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80-770: In academia , a Festschrift ( German pronunciation: [ˈfɛst.ʃʁɪft] ; plural , Festschriften [ˈfɛst.ʃʁɪftn̩] ) is a book honoring a respected person, especially an academic , and presented during their lifetime. It generally takes the form of an edited volume , containing contributions from the honoree's colleagues, former pupils, and friends. Festschriften are often titled something like Essays in Honour of... or Essays Presented to... . The term, borrowed from German, and literally meaning "celebration writing" (cognate with feast-script ), might be translated as "celebration publication" or "celebratory (piece of) writing". An alternative Latin term

160-513: A Festschrift can symbolize the proverbial passing of the torch. Thus, being designated to prepare such a collection is considered an honor in Germany. As Irving Louis Horowitz summarized, " Festschriften persist and multiply. Why? Because they are not just retrospective, but prospective. That is to say the Festschrift is a Beruf , a call to further work, effort, and energy, a call to

240-509: A Festschrift . Academia The Royal Spanish Academy defines academy as scientific, literary or artistic society established with public authority and as a teaching establishment, public or private, of a professional, artistic, technical or simply practical nature. The word comes from the Academy in ancient Greece , which derives from the Athenian hero , Akademos . Outside

320-419: A tabula gratulatoria , an extended list of academic colleagues and friends who send their best wishes to the honoree. In the case of prominent academics, several Festschriften might be prepared by various groups of students and colleagues, particularly if the scholar made significant contributions to different fields. According to psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo , being selected by a prominent academic to edit

400-469: A book to mark a special occasion had been in use, the German word Festschrift has been incorporated into English and is frequently used without the italics that designate a foreign term, although the capitalization of the first letter is usually retained from German. Its plural may be either the original Festschriften or anglicized as Festschrifts . A Festschrift contains original contributions by

480-487: A fellow Estonian from Tartu whom he had met at a refugee camp in Germany. The couple were married until her death in 2012. They had two daughters: Elo Ann, and Linda. Tulving completed a bachelor's (1953) and master's degree (1954) from the University of Toronto , and earned a PhD in experimental psychology (1956) from Harvard University under the supervision of Stanley Smith Stevens . His doctoral dissertation

560-506: A great influence on Renaissance Neo-Platonism . In Rome, after unity was restored following the Western Schism , humanist circles, cultivating philosophy and searching out and sharing ancient texts tended to gather where there was access to a library. The Vatican Library was not coordinated until 1475 and was never catalogued or widely accessible: not all popes looked with satisfaction at gatherings of unsupervised intellectuals. At

640-419: A lapse during the early Roman occupation, Akademia was refounded as a new institution of some outstanding Platonists of late antiquity who called themselves "successors" ( diadochoi , but of Plato) and presented themselves as an uninterrupted tradition reaching back to Plato. However, there cannot have actually been any geographical, institutional, economic or personal continuity with the original Academy in

720-433: A review of the book Human Expeditions: Inspired by Bruce Trigger , Marxist archeologist Randall H. McGuire (at Binghamton University ) observed in 2014 that "the festschrift [book] and the memorial volume are dying enterprises", and suggested that creating festschrift websites instead, because many observers think that the festschrift volumes are a waste of time, often lack coherence and frequently include articles that

800-402: A rule these academies, all very much alike, were merely circles of friends or clients gathered around a learned man or wealthy patron, and were dedicated to literary pastimes rather than methodical study. They fitted in, nevertheless, with the general situation and were in their own way one element of the historical development. Despite their empirical and fugitive character, they helped to keep up

880-611: A term coined by the editors of the late Boris Marshak 's Webfestschrift , Eran ud Aneran , published online in October 2003. Originating in Germany before World War I , this European tradition of honoring special achievements in science and culture was carried to the United States by scientists who escaped the Nazis. In the second half of the 20th century, the practice became used internationally. Since no English term for such

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960-402: A wall, it contained a sacred grove of olive trees dedicated to Athena , the goddess of wisdom , outside the city walls of ancient Athens . The archaic name for the site was Hekademia , which by classical times evolved into Akademia and was explained, at least as early as the beginning of the 6th century BC, by linking it to an Athenian hero , a legendary " Akademos ". The site of Akademia

