106-630: The Five Ws is a checklist used in journalism to ensure that the "lead" or "lede" contains all the essential points of a story. As far back as 1913, reporters were taught that the lead/lede should answer these questions: In modern times, journalism students are still taught that these are the fundamental six questions of newswriting. Reporters also use the "5 Ws" to guide research and interviews and to raise important ethical questions, such as " How do you know that? ". There are many other names for this checklist. Some common ones are: The Five Ws and H , The 5 Ws of Journalism , Six Honest-Serving Men . In
212-734: A lingua franca across the country. Notable among this breed is the one named 'Bengal Gazette' started by Gangadhar Bhattacharyya in 1816. The late 19th and early 20th century in the United States saw the advent of media empires controlled by the likes of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer . Realizing that they could expand their audience by abandoning politically polarized content, thus making more money off of advertising , American newspapers began to abandon their partisan politics in favor of less political reporting starting around 1900. Newspapers of this era embraced sensationalized reporting and larger headline typefaces and layouts,
318-521: A noun , applies to the occupation (professional or not), the methods of gathering information, and the organizing literary styles. The appropriate role for journalism varies from country to country, as do perceptions of the profession, and the resulting status. In some nations, the news media are controlled by government and are not independent. In others, news media are independent of the government and operate as private industry . In addition, countries may have differing implementations of laws handling
424-427: A watchdog on the workings of the government. A single publication (such as a newspaper) contains many forms of journalism, each of which may be presented in different formats. Each section of a newspaper, magazine, or website may cater to a different audience. Some forms include: The rise of social media has drastically changed the nature of journalistic reporting, giving rise to so-called citizen journalists . In
530-487: A 2014 study of journalists in the United States, 40% of participants claimed they rely on social media as a source, with over 20% depending on microblogs to collect facts. From this, the conclusion can be drawn that breaking news nowadays often stems from user-generated content, including videos and pictures posted online in social media. However, though 69.2% of the surveyed journalists agreed that social media allowed them to connect to their audience, only 30% thought it had
636-489: A central guide. Thus, the speaker's effect on the audience serves as a key theme throughout Book II. Book II ends with a transition to Book III. The transition concludes the discussion of pathos, ethos, paradigms, enthymemes, and maxims so that Book III may focus on delivery, style, and arrangement. Book III of Aristotle's Rhetoric is often overshadowed by the first two books. While Books I and II are more systematic and address ethos , logos , and pathos , Book III
742-581: A concern with discriminatory references in news based on race , religion, sexual orientation , and physical or mental disabilities . The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe approved in 1993 Resolution 1003 on the Ethics of Journalism which recommends journalists to respect the presumption of innocence , in particular in cases that are still sub judice . In the UK, all newspapers are bound by
848-564: A degree to be hired. The first school of Journalism opened as part of the University of Missouri in 1908. In the History Of Journalism page, it goes into depth on how journalism has evolved into what it is today. As of right now, there are a couple different routes one can take if interested in journalism. If one wanting to expand their skills as a journalist, there are many college courses and workshops one can take. If going
954-445: A detailed discussion of the major contexts and types of rhetoric. Book II discusses in detail the three means of persuasion that an orator must rely on: those grounded in credibility ( ethos ), in the emotions and psychology of the audience ( pathos ), and in patterns of reasoning ( logos ). Book III introduces the elements of style (word choice, metaphor, and sentence structure) and arrangement (organization). Some attention
1060-591: A framework to describe and evaluate moral action in terms of What was or should be done, Who did it, How it was done, Where it happened, and most importantly for what reason (Why), and so on for all the other elements: Therefore it is not a pointless endeavor to divide these circumstances by kind and number; (1) the Who , (2) the What , (3) around what place ( Where ) or (4) in which time something happens ( When ), and sometimes (5) with what, such as an instrument ( With ), (6) for
1166-586: A part of the Oxford University series of works in the Classics. Roberts' translation was edited and republished in 1954, and is widely available online. The fourth standard translation, by Lane Cooper, came out in 1932. Not until the 1990s did another major translation of the Rhetoric appear. Published in 1991 and translated by George A. Kennedy , a leading classicist and rhetorician, this work
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#17327689249851272-554: A particularly famous role in arguing for the rights of the revolutionary lower classes. Napoleon would reintroduce strict censorship laws in 1800, but after his reign print publications would flourish and play an important role in political culture. As part of the Revolutions of 1848 , radical liberal publications such as the Rheinische Zeitung, Pesti Hírlap, and Morgenbladet would motivate people toward deposing
1378-449: A positive influence on news credibility. In addition to this, a 2021 study done by Pew Research Center shows that 86% of Americans are getting their news from digital devices. Consequently, this has resulted in arguments to reconsider journalism as a process distributed among many authors, including the socially mediating public, rather than as individual products and articles written by dedicated journalists. Because of these changes,
