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112-499: Fes Jdid or Fes el-Jdid ( Arabic : فاس الجديد , lit.   'New Fez') is one of the three parts of Fez , the second largest city of Morocco . It was founded by the Marinids in 1276 as an extension of Fes el Bali (the old city or medina ) and as a royal citadel and capital . It is occupied in large part by the historic Royal Palace (the Dar al-Makhzen ), which

224-540: A Royal Palace (Dar al-Makhzen), military barracks , and residential neighbourhoods. Before then, the main center of power and government in Fes had been the Kasbah Bou Jeloud on the western edge of the old city (at the location of the still extant Bou Jeloud Mosque , near Bab Bou Jeloud gate). The decision to create a new and highly fortified citadel separate from the old city (Fes el-Bali), may have reflected

336-518: A hammam , and a group of shops built together across the street are also associated with the mosque, although there have been no studies yet to clarify whether this complex was part of the original construction and design of the mosque. The mosque's name, jama' hamra or jama' al-hamra , means either "Red Mosque" or "Mosque of the Red One". Since the form of the word hamra is grammatically feminine , Le Tourneau suggested that it refers to either

448-575: A collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged during the Iron Age . Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Qaryat al-Faw , in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as

560-615: A continuous wariness of Moroccan rulers towards the highly independent and sometimes restive population of Fes. Another reason for building the new city was that the Almohad kasbahs, which were strictly military compounds, lacked the space required to establish a royal court and to house the Marinid troops. Moreover, by this time Aby Yusuf Ya'qub had also conquered Marrakesh (1269) and defeated the last Almohad holdouts in Tinmal (1275). Building

672-435: A corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya . Arabic spread with the spread of Islam . Following the early Muslim conquests , Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish . In the early Abbasid period , many Classical Greek terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at Baghdad's House of Wisdom . By

784-1081: A dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet . The Balkan languages, including Albanian, Greek , Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian , have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with Ottoman Turkish . Arabic has influenced languages across the globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are Persian , Turkish , Hindustani ( Hindi and Urdu ), Kashmiri , Kurdish , Bosnian , Kazakh , Bengali , Malay ( Indonesian and Malaysian ), Maldivian , Pashto , Punjabi , Albanian , Armenian , Azerbaijani , Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog , Sindhi , Odia , Hebrew and African languages such as Hausa , Amharic , Tigrinya , Somali , Tamazight , and Swahili . Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its sister-language Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to

896-487: A lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world, and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of users. It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion Muslims . In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Arabic

1008-690: A millennium before the modern period . Early lexicographers ( لُغَوِيُّون lughawiyyūn ) sought to explain words in the Quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran. They gathered shawāhid ( شَوَاهِد 'instances of attested usage') from poetry and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin ʾaʿrāb  [ ar ] ( أَعْراب ) who were perceived to speak

1120-446: A new palace-city was a frequent preoccupation of North African and Andalusi dynasties wishing to demonstrate their power, and so the foundation of the new city also symbolized the new era of Marinid rule. The city's original name was Madinat al-Bayda , the "White City". Its construction appears to have been very rapid, as the royal court moved into the new palace barely a year later. The Oued Fes (Fes River; also known in this part as

1232-605: A period of relative neglect after the Marinid decline and under the rule of the Saadians , who made Marrakech their capital and seemed to view the population of Fes with suspicion. The Saadians' main contribution was the construction of several imposing military bastions around the city, such as Borj Nord and Borj Sud overlooking Fes el-Bali. In Fes el-Jdid they added three bastions to the already formidable city walls on its eastern side; namely, those known as Borj Sheikh Ahmed, Borj Twil, and Borj Sidi Bou Nafa'. The western walls of

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1344-501: A red minaret or a red woman (both plausible and grammatically feminine words). Before it was renovated with added zellij decoration, the minaret's original colour may have been closer to a shade of red, which is another hypothesis. Boris Maslow reported that one legend attributes the mosque to an unidentified "Red Sultan", but that a more plausible legend attributes it to a "red woman" of the Banu Marin (Marinid) clan who came from

1456-594: A result, many European languages have borrowed words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages (mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese , Catalan , and Sicilian ) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the Al-Andalus era. Maltese is a Semitic language developed from

1568-462: A script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic . On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B , Thamudic D, Safaitic , and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic . Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic",

1680-470: A single language, despite mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions. From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages . This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for