1040-463: Is liber amicorum (literally: "book of friends"). A comparable book presented posthumously is sometimes called a Gedenkschrift ( pronounced [ɡəˈdɛŋkʃʁɪft] , "memorial publication"), but this term is much rarer in English. A Festschrift compiled and published by electronic means on the internet is called a Webfestschrift (pronounced either [vɛp-] or [wɛb-] ),

1120-479: Is known today as the Old Academy . By extension, academia has come to mean the accumulation, development and transmission of knowledge across generations as well as its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, British, Italian and French scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning. Before Akademia was a school, and even before Cimon enclosed its precincts with

1200-715: Is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya (or Kautilya), the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila. Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. The Vedas and the Eighteen Arts , which included skills such as archery , hunting , and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school , medical school , and school of military science . Nalanda

1280-443: Is widely cited, with an h-index of 124 (as of April 2024), and in a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, he ranked as the 36th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. His published works in 1970s were particularly notable because they coincided with a new determination by many cognitive psychologists to confirm their theories in neuroscience using brain-imaging techniques. During this period, Tulving mapped

1360-605: The Accademia Pontaniana , after Giovanni Pontano . The 16th century saw at Rome a great increase of literary and aesthetic academies, more or less inspired by the Renaissance, all of which assumed, as was the fashion, odd and fantastic names. We learn from various sources the names of many such institutes; as a rule, they soon perished and left no trace. In the 1520s came the Accademia degli Intronati , for

1440-717: The Accademia di Santa Cecilia for music from 1585; Paris had the Académie Royale de Musique from 1669 and the Académie Royale d'Architecture from 1671. The Accademia degli Infiammati of Padova and the Accademia degli Umidi, soon renamed the Accademia Fiorentina , of Florence were both founded in 1540, and were both initially concerned with the proper basis for literary use of the volgare , or vernacular language of Italy, which would later become

1520-583: The Guild of Saint Luke , as the bodies responsible for training and often regulating artists, a change with great implications for the development of art, leading to the styles known as Academic art . The private Accademia degli Incamminati set up later in the century in Bologna by the Carracci brothers was also extremely influential, and with the Accademia di San Luca of Rome (founded 1593) helped to confirm

1600-977: The Göttingen Academy of Sciences , in 1754 in Erfurt , in 1759 the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities , in 1763 the Academia Theodoro-Palatina in Heidelberg , in 1779 the Sciences Academy of Lisbon , in 1783 the Royal Society of Edinburgh , in 1782 the Accademia dei Quaranta in Rome, in 1784 in Turin . Endel Tulving Endel Tulving OC FRSC (May 26, 1927 – September 11, 2023)

1680-683: The Italian language . In 1582 five Florentine literati gathered and founded the Accademia della Crusca to demonstrate and conserve the beauty of the Florentine vernacular tongue, modelled upon the authors of the Trecento. The main instrument to do so was the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca . The Crusca long remained a private institution, criticizing and opposing the official Accademia Fiorentina. The first institution inspired by

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1760-611: The New Academy . In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories and established the Lyceum in another gymnasium. The Musaeum , Serapeum and library of Alexandria Egypt was frequented by intellectuals from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics. The University of Timbuktu was a medieval university in Timbuktu , present-day Mali, which comprised three schools:

1840-570: The Quadrivium ( Arithmetic , Geometry , Music , and Astronomy )—had been codified in late antiquity . This was the basis of the curriculum in Europe until newly available Arabic texts and the works of Aristotle became more available in Europe in the 12th century. It remained in place even after the new scholasticism of the School of Chartres and the encyclopedic work of Thomas Aquinas , until

1920-826: The Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in Madrid (founded 1744), the Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg (1757), the Royal Academy in London (1768) and the Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera in Milan (1776) still run art schools and hold large exhibitions, although their influence on taste greatly declined from the late 19th century. A fundamental feature of academic discipline in

