biochar reduce nitrous oxide ( N 2 O ) emissions by up to 80% and eliminate methane emissions , which are both more potent greenhouse gases than CO 2 . Studies reported positive effects from biochar on crop production in degraded and nutrient–poor soils. The application of compost and biochar under FP7 project FERTIPLUS had positive effects on soil humidity, crop productivity and quality in multiple countries. Biochar can be adapted with specific qualities to target distinct soil properties. In Colombian savanna soil, biochar reduced leaching of critical nutrients, created

3822-530: The bacteria. For plants that require high potash and elevated pH , biochar can improve yield. Biochar can improve water quality, reduce soil emissions of greenhouse gases , reduce nutrient leaching , reduce soil acidity , and reduce irrigation and fertilizer requirements. Under certain circumstances biochar induces plant systemic responses to foliar fungal diseases and improves plant responses to diseases caused by soilborne pathogens. Biochar's impacts are dependent on its properties as well as

3900-496: The biochar sold in the United States. The gasification process consists of four main stages: oxidation, drying, pyrolysis , and reduction . Temperature during pyrolysis in gasifiers is 250–550 °C (523–823 K), 600–800 °C (873–1,073 K) in the reduction zone and 800–1,000 °C (1,070–1,270 K) in the combustion zone. The specific yield from pyrolysis, the step of gasification that produces biochar,

3978-400: The biomass. Commercial-scale systems process agricultural waste, paper byproducts, and even municipal waste and typically eliminate these side effects by capturing and using the liquid and gas products. The 2018 winner of the X Prize Foundation for atmospheric water generators harvests potable water from the drying stage of the gasification process. The production of biochar as an output

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4056-473: The browning and production of toxic and bitter substances of potatoes. CRISPR has also been employed to solve issues of low pollination rates and low fruit yield common in greenhouses. As compared to Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO), CRISPR does not add any alien DNA to the plant's genes. There are various organizations worldwide that focus on promoting and encouraging research and education in all branches of horticultural science; such organizations include

4134-500: The concept of Biochar Carbon Removal , i.e. carbon sequestration in the form of biochar. Carbon removal can be achieved when high-quality biochar is applied to soils, or added as a substitute material to construction materials such as concrete and tar. The word "biochar" is a late 20th century English neologism derived from the Greek word βίος , bios , " life " and " char " ( charcoal produced by carbonization of biomass). It

4212-407: The construction of these buildings are chosen based on the climate, purpose and budget. Cold frames provide an enclosed environment, they are built close to the ground and with a top made of glass or plastic. The glass or plastic allows sunlight into the frame during the day and prevents heat loss that would have been lost as long-wave radiation at night. This allows plants to start to be grown before

4290-591: The cultivating of crops on a small scale, such as the milpa or maize field, around their dwellings or in specialized plots which were visited occasionally during migrations from one area to the next. In Central America, the Maya involved augmentation of the forest with useful trees such as papaya , avocado , cacao , ceiba and sapodilla . In the fields, multiple crops such as beans, squash, pumpkins and chili peppers were grown. The first horticulturists in many cultures, were mainly or exclusively women. In addition to

4368-679: The cultivation of plant material professionally. There are many different types of horticulturists with different job-titles, including: gardener , grower, farmer , arborist , floriculturist , landscaper , agronomist, designer, landscape architect, lawn-care specialist, nursery manager, botanical garden curator, horticulture therapist, and much more. They may be hired by a variety of companies/institutions including, but not limited to: botanical gardens, private/public gardens, parks, cemeteries, greenhouses, golf courses, vineyards, estates, landscaping companies, nurseries, educational institutions, etc. They may also be self-employed. Horticulture began with

4446-458: The domestication of plants 10,000-20,000 years ago, and has since, been deeply integrated into humanity's history. The domestication of plants occurred independently within various civilizations across the globe. The history of horticulture overlaps with the history of agriculture and history of botany , as all three originated with the domestication of various plants for food. In Europe, agriculture and horticulture diverged at some point during