1484-571: A question can be made without using them. In any particular act or situation, one needs to interrogate these questions in order to determine the actual circumstances of the action. It is necessary for students of virtue to differentiate between the Voluntary and Involuntary; such a distinction should even prove useful to the lawmaker for assigning honors and punishments. This aspect is encapsulated by Aristotle in Rhetoric as forensic speech and
1590-409: A range of opinions and must regard the informational needs of all people. Many debates centre on whether journalists are "supposed" to be "objective" and "neutral"; arguments include the fact that journalists produce news out of and as part of a particular social context, and that they are guided by professional codes of ethics and do their best to represent all legitimate points of view. Additionally,
1696-428: A representation of the economic and political beliefs of the society where the code was written. Despite the fact that there are a variety of codes of ethics, some of the core elements present in all codes are: remaining objective, providing the truth, and being honest. Rhetoric (Aristotle) Aristotle 's Rhetoric ( Ancient Greek : Ῥητορική , romanized : Rhētorikḗ ; Latin : Ars Rhetorica )
1802-453: A student and then a teacher at Plato's Academy , a more positive starting point for the development of rhetoric as an art worthy of systematic, scientific study. Aristotle developed the Rhetoric during two periods when he was in Athens, the first, from 367–347 BCE (when he was second to Plato in the academy); and the second, from 335–322 BCE (when he was running his own school,
1908-411: A style that would become dubbed " yellow journalism ". Newspaper publishing became much more heavily professionalized in this era, and issues of writing quality and workroom discipline saw vast improvement. This era saw the establishment of freedom of the press as a legal norm, as President Theodore Roosevelt tried and failed to sue newspapers for reporting corruption in his handling of the purchase of
2014-494: A success and made its profits through advertising. Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe (1865–1922), "More than anyone... shaped the modern press. Developments he introduced or harnessed remain central: broad contents, exploitation of advertising revenue to subsidize prices, aggressive marketing, subordinate regional markets, independence from party control. His Daily Mail held the world record for daily circulation until his death. Prime Minister Lord Salisbury quipped it
2120-485: A system of persuasion based on knowledge instead of upon manipulation and omission. Most English readers in the 20th century relied on four translations of the Rhetoric . The first, by Richard C. Jebb, was published in 1909. The next two translations were published in the 1920s. John H. Freese's translation was published as a part of the Loeb Classical Library while W. Rhys Roberts' was published as
2226-403: A variety of products. Later on, in the 1800s, English newspapers were started by Indian publishers with English-speaking Indians as the target audience. During that era vast differences in language was a major problem in facilitating smooth communication among the people of the country. This is because they hardly knew the languages prevalent in other parts of this vast land. However, English became
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#17327689249852332-630: A weekly or daily rate. Newspapers were more heavily concentrated in cities that were centres of trade, such as Amsterdam , London, and Berlin . The first newspapers in Latin America would be established in the mid-to-late 19th century. Newspapers played a significant role in mobilizing popular support in favor of the liberal revolutions of the late 18th and 19th centuries. In the American Colonies , newspapers motivated people to revolt against British rule by publishing grievances against
2438-507: Is an ancient Greek treatise on the art of persuasion , dating from the 4th century BCE . The English title varies: typically it is Rhetoric , the Art of Rhetoric , On Rhetoric , or a Treatise on Rhetoric . Aristotle is credited with developing the basics of a system of rhetoric that "thereafter served as [the] touchstone" of the discipline, influencing the development of rhetorical theory from ancient through modern times. The Rhetoric
2544-509: Is concerned with reasoning to reach scientific certainty, while dialectic and rhetoric are concerned with probability and, thus, are the branches of philosophy that are best suited to human affairs. Dialectic is a tool for philosophical debate; it is a means for skilled audiences to test probable knowledge in order to learn. Rhetoric is a tool for practical debate; it is a means for persuading a general audience using probable knowledge to resolve practical issues. Dialectic and rhetoric partner to form
2650-771: Is long and their future short. The old do not act on desire but rather act for profit. Those in the prime of life represent the mean to Aristotle, possessing the advantages of both old and young without excess or deficiency. One of good birth, wealth, or power has the character of a lucky fool, a character in which insolence and arrogance breed if these good fortunes are not used to one's advantage. Although Book II primarily focuses on ethos and pathos , Aristotle discusses paradigm and enthymeme as two common modes of persuasion. There are two kinds of paradigm: comparisons, referencing that which has happened before; and fables , inventing an illustration. Maxims , or succinct, clever statements about actions, serve as
2756-419: Is notable for the precision of its translation and for its extensive commentary, notes, and references to modern scholarship on Aristotle and the Rhetoric. It is generally regarded today as the standard scholarly resource on the Rhetoric . Modern translations are still being produced, such as the ones published in 2008 by Joe Sachs and the 2019 one by Robert C. Bartlett. Rhetorical theory and criticism in