2000-614: The Sabians ). The Grand School was the main center of learning in the Persian capital Ctesiphon , but little is known about it. Perhaps the most famous center of learning in Persia was the Academy of Gundishapur , teaching medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and logic. The academy was later instrumental in founding the Muslim city of Baghdad as a center of learning, and serving as the model for

2080-523: The " Animosi " (1576), and the " Illuminati " (1598); this last, founded by the Marchesa Isabella Aldobrandini Pallavicino . Towards the middle of the 16th century there were also the academy of the " Notti Vaticane ", or " Vatican Nights ", founded by St . Charles Borromeo ; an "Accademia di Diritto civile e canonico", and another of the university scholars and students of philosophy ( Accademia Eustachiana ). As

2160-419: The 75th birthday of Joseph Vogt , a German classical historian. Four volumes were planned, but it has since reached 89 volumes (including several which were planned for the next years, but put on hold in 1998). The essays usually relate in some way to, or reflect upon, the honoree's contributions to their scholarly field, but can include important original research by the authors. Many Festschriften also feature

2240-628: The Byzantine empire in 532 guaranteed their personal security (an early document in the history of freedom of religion ), some members found sanctuary in the pagan stronghold of Harran , near Edessa . One of the last leading figures of this group was Simplicius, a pupil of Damascius, the last head of the Athenian school. It has been speculated that Akademia did not altogether disappear. After his exile, Simplicius (and perhaps some others), may have travelled to Harran , near Edessa . From there,

2320-843: The Caliph. The collection was said to have grown to 400,000 volumes. In Europe, the academy dates to the ancient Greeks and Romans in the pre-Christian era. Newer universities were founded in the 12th and 13th centuries, and the European institution of academia took shape. Monks and priests moved out of monasteries to cathedral cities and other towns where they opened the first schools dedicated to advanced study. The most notable of these new schools were in Bologna and Salerno , Naples , Salamanca , Paris , Oxford and Cambridge , while others were opened throughout Europe. The seven liberal arts —the Trivium ( Grammar , Rhetoric , and Logic ), and

2400-641: The Crusca was the Fruitbearing Society for German language, which existed from 1617 to 1680. The Crusca inspired Richelieu to found in 1634 the analogous Académie française with the task of acting as an official authority on the French language , charged with publishing the official dictionary of that language. The following year the Académie received letters patent from the king Louis XIII as

2480-510: The Mosque of Djinguereber, the Mosque of Sidi Yahya, and the Mosque of Sankore. During its zenith, the university had an average attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. In China a higher education institution Shang Xiang was founded by Shun in the Youyu era before the 21st century BC. The Imperial Central Academy at Nanjing , founded in 258, was a result of

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2560-547: The Tulving-Wiseman function. Tulving first made the distinction between episodic and semantic memory in a 1972 book chapter. Episodic memory is the ability to consciously recollect previous experiences from memory (e.g., recalling a recent family trip to Disney World), whereas semantic memory is the ability to store more general knowledge in memory (e.g., the fact that Disney World is in Florida). This distinction

2640-684: The University of Toronto and began working at the Rotman Research Institute. By 2019, he held the titles of Professor Emeritus at the University of Toronto and Visiting Professor of Psychology at Washington University in St. Louis . Tulving died from complications of a stroke at a nursing home in Mississauga , Ontario, on September 11, 2023, at the age of 96. Tulving published over 300 research articles and chapters, and he

2720-405: The ability to travel back and forward in time mentally is unique to humans and this is made possible by the autonoetic consciousness and is the essence of episodic memory. Tulving's theory of "encoding specificity" emphasizes the importance of retrieval cues in accessing episodic memories. The theory states that effective retrieval cues must overlap with the to-be-retrieved memory trace. Because

2800-522: The academic circle, like Publio Fausto Andrelini of Bologna who took the New Learning to the University of Paris , to the discomfiture of his friend Erasmus . In their self-confidence, these first intellectual neopagans compromised themselves politically, at a time when Rome was full of conspiracies fomented by the Roman barons and the neighbouring princes: Paul II (1464–71) caused Pomponio and