4524-400: The energy that it outputs. Pyrolysis plants can use the syngas output and yield 3–9 times the amount of energy required to run. The Amazonian pit/trench method, in contrast, harvests neither bio-oil nor syngas, and releases CO 2 , black carbon , and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) (and potentially, toxicants ) into the air, though less greenhouse gasses than captured during the growth of

4602-508: The evolution of biochar atomic ratios in the production process. In the carbonization process, both the H / C and O /C atomic ratios decrease due to the release of functional groups that contain hydrogen and oxygen. Production temperatures influence biochar properties in several ways. The molecular carbon structure of the solid biochar matrix is particularly affected. Initial pyrolysis at 450–550 °C leaves an amorphous carbon structure. Temperatures above this range will result in

4680-511: The fields, producing a continuous slash and burn cycle. Using pyrolysis to produce bio-energy does not require infrastructure changes the way, for example, processing biomass for cellulosic ethanol does. Additionally, biochar can be applied by the widely used machinery. Biochar is hygroscopic due to its porous structure and high specific surface area . As a result, fertilizer and other nutrients are retained for plants' benefit. Biochar has been used in animal feed for centuries. Doug Pow,

4758-440: The ground for centuries, slowing the growth in atmospheric greenhouse gas levels. Simultaneously, its presence in the earth can improve water quality , increase soil fertility , raise agricultural productivity , and reduce pressure on old-growth forests . Biochar can sequester carbon in the soil for hundreds to thousands of years, like coal . Early works proposing the use of biochar for carbon dioxide removal to create

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4836-494: The growing season starts. Greenhouses/conservatories are similar in function, but are larger in construction and heated with an external energy source. They can be built out of glass, although they are now primarily made from plastic sheets. More expensive and modern greenhouses can include temperature control through shade and light control or air-conditioning as well as automatic watering. Shade houses provide shading to limit water loss by evapotranspiration. Commercial horticulture

4914-442: The horticultural industry across Great Britain, Ireland and overseas.  It is the only horticultural professional body where its top professionals can achieve Chartered status and become a Chartered Horticulturist. The Australian Institute of Horticulture and Australian Society of Horticultural Science was established in 1990 as a professional society to promote and enhance Australian horticultural science and industry. Finally,

4992-665: The hydrothermal carbonization could produce a carbon-rich solid product, the hydrothermal carbonization is evidently different from the conventional thermal conversion process. Therefore, the solid product from hydrothermal carbonization is defined as "hydrochar" rather than "biochar". Thermo-catalytic depolymerization is another method to produce biochar, which utilizes microwaves . It has been used to efficiently convert organic matter to biochar on an industrial scale, producing ≈50% char. The physical and chemical properties of biochars as determined by feedstocks and technologies are crucial. Characterization data explain their performance in

5070-415: The industry forward, especially in the way of altering plants to be more adverse to parasites, disease and drought. Modifying technologies such as Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR/Cas9), are also improving the nutrition, taste and yield of crops. There are many horticultural organizations and societies found around the world, that are formed by horticulturists and those within

5148-822: The industry. These include the Royal Horticultural Society , the International Society for Horticultural Science , and the American Society of Horticultural Science . There are divisions and sub-divisions within horticulture, this is because plants are grown for many different reasons. Some of the divisions in horticulture include: It includes the cultivation of all plants including, but not limited to: ornamental trees/shrubs/plants , fruits , vegetables , flowers , turf , nuts , seeds , herbs and other medicinal/edible plants. This cultivation may occur in garden spaces, nurseries , greenhouses , vineyards , orchards , parks , recreation areas, etc. Horticulturists, are those who study and practice

5226-775: The location. Plant selection may be for annual displays, or they may be for more permanent plantings. Characteristics of the plant such as mature height/size, colour, growth habit, ornamental value, flowering time and invasive potential are what finalizes the plant selection process. Environmental factors that effect plant development include: temperature, light, water, pH, nutrient availability, weather events (rain, snow, sleet, hail and freezing rain, dew, wind and frost) humidity, elevation, terrain, and micro-climate effects. In horticulture, these environmental variables may be avoided, controlled or manipulated in an indoor growing environment. Plants require specific temperatures to grow and develop properly. Temperature control can be done through