2862-421: Is now known as " community journalism ". The 1920s debate has been endlessly repeated across the globe, as journalists wrestle with their roles. Radio Radio broadcasting increased in popularity starting in the 1920s, becoming widespread in the 1930s. While most radio programming was oriented toward music, sports, and entertainment, radio also broadcast speeches and occasional news programming. Radio reached
2968-506: Is often considered a conglomeration of Greek stylistic devices on rhetoric. However, Book III contains informative material on lexis (style) which refers to the "way of saying" and taxis , which refers to the arrangement of words. Scholars turn to Book III to develop theories about Greek style and its contemporary relevance. Amélie Oksenberg Rorty discusses the structure and characteristics of deliberative rhetoric in her research. She cites Aristotle to persuade her audience of
3074-423: Is often published to intentionally mislead readers to ultimately benefit a cause, organization or an individual. A glaring example was the proliferation of fake news in social media during the 2016 U.S. presidential election . Conspiracy theories, hoaxes, and lies have been circulated under the guise of news reports to benefit specific candidates. One example is a fabricated report of Hillary Clinton 's email which
3180-560: Is paid to delivery, but generally the reader is referred to the Poetics for more information in that area. Many chapters in Book I cover typical deliberative argument varieties in Athenian culture. Book II gives advice for all types of speeches. Aristotle's Rhetoric generally concentrates on ethos and pathos , and—as noted by Aristotle—both affect judgment. Aristotle refers to
3286-625: Is produced by media organizations or by individuals. Bloggers are often regarded as journalists. The Federal Trade Commission requires that bloggers who write about products received as promotional gifts, disclose that they received the products for free. This is intended to eliminate conflicts of interest and protect consumers. In the US, many credible news organizations are incorporated entities , have an editorial board, and exhibit separate editorial and advertising departments. Many credible news organizations, or their employees, often belong to and abide by
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3392-478: Is regarded by most rhetoricians as "the most important single work on persuasion ever written." Alan G. Gross and Arthur Walzer concur, indicating that, just as Alfred North Whitehead considered all Western philosophy a footnote to Plato , "all subsequent rhetorical theory is but a series of responses to issues raised" by Aristotle's Rhetoric . This is largely a reflection of disciplinary divisions, dating back to Peter Ramus ' attacks on Aristotelian rhetoric in
3498-471: Is that journalism's first loyalty is to the citizenry and that journalists are thus obliged to tell the truth and must serve as an independent monitor of powerful individuals and institutions within society. In this view, the essence of journalism is to provide citizens with reliable information through the discipline of verification. Some journalistic Codes of Ethics, notably the European ones, also include
3604-600: Is used to determine "The characters and circumstances which lead men to commit wrong, or make them the victims of wrong" to accuse or defend. It is this application of the elements of circumstances that was emphasised by latter rhetoricians. Even though the classical origin of these questions as situated in ethics had long been lost, they have been a standard way of formulating or analyzing rhetorical questions since antiquity. The rhetor Hermagoras of Temnos, as quoted in pseudo-Augustine 's De Rhetorica , applied Aristotle's "elements of circumstances" ( μόρια περιστάσεως ) as
3710-622: The COVID-19 pandemic . On 4 March 2022, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed into law a bill introducing prison sentences of up to 15 years for those who publish "knowingly false information" about the Russian armed forces and their operations, leading to some media outlets in Russia to stop reporting on Ukraine or shutting their media outlet. As of December 2022, more than 4,000 people were prosecuted under "fake news" laws in connection with
3816-482: The Chicago Daily Tribune , based on early election returns that failed to anticipate the actual result of the 1948 US presidential election. There are over 242 codes of ethics in journalism that vary across various regions of the world. The codes of ethics are created through an interaction of different groups of people such as the public and journalists themselves. Most of the codes of ethics serve as
3922-493: The Lyceum ). The study of rhetoric was contested in classical Greece: on one side were the sophists , and on the other were Socrates , Plato, and Aristotle. The trio saw rhetoric and poetry as tools that were too often used to manipulate others by appealing to emotion and omitting facts. They accused the sophists in particular—including Gorgias and Isocrates —of this sort of manipulation. Plato blamed sophistical rhetoric for
4028-512: The Panama Canal . Still, critics note that although government's ability to suppress journalistic speech is heavily limited, the concentration of newspaper (and general media) ownership in the hands of a small number of private business owners leads to other biases in reporting and media self-censorship that benefits the interests of corporations and the government. The rampant discrimination and segregation against African-Americans led to
4134-737: The Richmond Planet and president of the National Afro-American Press Association; Anthony Overton (1865–1946), publisher of the Chicago Bee , and Robert Lee Vann (1879–1940), the publisher and editor of the Pittsburgh Courier . Although it is not completely necessary to have attended college to be a journalist, over the past few years it has become more common to attend. With this becoming more popular, jobs are starting to require