2880-643: The academy of Oscuri became the Royal Academy of Lucca . The Académie de peinture et de sculpture in Paris, established by the monarchy in 1648 (later renamed) was the most significant of the artistic academies, running the famous Salon exhibitions from 1725. Artistic academies were established all over Europe by the end of the 18th century, and many, like the Akademie der Künste in Berlin (founded 1696),

2960-460: The academy's existence were relatively informal, since no statutes had as yet been laid down for the institution. In contrast to Royal Society , the academy was founded as an organ of government. In 1699, Louis XIV gave the academy its first rules and named it Académie royale des sciences . Although Prussia was a member of Holy Roman Empire, in 1700 Prince-elector Frederick III of Brandenburg founded its own Prussian Academy of Sciences upon

3040-831: The advice of Gottfried Leibniz , who was appointed president. During the 18th century many European kings followed and founded their own academy of sciences: in 1714 the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna , in 1724 the Russian Academy of Sciences , in 1731 the Royal Dublin Society , in 1735 in Tuscany , in 1739 the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences , in 1742 the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters , in 1751

3120-429: The amnesic patient KC , who had relatively normal semantic memory but severely impaired episodic memory due to brain damage from a motorcycle accident. Tulving's work with KC highlighted the central importance of episodic memory for the subjective experience of one's self in time, an ability he dubbed "autonoetic consciousness". KC lacked this ability, failing to remember prior events and also failing to imagine or plan for

3200-402: The areas of the brain, which are considered active during the encoding and retrieval of memory, effectively associating the medial temporal lobe and the hippocampus with episodic memory. Tulving has published work on a variety of other topics, including the importance of mental organization of information in memory, a model of brain hemisphere specialization for episodic memory, and discovery of

3280-684: The art of war. The center had eight separate compounds, 10 temples, meditation halls, classrooms, lakes and parks. It had a nine-story library where monks meticulously copied books and documents so that individual scholars could have their own collections. It had dormitories for students, perhaps a first for an educational institution, housing 10,000 students in the university's heyday and providing accommodation for 2,000 professors. Nalanda University attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey. The geographical position of Persia allowed it to absorb cultural influences and ideas from both west and east. This include

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3360-551: The artistic academies was regular practice in making accurate drawings from antiquities, or from casts of antiquities, on the one hand, and on the other, in deriving inspiration from the other fount, the human form. Students assembled in sessions drawing the draped and undraped human form , and such drawings, which survive in the tens of thousands from the 17th through the 19th century, are termed académies in French. Similar institutions were often established for other arts: Rome had

3440-498: The authors could not publish elsewhere. He suggested that because of the weaknesses, festschrifts do not sell and publishers are reluctant to publish them. However, about 3,400 'festschrifts' or 'essays in honor of...' scholarly works have been published since McGuire's 2014 review. Philosopher Alan Soble , in a review of the book Fact and Value in honor of MIT 's philosopher Judith Jarvis Thomson , has formulated – somewhat tongue-in-cheek – 13 conditions that should be satisfied by

3520-412: The city walls of Athens , the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena , had formerly been an olive grove , hence the expression "the groves of Academe". In these gardens, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers. Plato developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, established what

3600-518: The classic philosophy. The next generation of humanists were bolder admirers of pagan culture, especially in the highly personal academy of Pomponius Leto , the natural son of a nobleman of the Sanseverino family, born in Calabria but known by his academic name, who devoted his energies to the enthusiastic study of classical antiquity, and attracted a great number of disciples and admirers. He

3680-400: The contents of the memory trace are primarily established during the initial encoding of the experience, retrieval cues will be maximally effective if they are similar to this encoded information. Tulving has dubbed the process through which a retrieval cue activates a stored memory "synergistic ecphory". One implication of the encoding specificity principle is that forgetting may be caused by

3760-408: The encouragement of theatrical representations. There were also the academy of the " Vignaiuoli ", or " Vinegrowers " (1530), and the Accademia della Virtù  [ it ] (1542), founded by Claudio Tolomei under the patronage of Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici . These were followed by a new academy in the " Orti " or Farnese gardens. There were also the academies of the " Intrepidi " (1560),