5304-652: The medicinal and nutritional values that plants hold, plants have also been grown for their beauty, and to impress and demonstrate power, knowledge, status and even wealth of those in-control of the cultivated plant material. This symbolic power that plants hold has existed even before the beginnings of their cultivation. There is evidence that various gardens maintained by the Aztecs were sacred, as they grew plants that held religious value. Plants were grown for their metaphorical relation to Gods and Goddesses. Flowers held symbolic power in religious rites, as they were offered to

5382-469: The needs of the species. Methods of irrigation include surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, sub-irrigation, and trickle irrigation. Volume of water, pressure, and frequency are changed to optimize the growing environment. On a small scale watering can be done manually. The choice of growing media and components to the media help support plant life. Within a greenhouse environment, growers may choose to grow their plants in an aquaponic system where there

5460-530: The potential for negative effects, including harming soil biota, reducing available water content, altering soil pH and increasing salinity. Beyond soil application, biochar can be used for slash-and-char farming, for water retention in soil, and as an additive for animal fodder . There is an increasing focus on the potential role of biochar application in global climate change mitigation. Due to its refractory stability, biochar can stay in soils or other environments for thousands of years. This has given rise to

5538-525: The potential for negative effects, including harming soil biota, reducing available water content, altering soil pH and increasing salinity. Switching from slash-and-burn to slash-and-char farming techniques in Brazil can decrease both deforestation of the Amazon basin and carbon dioxide emission , as well as increase crop yields. Slash-and-burn leaves only 3% of the carbon from the organic material in

5616-420: The progressive thermochemical conversion of amorphous carbon into turbostratic graphene sheets. Biochar conductivity also increases with production temperature. Important to carbon capture, aromaticity and intrinsic recalcitrance increases with temperature. The refractory stability of biochar leads to the concept of Biochar Carbon Removal , i.e. carbon sequestration in the form of biochar. It may be

5694-405: The significance of biochar's potential as a carbon sink is widely accepted. Biochar is found to have the technical potential to sequester 7% of carbon dioxide in average of all countries, with twelve nations able to sequester over 20% of their greenhouse gas emissions. Bhutan leads this proportion (68%), followed by India (53%). In 2021 the cost of biochar ranged around European carbon prices, but

5772-819: The soil surface, reducing the production of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide . The nitrogen and carbon added to soil fertility. On-farm evidence indicates that the fodder led to improvements of liveweight gain in Angus-cross cattle . Doug Pow won the Australian Government Innovation in Agriculture Land Management Award at the 2019 Western Australian Landcare Awards for this innovation. Pow's work led to two further trials on dairy cattle, yielding reduced odour and increased milk production. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC), an essential component of concrete mix,

5850-463: The soil to avoid increased costs and emissions from nitrogen fertilizers. Besides pyrolysis, torrefaction and hydrothermal carbonization processes can also thermally decompose biomass to the solid material. However, these products cannot be strictly defined as biochar. The carbon product from the torrefaction process contains some volatile organic components , thus its properties are between that of biomass feedstock and biochar. Furthermore, even

5928-418: The soil. Slash-and-char can retain up to 50%. Biochar reduces the need for nitrogen fertilizers, thereby reducing cost and emissions from fertilizer production and transport. Additionally, by improving soil's till-ability, fertility, and productivity, biochar-enhanced soils can indefinitely sustain agricultural production, whereas slash/burn soils quickly become depleted of nutrients, forcing farmers to abandon

6006-497: The wastewater pollutants, such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products , and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances . In some areas, citizen interest and support for biochar motivates government research into the uses of biochar. Long-term effects of biochar on carbon sequestration have been examined using soil from arable fields in Belgium with charcoal-enriched black spots dating from before 1870 from charcoal production mound kilns. This study showed that soil treated over

6084-488: Was not yet included in the EU or UK Emissions Trading Scheme . In developing countries, biochar derived from improved cookstoves for home-use can contribute to lower carbon emissions if use of original cookstove is discontinued, while achieving other benefits for sustainable development. Biochar offers multiple soil health benefits in degraded tropical soils but is less beneficial in temperate regions. Its porous nature

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