4240-520: The Russian invasion of Ukraine . At least 1,000 Russian journalists have fled Russia since February 2022. While publications reporting the news to the general public in a standardized fashion only began to appear in the 17th century and later, governments as early as Han dynasty China made use of regularly published news bulletins. Similar publications were established in the Republic of Venice in
4346-533: The aristocratic governments of Central Europe. Other liberal publications played a more moderate role: The Russian Bulletin praised Alexander II of Russia's liberal reforms in the late 19th century, and supported increased political and economic freedoms for peasants as well as the establishment of a parliamentary system in Russia. Farther to the left, socialist and communist newspapers had wide followings in France, Russia and Germany despite being outlawed by
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4452-482: The freedom of speech , freedom of the press as well as slander and libel cases . The proliferation of the Internet and smartphones has brought significant changes to the media landscape since the turn of the 21st century. This has created a shift in the consumption of print media channels, as people increasingly consume news through e-readers , smartphones , and other personal electronic devices, as opposed to
4558-601: The loci of an issue: Aquinas also refers to the elements as used by Cicero in De Inventione (Chap. 24 DD1, 104) as: Quis, quid, ubi, quibus auxiliis, cur, quomodo, quando . Similarly, Quintilian discussed loci argumentorum , but did not put them in the form of questions. Victorinus explained Cicero's application of the elements of circumstances by putting them into correspondence with Hermagoras's questions 5W's and an H : Julius Victor also lists circumstances as questions. Boethius "made
4664-404: The "Five Ws", but the application was rather different from that in journalism: "What? Why? What of it?" is a plan of study of alliterative methods for the teacher emphasized by Professor W.C. Wilkinson not as original with himself but as of venerable authority. "It is, in fact," he says, "an almost immemorial orator's analysis. First the facts, next the proof of the facts, then the consequences of
4770-445: The "moral character" of actions and mind. Kennedy reveals the purpose of chapters 12–17 as a demonstration to the speaker of "how his ethos must attend and adjust to the ethos of varied types of auditor if he is to address them successfully." As seen in the chapters explaining the various emotions, in chapters 12–17 Aristotle focuses on the necessary means of successfully persuading an audience. Yet, in these chapters, Aristotle analyzes
4876-453: The 16th century. These bulletins, however, were intended only for government officials, and thus were not journalistic news publications in the modern sense of the term. As mass-printing technologies like the printing press spread, newspapers were established to provide increasingly literate audiences with the news. The first references to privately owned newspaper publishers in China date to
4982-480: The 1950s. Starting in the 1940s, United States broadcast television channels would air 10-to-15-minute segments of news programming one or two times per evening. The era of live-TV news coverage would begin in the 1960s with the assassination of John F. Kennedy , broadcast and reported to live on a variety of nationally syndicated television channels. During the 60s and 70s, television channels would begin adding regular morning or midday news shows. Starting in 1980 with
5088-616: The British crown and republishing pamphlets by revolutionaries such as Thomas Paine , while loyalist publications motivated support against the American Revolution . News publications in the United States would remain proudly and publicly partisan throughout the 19th century. In France, political newspapers sprang up during the French Revolution , with L'Ami du peuple , edited by Jean-Paul Marat , playing
5194-507: The CEO of Facebook, has acknowledged the company's role in this problem: in a testimony before a combined Senate Judiciary and Commerce committee hearing on 20 April 2018, he said: It's clear now that we didn't do enough to prevent these tools from being used for harm as well. That goes for fake news, foreign interference in elections, and hate speech, as well as developers and data privacy. Readers can often evaluate credibility of news by examining
5300-825: The Code of Practice of the Independent Press Standards Organisation . This includes points like respecting people's privacy and ensuring accuracy. However, the Media Standards Trust has criticized the PCC, claiming it needs to be radically changed to secure the public trust of newspapers. This is in stark contrast to the media climate prior to the 20th century, where the media market was dominated by smaller newspapers and pamphleteers who usually had an overt and often radical agenda, with no presumption of balance or objectivity. Because of
5406-502: The Internet. Using video camera-equipped smartphones, active citizens are now enabled to record footage of news events and upload them onto channels like YouTube (which is often discovered and used by mainstream news media outlets). News from a variety of online sources, like blogs and other social media, results in a wider choice of official and unofficial sources, rather than only traditional media organizations. A worldwide sample of 27,500 journalists in 67 countries in 2012–2016 produced
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#17327689249855512-486: The Pew Research Center, the circulation for U.S. newspapers has fallen sharply in the 21st century. Digital-first, non-profit newsrooms have grown in response to the need for high-quality information that the private sector has been struggling to provide. The digital era also introduced journalism whose development is done by ordinary citizens, with the rise of citizen journalism being possible through
5618-807: The United Kingdom (excluding Scotland), the Five Ws are used in Key Stage 2 and Key Stage 3 lessons (ages 7–14). In data analytics, the Five Ws are used in the first stage of the BADIR to identify the business problem and its context in an analytics request. According to Inoslav Bešker, Professor of Philology at the University of Split in Croatia, the 5 Ws are rooted in the seven questions used in ancient Greece to communicate stories clearly: Although long attributed to Hermagoras of Temnos , in 2010, it