3840-663: The evolution of Shang Xiang and it became the first comprehensive institution combining education and research and was divided into five faculties in 470, which later became Nanjing University . In the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named Shuyuan , which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times. The degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as Bailudong Shuyuan and Yuelu Shuyuan (later become Hunan University ) can be classified as higher institutions of learning. Taxila or Takshashila , in ancient India , modern-day Pakistan,

3920-694: The first Muslim hospital ( bimaristan ) at Damascus. Founded in Fes, University of Al-Karaouine in the 9th century and in Cairo, Al-Azhar University in the 10th century, and in Mali, the University of Timbuktu in about 1100. Mustansiriya Madrasah in Baghdad , Iraq was established in 1227 as a madrasah by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustansir . Its library had an initial collection of 80,000 volumes, given by

4000-546: The first half of the 19th century some of these became the national academies of pre-unitarian states: the academy of Accesi became the Panomitan Academy of Buon Gusto ( Trento ); the academy of Timidi became the Royal Academy of Mantua ; the Accademia dei Ricovrati became the Galileiana Academy of Arts and Science ( Padova ); the academy of Dissonanti became the Royal Academy of Modena and

4080-566: The formation of a "College for the Promoting of Physico-Mathematical Experimental Learning", which would meet weekly to discuss science and run experiments. In 1662 Charles II of England signed a Royal Charter which created the "Royal Society of London", then "Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge". In 1666 Colbert gathered a small group of scholars to found a scientific society in Paris. The first 30 years of

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4160-565: The future. Tulving also developed a cognitive task to measure different subjective states in memory, called the "remember"/"know" procedure. This task has been used extensively in cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Tulving made a distinction between conscious or explicit memory (such as episodic memory) and more automatic forms of implicit memory (such as priming ). Along with one of his students, Daniel Schacter , Tulving provided several key experimental findings regarding implicit memory. The distinction between implicit and explicit memory

4240-488: The general esteem for literary and other studies. Cardinals, prelates, and the clergy in general were most favourable to this movement, and assisted it by patronage and collaboration. In Florence, the Medici again took the lead in establishing the Accademia e Compagnia delle Arti del Disegno in 1563, the first of the more formally organised art academies that gradually displaced the medieval artists' guilds , usually known as

4320-485: The head of this movement for renewal in Rome was Cardinal Bessarion , whose house from the mid-century was the centre of a flourishing academy of Neoplatonic philosophy and a varied intellectual culture. His valuable Greek as well as Latin library (eventually bequeathed to the city of Venice after he withdrew from Rome) was at the disposal of the academicians. Bessarion, in the latter years of his life, retired from Rome to Ravenna , but he left behind him ardent adherents of

4400-410: The honored academic's close colleagues, often including their former doctoral students. It is typically published on the occasion of the honoree's retirement, significant birthday, or other notable career anniversary. A Festschrift can be anything from a slim volume to a work in several volumes. Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt , for example, began in 1972 as a Festschrift to commemorate

4480-417: The humanism of the 15th and 16th centuries opened new studies of arts and sciences. With the Neoplatonist revival that accompanied the revival of humanist studies , academia took on newly vivid connotations. During the Florentine Renaissance , Cosimo de' Medici took a personal interest in the new Platonic Academy that he determined to re-establish in 1439, centered on the marvellous promise shown by

4560-470: The improvement of learning, of a discipline, a science, an artistic vision, or an intellectual position. Even in this age of mass Festschriften , they remain a special literary genre". Endel Tulving , a Canadian neuroscientist, proposed that "a Festschrift frequently enough also serves as a convenient place in which those who are invited to contribute find a permanent resting place for their otherwise unpublishable or at least difficult-to-publish papers." In

4640-466: The lack of appropriate retrieval cues, as opposed to decay of a memory trace over time or interference from other memories. Another implication is that there is more information stored in memory relative to what can be retrieved at any given point (i.e., availability vs. accessibility). Tulving's research has emphasized the importance of episodic memory for our experience of consciousness and our understanding of time. For example, he conducted studies with