1792-441: A small Jewish population settled here right after the foundation of Fes el-Jdid and that other Jews fleeing the Fes el-Bali joined them later. Some authors attribute the move more specifically to a consequence of the "rediscovery" of Idris II's body in his zawiya at the center of the city in 1437. Following this, the area around the mosque was turned into a horm ( sanctuary ) where non-Muslims were not allowed to enter, resulting in

1904-399: A small oratory dedicated to funerary rites. The minaret has square base measuring 4.5 metres per side. The main shaft of the minaret is 19.2 metres tall, above which is a secondary mini-tower (2.5 metres per side and 4.6 metres high) topped by a small dome and a metal finial with spheres. The interior of the minaret is climbed via a long staircase which wraps around the square-based core of

2016-507: A type of Arabic. Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia , which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically means

2128-507: A variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects , which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran , used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate . Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh ) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as

2240-564: A vast open square on the site of the former Jewish cemetery (which in 1894 had been moved to the southeast) which became known as Place du Commerce and which is now known as Place des Alaouites . In 1924, the French went further and demolished a series of modest shops and stables on the northern edge of the Jewish Mellah in order to build a wide road for vehicles ( Rue Boukhessissat or Bou Khsisat ; later also Rue des Mérinides ) between

2352-476: A wider audience." In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism , pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi proposed the establishment of Madrasat al-Alsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted

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2464-426: Is (or formerly was) a central fountain with a marble basin, while under the gallery on its southwestern corner is a wall fountain decorated with zellij mosaic tilework; both served to help with ablutions . A sundial is found on one of the pillars on the northern arcade of the courtyard. Like most Moroccan mosques, the mosque's interior is a hypostyle space with rows of Moorish arches running perpendicular to

2576-737: Is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world . The ISO assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic , including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic , which is derived from Classical Arabic . This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā ( اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ "the eloquent Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā ( اَلْفُصْحَىٰ ). Arabic

2688-529: Is a Marinid -era mosque in Fes , Morocco . It is a local Friday mosque located on the Grande Rue ("Great Street") of Fes el-Jdid , the palace-city founded by the Marinid rulers. The mosque has never been precisely dated as it lacks any foundation inscription, but it is known to have been built in the Marinid period, almost certainly in the 14th century. Roger Le Tourneau suggested it was most likely built at

2800-590: Is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a complicating factor: A single written form, differing sharply from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites several sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak

2912-559: Is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor. Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. The term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the Arabian Peninsula , as perceived by geographers from ancient Greece . In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It

3024-523: Is at Bab al-Amer , on the western edge of the former Jewish Mellah . This is also the location of the modern Place des Alaouites ("Plaza/Square of the Alaouites ") and of the famous Gates of the Royal Palace , which were built in the 1960s and early 70s but are much-celebrated for their craftsmanship. From this point, a main road ( Rue des Mérinides or Rue Boukhessissat ) runs eastwards between

3136-478: Is believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz , Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in

3248-408: Is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody . Al-Jahiz (776–868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries. The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al - Kitāb , is based first of all upon

3360-472: Is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar , or an-naḥw ( النَّحو "the way" ), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants ( نقط الإعجام nuqaṭu‿l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization ( التشكيل at-tashkīl ). Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, Kitāb al-'Ayn ( كتاب العين "The Book of the Letter ع "), and

3472-574: Is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم film 'film' or ديمقراطية dīmuqrāṭiyyah 'democracy'). The current preference

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3584-557: Is now called the Old Mechouar ( Vieux Méchouar ), a large walled square fronting the entrance to the Royal Palace, was originally a fortified bridge over the Fes River set between two gates defending the northern entrance to the city. (Unlike today, the gate on the south side of this bridge/square led to the main city rather than directly to the palace, whose grounds did not yet extend to this point.) The northern gate of this bridge

3696-855: Is official in Mali and recognized as a minority language in Morocco, while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it. Maltese is official in (predominantly Catholic ) Malta and written with the Latin script . Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from Siculo-Arabic , though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors", many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not

3808-572: Is the third most widespread official language after English and French, one of six official languages of the United Nations , and the liturgical language of Islam . Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media. During the Middle Ages , Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As

3920-590: Is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" ( فُصْحَى fuṣḥá ) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba 'to go') that