5724-411: The ability to render a subject's complex and fluid narrative with sufficient accuracy is sometimes challenged by the time available to spend with subjects, the affordances or constraints of the medium used to tell the story, and the evolving nature of people's identities. There are several forms of journalism with diverse audiences. Journalism is said to serve the role of a " fourth estate ", acting as
5830-429: The arrest and the death of Socrates. In contrast to the emotional rhetoric and poetry of the sophists was a type of rhetoric grounded in philosophy and the pursuit of enlightenment. Aristotle identified rhetoric as one of the three key elements—along with logic and dialectic —of philosophy. The first line of the Rhetoric is: "Rhetoric is a counterpart ( antistrophe ) of dialectic." According to Aristotle, logic
5936-408: The character of different groups of people so that a speaker might adjust his portrayed ethos in order to influence the audience. First, he describes the young as creatures of desire, easily changeable and swiftly satisfied. The young hate to be belittled because they long for superiority. According to Aristotle, the old are distrustful, cynical, and small-minded, for unlike the young their past
6042-665: The characteristics of deliberative rhetoric's influential nature. "Aristotle marks as central to deliberative rhetoric: considerations of prudence and justice, the projected political and psychological consequences of the decision and the likelihood of encouraging—or entrenching—similar rebellious attitudes amongst allies." The outstanding characteristic of deliberative rhetoric is practicality, Rorty argues: "the deliberative rhetorician who wishes to retain his reputation as trustworthy must pay attention to what is, in fact, actually likely to happen." Additionally, Aristotle focuses on deliberative rhetoric so heavily because "it most clearly reveals
6148-512: The concept of Aristotle's voluntary and involuntary action in his Summa Theologiae as well as a further set of questions about the elements of circumstance. Primarily, he asks "Whether a circumstance is an accident of a human act" (Article 1), "Whether Theologians should take note of the circumstances of human acts?" (Article 2), "Whether the circumstances are properly set forth (in Aristotle's) third book of Ethics" (Article 3) and "Whether
6254-525: The conclusion of enthymemes. In choosing a maxim, one should assess the audience views and employ a fitting maxim. Amplification and deprecation, although not elements of an enthymeme, can contribute to refuting an opponent's enthymeme or revealing a falsehood by exposing it as just or unjust, good or evil, etc. Aristotle also mentions the koina , fallacious enthymemes, and lysis (the refutation of an opponent's enthymeme). In all of these techniques, Aristotle considers popular wisdom and audiences as
6360-589: The context in which they publish in print. Newspapers have seen print revenues sink at a faster pace than the rate of growth for digital revenues. Notably, in the American media landscape, newsrooms have reduced their staff and coverage as traditional media channels, such as television, grappling with declining audiences. For example, between 2007 and 2012, CNN edited its story packages into nearly half of their original time length. The compactness in coverage has been linked to broad audience attrition. According to
6466-568: The credibility of the underlying news organization. The phrase was popularized and used by Donald Trump during his presidential campaign to discredit what he perceived as negative news coverage of his candidacy and then the presidency. In some countries, including Turkey , Egypt , India, Bangladesh , Iran , Nigeria , Ethiopia , Kenya , Cote d’Ivoire , Montenegro , Kazakhstan , Azerbaijan , Malaysia , Singapore, Philippines , and Somalia journalists have been threatened or arrested for allegedly spreading fake news about
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#17327689249856572-427: The credibility ratings of news outlets has reached an all-time low. A 2014 study revealed that only 22% of Americans reported a "great deal" or "quite a lot of confidence" in either television news or newspapers. "Fake news" is also deliberately untruthful information, which can often spread quickly on social media or by means of fake news websites . News cannot be regarded as "fake", but disinformation rather. It
6678-423: The effect of ethos and pathos on an audience since a speaker needs to exhibit these modes of persuasion . In Chapter 1, Aristotle notes that emotions cause men to change their opinions and judgments. As such, emotions have specific causes and effects. A speaker can therefore employ this understanding to stimulate particular emotions from an audience. However, Aristotle states that along with pathos ,
6784-404: The end that citizens share with each other... It is this shared goal that distinguishes deliberative rhetoric, and therefore public reasoning, from the other forms of rhetoric and political judgment that Aristotle examines." Shared goals are of utmost importance when deliberating on an issue that affects the common good. Without such a version of deliberative rhetoric, arguments would unfairly favor
6890-588: The establishment of CNN , news channels began providing 24-hour news coverage, a format which persists through today. The role and status of journalism, as well as mass media, has undergone changes over the last two decades, together with the advancement of digital technology and publication of news on the Internet. This has created a shift in the consumption of print media channels, as people increasingly consume news through e-readers , smartphones , and other electronic devices. News organizations are challenged to fully monetize their digital wing, as well as improvise on