4720-423: The leaders of the academy to be arrested on charges of irreligion, immorality, and conspiracy against the Pope . The prisoners begged so earnestly for mercy, and with such protestations of repentance, that they were pardoned. The Letonian academy, however, collapsed. In Naples, the Quattrocento academy founded by Alfonso of Aragon and guided by Antonio Beccadelli was the Porticus Antoniana , later known as

4800-542: The new organizational entity. The last "Greek" philosophers of the revived Akademia in the 6th century were drawn from various parts of the Hellenistic cultural world and suggest the broad syncretism of the common culture (see koine ): Five of the seven Akademia philosophers mentioned by Agathias were Syriac in their cultural origin: Hermias and Diogenes (both from Phoenicia), Isidorus of Gaza, Damascius of Syria, Iamblichus of Coele-Syria and perhaps even Simplicius of Cilicia . The emperor Justinian ceased

4880-426: The only recognized academy for French language. In its turn the state established Académie was the model for the Real Academia Española (founded in 1713) and the Swedish Academy (1786), which are the ruling bodies of their respective languages and editors of major dictionaries. It also was the model for the Russian Academy , founded in 1783, which afterwards merged into the Russian Academy of Sciences. After

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4960-533: The religious instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis. Takshashila is described in some detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century AD. It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries BC, and continued to attract students until the destruction of the city in the 5th century AD. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya. The famous treatise Arthashastra ( Sanskrit for The knowledge of Economics ) by Chanakya,

5040-530: The same memory system, triggered by different task conditions. More recently, theorists have come to adopt components of each of these perspectives. In 1982, architect Elmar Tampõld proposed the idea of reinvesting Tartu College 's surplus revenue to found a Chair of Estonian Studies at the University of Toronto. The university agreed and in 1983, he helped establish the Chair of Estonian Studies Foundation with fellow expatriate Estonian professors, Endel Tulving and chemical engineer Olev Träss . The three men made

5120-409: The school's funding in AD 529, a date that is often cited as the end of Antiquity . According to the sole witness, the historian Agathias , its remaining members looked for protection under the rule of Sassanid king Khosrau I in his capital at Ctesiphon , carrying with them precious scrolls of literature and philosophy, and to a lesser degree of science. After a peace treaty between the Persian and

5200-500: The short-lived Academia Secretorum Naturae of Naples, the first academy exclusively devoted to sciences was the Accademia dei Lincei founded in 1603 in Rome, particularly focused on natural sciences. In 1657 some students of Galileo founded the Accademia del Cimento (Academy of Experiment) in Florence , focused on physics and astronomy. The foundation of academy was funded by Prince Leopoldo and Grand Duke Ferdinando II de' Medici . This academy lasted after few decades. In 1652

5280-410: The spread of the Greek form of schools in the new Hellenistic cities built in Persia after the invasion of Alexander the Great . Under the Sasanians , Syriac became an important language of the administration and intellectuals, rivaling Greek. Several cities developed centers of higher learning in the Sasanian Empire, including Mosul , al-Hira , and Harran (famous for the Pythagorean School of

5360-430: The students of an academy-in-exile could have survived into the 9th century, long enough to facilitate the Arabic revival of the Neoplatonist commentary tradition in Baghdad . In ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy, Plato 's colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus , a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy . Carneades , another student, established

5440-431: The use of the term for these institutions. Gradually academies began to specialize on particular topics (arts, language, sciences) and began to be founded and funded by the kings and other sovereigns (few republics had an academy). And, mainly, since 17th century academies spread throughout Europe. In the 17th century the tradition of literary-philosophical academies, as circles of friends gathering around learned patrons,

5520-419: The young Marsilio Ficino . Cosimo had been inspired by the arrival at the otherwise ineffective Council of Florence of Gemistos Plethon , who seemed a dazzling figure to the Florentine intellectuals. In 1462 Cosimo gave Ficino a villa at Careggi for the academy's use, situated where Cosimo could see it from his own villa, and drop by for visits. The academy remained a wholly informal group, but one which had

5600-400: Was a topic of debate in the 1980s and 1990s. Tulving and colleagues proposed that these different memory phenomena reflected different brain systems. Others argued that these different memory phenomena reflected different psychological processes, rather than different memory systems. These processes would be instantiated in the brain, but they might reflect different aspects of performance from