4032-413: Is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., فرع farʻ 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح janāḥ 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots ( استماتة istimātah ' apoptosis ', using the root موت m/w/t 'death' put into

4144-524: Is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era , especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while

4256-445: The Lisān al-ʻArab ). Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary

4368-607: The Jnan Sbil Gardens . At the Old Mechouar several roads converge. On the south side of the square is the entrance to the Royal Palace (off-limits to the public), while on the north side is the massive gate of Bab Dekkakin which leads to the New Mechouar. On the east side of the square are entrances from the Grande Rue and another separate opening for the road leading to Place Bou Jeloud and Fes el-Bali. On

4480-467: The Oued al-Jawahir , "River of Pearls") flowed along the base of the northern ramparts of the city. Sources also describe that the river, or some of its branches and canals, initially ran through the city itself. The Marinid city was protected on all sides by two lines of walls, which on the east and west ran together but to the north and south were separated from each by intervening gardens or districts. What

4592-568: The Xth form , or جامعة jāmiʻah 'university', based on جمع jamaʻa 'to gather, unite'; جمهورية jumhūriyyah 'republic', based on جمهور jumhūr 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف hātif 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; جريدة jarīdah 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to

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4704-494: The northern Hejaz . These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor , Proto-Arabic . The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence: On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic. Thus, Arabic vernaculars do not descend from Classical Arabic: Classical Arabic

4816-419: The "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Quran was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In

4928-811: The "purest," most eloquent form of Arabic—initiating a process of jamʿu‿l-luɣah ( جمع اللغة 'compiling the language') which took place over the 8th and early 9th centuries. Kitāb al-'Ayn ( c.  8th century ), attributed to Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi , is considered the first lexicon to include all Arabic roots ; it sought to exhaust all possible root permutations —later called taqālīb ( تقاليب ) — calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal ( مستعمَل ) and those that are not used muhmal ( مُهمَل ). Lisān al-ʿArab (1290) by Ibn Manzur gives 9,273 roots, while Tāj al-ʿArūs (1774) by Murtada az-Zabidi gives 11,978 roots. Al-Hamra Mosque The al-Hamra Mosque or Red Mosque ( Arabic : الجامع الاحمر , Berber languages : ⵎⴻⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⴰⵣⴻⴳⴰⴴ )

5040-454: The 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus , the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb. The Nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression." According to James L. Gelvin , " Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to

5152-529: The 20th century. Starting under Lyautey , the creation of the French Ville Nouvelle ("New City") to the west also had a wider impact on the entire city's development. In the Bab al-Amer area, the French administration judged the old gate too narrow and inconvenient for traffic and demolished a nearby aqueduct and some of the surrounding wall in order to improve access. In the process they created

5264-571: The 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria ( Zabad , Jebel Usays , Harran , Umm el-Jimal ). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of

5376-834: The 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, Maimonides , the Andalusi Jewish philosopher, authored works in Judeo-Arabic —Arabic written in Hebrew script . Ibn Jinni of Mosul , a pioneer in phonology , wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as Kitāb Al-Munṣif , Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab , and Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ    [ ar ] . Ibn Mada' of Cordoba (1116–1196) realized

5488-599: The Dar al-Makhzen grounds up to the edge of the Lalla ez-Zhar Mosque which had previously stood in the middle of a residential neighbourhood, cutting off one of the local streets. This was one of several occasions where the expansion of the palace cut into the general residential areas of Fes el-Jdid. Moulay Rashid also built the vast Kasbah Cherarda north of Fes el-Jdid in order to house his tribal troops. The housing of troops here also liberated new space in Fes el-Jdid itself, including

5600-631: The Grande Rue are residential neighbourhoods, historically the main Muslim neighbourhoods of Fes el-Jdid, which are centered around historic main mosques such as the al-Hamra Mosque , the Lalla ez-Zhar Mosque , and the Lalla Ghriba Mosque . The eastern edge of these neighbourhoods is lined by the former walls of Fes el-Jdid, of which major sections have survived, in addition to several Saadian -era bastions . Some of these can be seen clearly from

5712-591: The Jewish community. Major expansions and modifications to Fes el-Jdid and to the royal palace continued throughout the 19th century. Under sultan Moulay Abd al-Rahman (ruled 1822–1859) the Bab Bou Jat Mechouar or Grand Mechouar was created to the west of the Moulay Abdallah quarter, providing the palace grounds with another ceremonial entrance to the northwest. This led to the western gate of