6996-667: The ethics of professional organizations such as the American Society of News Editors , the Society of Professional Journalists , Investigative Reporters & Editors, Inc. , or the Online News Association . Many news organizations also have their own codes of ethics that guide journalists' professional publications. For instance, The New York Times code of standards and ethics is considered particularly rigorous. When crafting news stories, regardless of
7102-401: The facts. This analysis has often been expanded into one known as "The Five Ws": "When? Where? Who? What? Why?" Hereby attention is called, in the study of any lesson: to the date of its incidents; to their place or locality; to the person speaking or spoken to, or to the persons introduced, in the narrative; to the incidents or statements of the text; and, finally, to the applications and uses of
7208-471: The fallacy of – the doctrine of the five Ws in the first sentence of the newspaper story. Starting in the 2000s, the Five Ws were sometimes misattributed to Rudyard Kipling (referred to as "The Kipling Method"), especially in the management and quality literature, and contrasted with the five whys . In English, most of the interrogative words begin with the same letters, wh- ; in Latin , most also begin with
7314-406: The first half of the 20th century was dominated by neo-Aristotelian criticism, the tenets of which were grounded in the Rhetoric and were summed up in 1925 by Herbert Wichelns . (Forbes I. Hill argues that while Wichelns traditionally gets the credit for summing up neo-Aristotelian theory, Hoyt Hopewell Hudson is more deserving of this credit instead. ) The dominance of neo-Aristotelian criticism
7420-475: The following profile: While various existing codes have some differences, most share common elements including the principles of – truthfulness , accuracy , objectivity , impartiality, fairness and public accountability – as these apply to the acquisition of newsworthy information and its subsequent dissemination to the public. Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel propose several guidelines for journalists in their book The Elements of Journalism . Their view
7526-585: The founding their own daily and weekly newspapers, especially in large cities. While the first Black newspapers in America were established in the early 19th century, in the 20th century these newspapers truly flourished in major cities, with publishers playing a major role in politics and business affairs. Representative leaders included Robert Sengstacke Abbott (1870–1940), publisher of the Chicago Defender ; John Mitchell Jr. (1863–1929), editor of
7632-651: The freedoms won here became a model for much of the rest of the world, and be conscious how the world still watches us to see how we protect those freedoms." The first successful English daily, the Daily Courant , was published from 1702 to 1735. While journalistic enterprises were started as private ventures in some regions, such as the Holy Roman Empire and the British Empire , other countries such as France and Prussia kept tighter control of
7738-600: The full college route, the average time is takes to graduate with a journalism degree is four years. The top 5 ranked journalism schools in the US for the school year of 2022 are: 1. Washington and Lee University. 2. Northwestern University. 3. Georgetown University. 4. Columbia University in the City of New York. 5. University of Wisconsin - Madison. In the 1920s in the United States, as newspapers dropped their blatant partisanship in search of new subscribers, political analyst Walter Lippmann and philosopher John Dewey debated
7844-499: The government. Journalism in China before 1910 primarily served the international community. The overthrow of the old imperial regime in 1911 produced a surge in Chinese nationalism, an end to censorship, and a demand for professional, nation-wide journalism. All the major cities launched such efforts. By the late 1920s, however, there was a much greater emphasis on advertising and expanding circulation, and much less interest in
7950-462: The journalist's intent. Opinion pieces are generally written by regular columnists or appear in a section titled "Op-ed", these reflect a journalist's own opinions and ideology. While feature stories , breaking news, and hard news stories typically make efforts to remove opinion from the copy. According to Robert McChesney , healthy journalism in a democratic country must provide an opinion of people in power and who wish to be in power, must include
8056-643: The late Ming dynasty in 1582. Johann Carolus 's Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien , published in 1605 in Strasbourg , is often recognized as the first newspaper in Europe. Freedom of the press was formally established in Great Britain in 1695, with Alan Rusbridger , former editor of The Guardian , stating: "licensing of the press in Britain was abolished in 1695. Remember how
8162-476: The late 16th century and continuing to the present. Like the other works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity, the Rhetoric seems not to have been intended for publication, being instead a collection of his students' notes in response to his lectures. The treatise shows the development of Aristotle's thought through two different periods while he was in Athens , and illustrates Aristotle's expansion of
8268-424: The lesson teachings. The "Five Ws" (and one H) were memorialized by Rudyard Kipling in his Just So Stories (1902), in which a poem, accompanying the tale of The Elephant's Child , opens with: I keep six honest serving-men (They taught me all I knew); Their names are What and Why and When And How and Where and Who. By 1917, the "Five Ws" were being taught in high-school journalism classes, and by 1940,
8374-529: The medium, fairness and bias are issues of concern to journalists. Some stories are intended to represent the author's own opinion; others are more neutral or feature balanced points of view. In a traditional print newspaper and its online version, information is organized into sections. This makes clear the distinction between content based on fact and on opinion. In other media, many of these distinctions break down. Readers should pay careful attention to headings and other design elements to ensure that they understand