5680-464: Was a worshipper not merely of the literary and artistic form, but also of the ideas and spirit of classic paganism, which made him appear a condemner of Christianity and an enemy of the Church. In his academy every member assumed a classical name. Its principal members were humanists, like Bessarion's protégé Giovanni Antonio Campani (Campanus), Bartolomeo Platina , the papal librarian, and Filippo Buonaccorsi , and young visitors who received polish in

5760-527: Was an Estonian-born Canadian experimental psychologist and cognitive neuroscientist. In his research on human memory he proposed the distinction between semantic and episodic memory . Tulving was a professor at the University of Toronto . He joined the Rotman Research Institute at Baycrest Health Sciences in 1992 as the first Anne and Max Tanenbaum Chair in Cognitive Neuroscience and remained there until his retirement in 2010. In 2006, he

5840-445: Was an early centre of learning, near present-day Islamabad in the city of Taxila . It is considered one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC. Some scholars date Takshashila's existence back to the 6th century BC. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where

5920-547: Was based on theoretical grounds and experimental psychology findings, and subsequently was linked to different neural systems in the brain by studies of brain damage and neuroimaging techniques. At the time, this type of theorizing represented a major departure from many contemporary theories of human learning and memory, which did not emphasize different kinds of subjective experience or brain systems. Tulving's 1983 book Elements of Episodic Memory elaborated on these concepts, and has been cited over 9000 times. According to Tulving,

6000-475: Was continued in Italy; the " Umoristi " (1611), the " Fantastici (1625), and the " Ordinati ", founded by Cardinal Dati and Giulio Strozzi . About 1700 were founded the academies of the " Infecondi ", the " Occulti ", the " Deboli ", the " Aborigini ", the " Immobili ", the " Accademia Esquilina ", and others. During the 18th century many Italian cities established similar philosophical and scientific academies. In

6080-599: Was established in the 5th century AD in Bihar , India. It was founded in 427 in northeastern India, not far from what is today the southern border of Nepal. It survived until 1197 when it was set upon, destroyed and burnt by the marauding forces of Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji . It was devoted to Buddhist studies, but it also trained students in fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics and

6160-689: Was founded the Academia Naturae Curiosorum by four physicians. In 1677, Leopold I , emperor of the Holy Roman Empire , recognised the society and in 1687 he gave it the epithet Leopoldina , with which is internationally famous. So, it became the academy of sciences for the whole Holy Roman Empire . On 28 November 1660, a group of scientists from and influenced by the Invisible College (gathering approximately since 1645) met at Gresham College and announced

6240-707: Was named an Officer of the Order of Canada (OC), Canada's highest civilian honour. Tulving was born in Petseri , Estonia, in 1927. In 1944, following the Soviet re-occupation of Estonia , Tulving (then 17 years old) and his younger brother Hannes were separated from their family and sent to live in Germany. In Germany, he finished high school and worked as a teacher and interpreter for the U.S. army. He briefly studied medicine at Heidelberg University before he immigrated to Canada in 1949. In 1950, he married Ruth Mikkelsaar,

6320-493: Was on the topic of oculomotor adjustments and visual acuity. In 1956, Tulving accepted a lectureship at the University of Toronto as a lecturer, where he would remain for the rest of his career, with a brief interlude as Professor of Psychology at Yale University from 1970 to 1974. He served as Chair of the Department of Psychology from 1974 to 1980, and became a Professor in 1985. In 1992, he retired from full-time work at

6400-635: Was sacred to Athena and other immortals. Plato's immediate successors as "scholarch" of Akademia were Speusippus (347–339 BC), Xenocrates (339–314 BC), Polemon (314–269 BC), Crates ( c.  269 –266 BC), and Arcesilaus ( c.  266 –240 BC). Later scholarchs include Lacydes of Cyrene , Carneades , Clitomachus , and Philo of Larissa ("the last undisputed head of the Academy"). Other notable members of Akademia include Aristotle , Heraclides Ponticus , Eudoxus of Cnidus , Philip of Opus , Crantor , and Antiochus of Ascalon . After

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