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5824-488: The Marinid period and were each centered around their own main mosque, such as the al-Hamra Mosque (located on the main street, now called the Grande Rue ), the Lalla az-Zhar Mosque (to the southwest) and the Lalla Ghriba Mosque (further east). Abu Yusuf Ya'qub had also wished to create a vast pleasure garden hut he died in 1286 before this could be accomplished. His son and successor, Abu Ya'qub Yusuf , carried out

5936-503: The Marinid period the Jewish inhabitants, who had until then lived alongside the Muslim population in Fes el-Bali, were all moved to a new district occupying the south side of Fes el-Jdid. This district, possibly built after the initial foundation of the city, was located between the inner and outer southern walls of the city and was originally inhabited by Muslim garrisons, notably by the Sultan's contingents of Syrian archers . The district

6048-552: The Mellah also became steadily depopulated of its Jewish inhabitants, who either moved to the Ville Nouvelle, to Casablanca , or emigrated to countries like France, Canada, and Israel. In the late 1940s, estimates of the Jewish population include 15,150 in the Mellah and 22,000 in all of Fes. However, major waves of emigration after this have essentially depleted the Jewish community, with no functioning synagogues remaining in

6160-418: The Mellah and the southern wall of the Royal Palace, which today passes in front of Bab Semmarine and continues towards Fes el-Bali. The former shops were replaced with more ostentatious boutiques built in the architectural style of the Jewish houses of the Mellah, with many open balconies and outward ornamentation. Bab Semmarine itself was also altered and opened up to increase the flow of traffic. Elsewhere in

6272-427: The Mellah and the walls of the Royal Palace. This area, along with the rest of the former Jewish quarter, is also known for its distinctive house architecture, with open balconies and other features not usually found in the traditional Muslim medina. The Mellah in turn has its own main street, a gate known as Bab el-Mellah, and a large Jewish Cemetery (established in 1883) at its southwestern corner. Rue des Mérinides ,

6384-535: The Mellah. In 1997 there were reportedly only 150 Jews in all of Fes. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, King Hassan II ordered the creation of a new entrance to the Royal Palace at Place des Alaouites, at which time the now-famous gates of the palace were constructed here. Although no longer the primary official residence of the monarchy, the Palace is still used as a residence by the King of Morocco to this day. Today,

6496-412: The Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises." Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around

6608-560: The Moulay Abdallah quarter, Bab Bou Jat, eventually being closed off. A large garden area on the west side of the palace, the Lalla Mina Gardens, was also established by Moulay Abd al-Rahman, stretching to the old Marinid western walls of the city. To the west of these an even larger walled garden called the Agdal was established by Sultan Moulay Hassan I . Moulay Hassan also connected Fes el-Jdid and Fes el-Bali (the old city) for

6720-491: The Old Mechouar); though other scholars attribute this to Moulay Hassan a century later. The Alaouite period also saw periods of turmoil and regression. From 1790 to 1792 Sultan Moulay Yazid , largely seen as a cruel leader, forced the entire Jewish community to move from the Mellah to the outlying Kasbah Cherarda on the other side of Fes el-Jdid. The Mellah was occupied by tribal troops allied to him, its main synagogue

6832-690: The Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into " Classical Arabic ". In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz , which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra , most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from

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6944-576: The Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb , a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq , much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages. With

7056-620: The Tafilalt and devoted her fortune to building the mosque. In such a case, the mosque would also be known as the Jama' Lalla Hamra ("Mosque of the Red Woman"). The mosque has a similar layout to the nearby Great Mosque of Fes el-Jdid and other major Marinid mosques of the time. The mosque has a rectangular floor plan with a rectangular courtyard ( sahn ) in its northern part, which is surrounded by arcaded galleries on three sides and by

7168-530: The city changes were less dramatic. One unusual French policy was the designation of the Moulay Abdallah quarter as a red light district . The population of the city increased significantly over time (as elsewhere in Morocco): between 1936 and 1948, the population of the Moulay Abdallah quarter went from 5,508 to 9,500 and the population of Fes el-Jdid proper (i.e. the main area between Bab Semmarine and Bab Dekkakine) went from 9,622 to 26,500. By contrast, however,