8480-407: The more traditional formats of newspapers, magazines, or television news channels . News organizations are challenged to fully monetize their digital wing, as well as improvise on the context in which they publish in print. Newspapers have seen print revenues sink at a faster pace than the rate of growth for digital revenues. Journalistic conventions vary by country. In the United States, journalism
8586-438: The most important circumstances are 'Why' and 'In What the act consists'?" (Article 4). For in acts we must take note of who did it, by what aids or instruments he did it ( with ), what he did, where he did it, why he did it, how and when he did it. For Aristotle, the elements are used to distinguish voluntary or involuntary action, a crucial distinction for him. These elements of circumstances are used by Aristotle as
8692-595: The most important ones. And it seems that the most important circumstances are those just listed, including the Why In the Politics , Aristotle illustrates why the elements are important in terms of human (moral) action: I mean, for instance (a particular circumstance or movement or action), How could we advise the Athenians whether they should go to war or not, if we did not know their strength ( How much ), whether it
8798-452: The other hand, believed not only that the public was capable of understanding the issues created or responded to by the elite, but also that it was in the public forum that decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface. The danger of demagoguery and false news did not trouble Dewey. His faith in popular democracy has been implemented in various degrees, and
8904-527: The peak of its importance during World War II , as radio and newsreels were major sources of up-to-date information on the ongoing war. In the Soviet Union , radio would be heavily utilized by the state to broadcast political speeches by leadership. These broadcasts would very rarely have any additional editorial content or analysis, setting them apart from modern news reporting. The radio would however soon be eclipsed by broadcast television starting in
9010-468: The person's state of mind, against whom one directs the emotion, and for what reasons. It is pertinent to understand all the components in order to stimulate a certain emotion within another person. For example, to Aristotle, anger results from the feeling of belittlement. Those who become angry are distressed due to a foiling of their desires. The angry direct their emotion towards those who insult them or that which those people value. These insults are
9116-466: The press, treating it primarily as an outlet for government propaganda and subjecting it to uniform censorship. Other governments, such as the Russian Empire , were even more distrusting of the journalistic press and effectively banned journalistic publications until the mid-19th century. As newspaper publication became a more and more established practice, publishers would increase publication to
9222-482: The pressure on journalists to report news promptly and before their competitors, factual errors occur more frequently than in writing produced and edited under less time pressure. Thus a typical issue of a major daily newspaper may contain several corrections of articles published the previous day. Perhaps the most famous journalistic mistake caused by time pressure was the Dewey Defeats Truman edition of
9328-552: The primary importance of truth as it functions within the craft of rhetoric itself." A path to action is determined through deliberative rhetoric, since an individual following practical means is likely to foresee likely events and act accordingly. In interpreting Aristotle's work on use of rhetoric, Bernard Yack discusses the vast need for public discourse and public reasoning. He states: "We deliberate together in political communities by making and listening to each other's attempts to persuade us that some future action will best serve
9434-483: The reasoning behind the anger. In this way, Aristotle defines each emotion, assesses the state of mind for those experiencing the emotion, determines to whom people direct the emotion, and reveals their reasoning behind the emotion. The significance of Aristotle's analysis stems from his idea that emotions have logical grounding and material sources. George A. Kennedy in a note to On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse remarks that ethos predominantly refers to
9540-526: The role of journalism in a democracy. Their differing philosophies still characterize an ongoing debate about the role of journalism in society. Lippmann's views prevailed for decades, helping to bolster the Progressives' confidence in decision-making by experts, with the general public standing by. Lippmann argued that high-powered journalism was wasted on ordinary citizens, but was of genuine value to an elite class of administrators and experts. Dewey, on
9646-529: The sake of what ( Why ), such as saving a life, and (7) the ( How ), such as gently or violently…And it seems that the most important circumstances are those just listed, including the Why . For Aristotle, ignorance of any of these elements can imply involuntary action: Thus, with ignorance as a possibility concerning all these things, that is, the circumstances of the act , the one who acts in ignorance of any of them seems to act involuntarily, and especially regarding
9752-659: The same letters, qu - . This is not a coincidence, as they are cognates derived from the Proto-Indo-European interrogative pronoun root ko- , reflected in Proto-Germanic as χa- or kha- and in Latin as qu - . Journalism Journalism is the production and distribution of reports on the interaction of events, facts, ideas, and people that are the "news of the day" and that informs society to at least some degree of accuracy. The word,
9858-566: The seven circumstances fundamental to the arts of prosecution and defense": The question form was taken up again in the 12th century by Thierry of Chartres and John of Salisbury . To administer suitable penance to sinners , the 21st canon of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) enjoined confessors to investigate both sins and the circumstances of the sins. The question form was popular for guiding confessors, and it appeared in several different forms: The method of questions
9964-515: The sort of advocacy journalism that had inspired the revolutionaries. The Parisian newspapers were largely stagnant after the First World War ; circulation inched up to six million a day from five million in 1910. The major postwar success story was Paris Soir ; which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation, and serious articles to build prestige. By 1939 its circulation
10070-501: The speaker must also exhibit ethos , which for Aristotle encompasses phronesis , arete , and eunoia . Chapters 2–11 explore those emotions useful to a rhetorical speaker. Aristotle describes how to arouse these emotions in an audience so that a speaker might be able to produce the desired action successfully. Aristotle arranges the discussion of the emotions in opposing pairs, such as anger and calmness or friendliness and enmity. For each emotion, Aristotle discusses
10176-569: The study of rhetoric beyond Plato 's early criticism of it in the Gorgias ( c. 386 BCE ) as immoral, dangerous, and unworthy of serious study. Plato's final dialogue on rhetoric, the Phaedrus ( c. 370 BCE ), offered a more moderate view of rhetoric, acknowledging its value in the hands of a true philosopher (the "midwife of the soul") for "winning the soul through discourse". This dialogue offered Aristotle, first
10282-453: The tendency of journalists to address all of the "Five Ws" within the lead paragraph of an article was being characterized as old-fashioned and fallacious: The old-fashioned lead of the five Ws and the H, crystallized largely by Pulitzer's " new journalism " and sanctified by the schools, is widely giving way to the much more supple and interesting feature lead, even on straight news stories. All of you know about – and I hope all of you admit
10388-426: Was "virtually unchallenged until the 1960s" and even now is considered not only as one of many approaches to criticism, but as fundamental for understanding other theoretical and critical approaches which "developed largely in response to [its] strengths and weaknesses." The Rhetoric consists of three books. Book I offers a general overview, presenting the purposes of rhetoric and a working definition; it also offers
10494-486: Was "written by office boys for office boys". Described as "the scoop of the century", as a rookie journalist for The Daily Telegraph in 1939 Clare Hollingworth was the first to report the outbreak of World War II . While travelling from Poland to Germany, she spotted and reported German forces massed on the Polish border; The Daily Telegraph headline read: "1,000 tanks massed on Polish border "; three days later she
10600-502: Was also used for the systematic exegesis of a text. In the 16th century, Thomas Wilson wrote in English verse: Who, what, and where, by what helpe, and by whose: Why, how, and when, doe many things disclose. In the United States in the 19th century, William Cleaver Wilkinson popularized the "Three Ws" – What? Why? What of it? – as a method of Bible study in the 1880s, although he did not claim originality. This eventually became
10706-491: Was established that Aristotle 's Nicomachean Ethics is in fact the source of the elements of circumstance or Septem Circumstantiae . Thomas Aquinas had much earlier acknowledged Aristotle as the originator of the elements of circumstances, providing a detailed commentary on Aristotle's system in his "Treatise on human acts" and specifically in part one of two Q7 "Of the Circumstances of Human Acts". Aquinas examines
10812-694: Was naval or military or both ( What kind ), and how great it is ( How many ), what their revenues amount to ( With ), Who their friends and enemies are ( Who ), what wars, too they have waged ( What ), and with what success; and so on. Essentially, these elements of circumstances provide a theoretical framework that can be used to particularize, explain or predict any given set of circumstances of action. Hermagoras went so far as to claim that all hypotheses are derived from these seven circumstances: In other words, no hypothetical question, or question involving particular persons and actions, can arise without reference to these circumstances, and no demonstration of such
10918-412: Was over 1.7 million, double that of its nearest rival the tabloid Le Petit Parisien. In addition to its daily paper Paris Soir sponsored a highly successful women's magazine Marie-Claire. Another magazine Match was modeled after the photojournalism of the American magazine Life. By 1900 popular journalism in Britain aimed at the largest possible audience, including the working class, had proven
11024-428: Was published by a non-existent newspaper called The Denver Guardian. Many critics blamed Facebook for the spread of such material. Its news feed algorithm, in particular, was identified by Vox as the platform where the social media giant exercise billions of editorial decisions every day. Social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and TikTok are distributors of disinformation or "fake news". Mark Zuckerberg ,
11130-519: Was published on 29 January 1780. This first effort at journalism enjoyed only a short stint yet it was a momentous development, as it gave birth to modern journalism in India. Following Hicky's efforts which had to be shut down just within two years of circulation, several English newspapers started publication in the aftermath. Most of them enjoyed a circulation figure of about 400 and were weeklies giving personal news items and classified advertisements about
11236-604: Was the first to report the German invasion of Poland . During World War II, George Orwell worked as a journalist at The Observer for seven years, and its editor David Astor gave a copy of Orwell's essay " Politics and the English Language "—a critique of vague, slovenly language—to every new recruit. In 2003, literary editor at the newspaper Robert McCrum wrote, "Even now, it is quoted in our style book". The first newspaper of India, Hicky's Bengal Gazette ,
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