7280-485: The city, near Bab Agdal , were also given extra fortifications. It was only with the rise of the Alaouite dynasty that Fes became the capital again and reclaimed some of its prosperity. Further important developments took place in Fes el-Jdid during this period. In 1671, the first Alaouite Sultan Moulay Rashid ordered the creation of a vast rectangular courtyard in the eastern part of the palace. This addition extended

7392-574: The conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum. It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced— epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after

7504-400: The decoration of this mihrab, as well as the adjacent wooden cupola, appear to still date from the Marinid period. Three stucco-grilled windows are set in the wall above the mihrab, as is also common in other mosques. There is a door on either side of the mihrab; the right one leads to the storage room for the minbar , while the left one leads to the imam 's chamber and the jama' al-gnaiz ,

7616-587: The emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of

7728-600: The end of the 13th century or at the beginning of the 14th century. Henri Bresolette argued that the mosque must date from before 1323 because it is mentioned in a waqf inscription from that year at the Sahrij Madrasa . Georges Marçais suggested, on the basis of its strong similarity to the Sidi Boumediene Mosque in Tlemcen , that it was built by the same architect and under the same ruler as

7840-728: The eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA. In around

7952-423: The expulsion of the Jewish inhabitants from the city's commercial center. Many scholars therefore estimate that the move took place in the mid-15th century. The Mellah's Jewish cemetery was established at its western edge (the current site of Place des Alaouites ) on land which was donated to the Jewish community by a Marinid princess named Lalla Mina in the 15th century. Fes el-Jdid, along with Fes el-Bali, entered

8064-607: The fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic. The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel , and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the Namara inscription , an epitaph of the Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From

8176-420: The first time with a broad corridor of walls , and inside this space he commissioned a number of royal gardens such as Jnan Sbil and summer palaces such as Dar Batha . Additionally, he constructed the Dar al-Makina , a modern arms factory, on the west side of the New Mechouar (which he likely also established). Lastly, it seems to have been under Moulay Hassan that the Dar al-Makhzen grounds were extended up to

8288-510: The fourth most useful language for business, after English, Mandarin Chinese , and French. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet , an abjad script that is written from right to left . Arabic is usually classified as a Central Semitic language . Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The Semitic languages changed between Proto-Semitic and

8400-597: The inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts. In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League . These academies and organizations have worked toward the Arabization of the sciences, creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward

8512-613: The language. Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries. The tradition of Arabic lexicography extended for about

8624-604: The late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd , probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra . During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali ( c.  603 –689)

8736-420: The latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages ) in medieval and early modern Europe. MSA

8848-429: The latter, thus placing its foundation in the reign of Sultan Abu al-Hasan , between 1331 and 1348. Author Richard Parker gives the date as 1339 (but does not indicate what sources this is based on). Other dates suggested by more recent authors include the mid-14th century, during the reign of Sultan Abu Inan (1348–1358), and 1320, during the reign of Abu Sa'id Uthman . There is also an ablutions house ( mida'a ),

8960-401: The layout of Fes el-Jdid appears complicated due to the multiple expansions and modifications of its districts and of the Royal Palace ( Dar al-Makhzen ) over the centuries. The area of the Dar al-Makhzen alone occupies about 80 hectares and is the largest division of the city within its walls. Approaching from the west (from the modern Ville Nouvelle or "New City"), the city's main entrance

9072-456: The main prayer hall to the south. The minaret is located at the northwestern corner, overlooking the main street. The mosque has three entrances, one to the north on the building's central axis, and two more to the east and west at the courtyard's southern corners. The mosque has sloped wooden roofs, covered above by green tiles, typical of Moroccan mosques. The courtyard, surrounded by arched galleries, measures 11.3 by 13.7 metres. At its center

9184-407: The main street for road vehicles, passes in front of Bab Semmarine , a monumental gate which constitutes the southern entrance to Fes el-Jdid proper. From this gate, a main street known as the Grande Rue de Fès el-Jdid , lined with shops and markets, runs north to northwest until it reaches the Old Mechouar , the fortified square fronting the historic entrance to the Dar al-Makhzen. On either side of

9296-883: The many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible , and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows , as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. Hassaniya Arabic , Maltese , and Cypriot Arabic are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition. Hassaniya

9408-489: The mid-14th century the Jews of Fes were still living in Fes el-Bali but that by the end of the 16th century they were well-established in the Mellah of Fes el-Jdid. Some authors argue that the transfer likely happened in stages across the Marinid period, particularly following episodes of violence or repression against Jews in the old city. The urban fabric of the Mellah appears to have developed progressively and it's possible that

9520-531: The mihrab is decorated with stucco -carved surfaces and is covered by a wood-frame dome forming a geometric star patterns and highlighted with painted decoration. The dome's transition to the square space below is formed by muqarnas carving. The mihrab itself consists of an alcove covered by a muqarnas cupola behind a horseshoe arch, while the wall around the mihrab is covered in typical stucco-carved decoration with arabesque , calligraphic , and geometric motifs. Contrary to many other surviving Marinid mosques,

9632-511: The motif above and are filled with mosaic ( zellij ) tilework. Around the top of the main shaft, above the main motifs, is a broad band of more zellij tilework with geometric patterns. Above this, the main tower is crowned by decorative merlons , also covered in geometric tilework. Boris Maslow claimed that the southern and eastern sides of the minaret, as well as the secondary shaft at its summit, where damaged at some point and remade in modern times. The colourful zellij tilework which fills

9744-782: The need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah سَيَّارَة 'automobile' or bākhirah باخِرة 'steamship'). In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Académie française were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations, first in Damascus (1919), then in Cairo (1932), Baghdad (1948), Rabat (1960), Amman (1977), Khartum  [ ar ] (1993), and Tunis (1993). They review language development, monitor new words and approve

9856-492: The neglect of Fes throughout the Saadian period (16th–17th centuries), but traces of its structures have survived to modern times. The site of the garden is now mostly occupied by the large Bab Segma Cemetery (probably dating from the time of Moulay Rashid ), inside of which the outline of some of the original basins can still be discerned. Fes also hosted the largest and one of the oldest Jewish communities in Morocco . During

9968-540: The northwest as well. This is also where western extensions were made of the Royal Palace. In the early 20th century, during the French Protectorate (1912–1956), it was designated a red-light district . West of this district there are the more recent extensions of the Royal Palace: a large square or open space known as Bab Bou Jat Mechouar, and beyond this vast walled gardens of the Agdal (off-limits to

10080-475: The northwestern area which became the new Moulay Abdallah neighbourhood from the early 18th century onwards. This is where Sultan Moulay Abdallah (ruled between 1729 and 1757) erected a large mosque and royal necropolis for the Alaouite dynasty. Abdallah's successor, Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah (ruled 1748 and 1757–1790), was responsible, according to some sources, for establishing the New Mechouar (north of

10192-424: The one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on

10304-549: The overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by Al-Jahiz 200 years prior. The Maghrebi lexicographer Ibn Manzur compiled Lisān al-ʿArab ( لسان العرب , "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference dictionary of Arabic, in 1290. Charles Ferguson 's koine theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on

10416-596: The public). The following are some of the major historic landmarks and monuments in or around Fes el-Jdid. Fes el-Jdid is surrounded and divided in many areas by its old city walls and the walls of the Royal Palace, all dating now from various periods. Along these walls are also several bastions and monumental gates. Arabic language Arabic (endonym: اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ , romanized :  al-ʿarabiyyah , pronounced [al ʕaraˈbijːa] , or عَرَبِيّ , ʿarabīy , pronounced [ˈʕarabiː] or [ʕaraˈbij] )

10528-410: The region may be mutually unintelligible. Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within

10640-458: The same sentence. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese , Hindi and Urdu , Serbian and Croatian , Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. While there

10752-458: The sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior. In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of

10864-479: The south gate of the Old Mechouar, thus turning it into the main entrance of the palace, diverting the northern end of the main street of Fes el-Jdid, and cutting off the Moulay Abdallah district from the rest of the city. The Oued Fes, which flowed just outside the northern walls of the city, was diverted northward in the course of these 19th-century expansions, but continues to pass under the Old Mechouar before reemerging on its east side. In 1912 French colonial rule

10976-482: The southern qibla wall. Another row of arches runs close and parallel to the southern wall, forming a transverse nave or aisle in front of the mihrab and the qibla wall. The wooden ceilings of the prayer hall's naves are made in the Moroccan berchla style, with wooden frames and beams arranged to form geometric motifs . These date from the original Marinid construction. The square space directly in front of

11088-413: The southern gate, Bab 'Oyun Sanhaja (now called Bab Semmarine ). The Grand Mosque of Fes el-Jdid , adjacent to the palace grounds, was built around 1276 during the new city's foundation, and was connected by a private passage directly to the palace, allowing the sultan to come and go for prayers. The main Muslim neighbourhoods to the east of the Dar al-Makhzen appear to have developed progressively over

11200-563: The standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a world language . This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, Arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Sudan. Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. It could also refer to any of

11312-413: The tower, leading to a platform at the top of the main shaft. The only windows are found on the southern side of the minaret. The facades of the minaret are covered by typical Moroccan motifs. While they appear similar at a glance, each motif is slightly different, featuring a variation of the darj wa ktaf (or sebka ) pattern. Along the bottom of each façade is a row of blind arches which blend into

11424-501: The towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to

11536-523: The water into an aqueduct attached to Bab Dekkakin . From Bab Dekkakin, the aqueduct then carried the water to Bab Segma further north, and from there it was carried further into three large square basins spread across the gardens. Also located inside the gardens was a msalla , an open-air prayer area, known as the Msalla of the Sultan or the Msalla of Bab Segma. The gardens fell into ruin and eventually disappeared in subsequent centuries, most likely during

11648-576: The west side of the square, a small gateway constitutes the main access to the Moulay Abdallah quarter, via a winding road which also passes the Grand Mosque of Fes el-Jdid (the city's historic royal mosque). The Fes River still flows beneath the Old Mechouar, and reemerges on its east side into the Jnan Sbil Gardens. The Moulay Abdallah quarter is centered around the large 18th-century Moulay Abdallah Mosque . It has another entrance to

11760-545: The work instead in 1287. He enlisted an Andalusian engineer, Ibn al-Hajj from Seville , to help create a vast garden covering 67 hectares to the north of Fes el-Jdid and the royal palace, known as the Mosara Garden . The water for the gardens was drawn from the Oued Fes via a huge noria ( waterwheel ) measuring 26 metres in diameter and 2 metres wide. The noria, sometimes referred to as the "Grand Noria", delivered

11872-451: The world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages , Middle Eastern studies , and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study

11984-512: Was instituted over Morocco following the Treaty of Fes . One immediate consequence was the 1912 riots in Fes, a popular uprising which included deadly attacks targeting Europeans as well as native Jewish inhabitants in the Mellah, followed by an even deadlier repression. Fes and its Dar al-Makhzen ceased to be the center of power in Morocco as the capital was moved to Rabat . A number of social and physical changes took place at this period and across

12096-520: Was known as Bab es-Sebaa (now called Bab Dekkakin ), while the southern gate was known as the Bab al-Qantara ("Gate of the Bridge") or Bab al-Oued ("Gate of the River"). The relative importance of this northern entrance was likely due to the presence of the road to Meknes (the closest major city). From Bab al-Qantara the city's main street (now known as the Grande Rue de Fes el Jdid ) ran directly to

12208-426: Was known as Hims , named after Homs in Syria, or by the name Mellah ( Arabic : ملاح , lit.   'salt'), due to either a saltwater source or a former salt warehouse in the area. The latter name was later retained as the name of the Jewish quarter. This was the first " mellah " in Morocco; a name and phenomenon that came to be replicated in many other cities in the country. (A notable exception to this

12320-579: Was once the center of government in Morocco and which is still used on occasion by the King of Morocco today. The district also contains the historic Mellah ( Jewish quarter) of the city. Since 1981 it has been classified, along with Fes el-Bali, as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Fes el-Jdid was founded in 1276 by the Marinid sultan Abu Yusuf Ya'qub . It was to serve as the new royal citadel and center of government for Morocco under Marinid rule, including

12432-412: Was replaced by a mosque, and the Jewish cemetery and its contents were moved to a cemetery near Bab Guissa. Moreover, Moulay Yazid permanently reduced the size of the Mellah district by demolishing the old city walls around it and rebuilding them along a much shorter perimeter we see today. It was only after the sultan's death that the chief Muslim qadi (judge) of Fes ordered the Mellah to be restored to

12544-612: Was the nearby town of Sefrou .) Both the exact reasons and the exact date for the creation of the Jewish Mellah of Fes are debated by scholars. Broader political motivations for moving the Jewish community to Fes el-Jdid, closer to the royal palace, may have included the Marinid rulers' desire to take more direct advantage (or control) of their merchant and artisan skills and of their commercial relations with Jewish communities in other countries (which could act as an avenue for foreign relations ). Historical accounts confirm that in

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