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132-503: The Fiat G.91 is a jet fighter aircraft designed and built by the Italian aircraft manufacturer Fiat Aviazione , which later merged into Aeritalia . The G.91 has its origins in the NATO -organised NBMR-1 competition started in 1953, which sought a light fighter -bomber (officially, the competition was seeking a "Light Weight Strike Fighter") to be adopted as standard equipment across

264-447: A drogue parachute located at the base of the rudder for rapid deceleration. For the purpose of readily carrying out operations from austere airstrips, Fiat developed purpose-built ground support equipment for the easy and rapid servicing of the aircraft. Specifically, the equipment needed to inspect, maintain, resupply, and repair the G.91 were designed to possess minimal weight and size to facilitate transportation. Fiat also completed

396-622: A mission statement in the 1982 History it published, the purpose involved "bringing together the leading personalities of the NATO nations in the fields of science and technology relating to aerospace". The Advisory Group was organized by panels: In 1958 Theodore von Kármán hired Moe Berg to accompany him to the AGARD conference in Paris. "AGARD's aim was to encourage European countries to develop weapons technology on their own instead of relying on

528-584: A by now mediocre performance. The first Eindecker victory came on 1 July 1915, when Leutnant Kurt Wintgens , of Feldflieger Abteilung 6 on the Western Front, downed a Morane-Saulnier Type L. His was one of five Fokker M.5 K/MG prototypes for the Eindecker , and was armed with a synchronized aviation version of the Parabellum MG14 machine gun. The success of the Eindecker kicked off

660-470: A cadre of exceptional pilots. In the United Kingdom, at the behest of Neville Chamberlain (more famous for his 'peace in our time' speech), the entire British aviation industry was retooled, allowing it to change quickly from fabric covered metal framed biplanes to cantilever stressed skin monoplanes in time for the war with Germany, a process that France attempted to emulate, but too late to counter

792-435: A competitive cycle of improvement among the combatants, both sides striving to build ever more capable single-seat fighters. The Albatros D.I and Sopwith Pup of 1916 set the classic pattern followed by fighters for about twenty years. Most were biplanes and only rarely monoplanes or triplanes . The strong box structure of the biplane provided a rigid wing that allowed the accurate control essential for dogfighting. They had

924-525: A consortium of former competitors Messerschmitt , Heinkel and Dornier ; Messerschmitt produced the forward fuselage and tail assembly, Dornier manufactured the center fuselage along with final assembly and flight testing, while Heinkel fabricated the wing. The G.91 holds the distinction of being the first combat aircraft to be manufactured in Germany since the Second World War . On 20 July 1961,

1056-443: A difficult deflection shot. The first step in finding a real solution was to mount the weapon on the aircraft, but the propeller remained a problem since the best direction to shoot is straight ahead. Numerous solutions were tried. A second crew member behind the pilot could aim and fire a swivel-mounted machine gun at enemy airplanes; however, this limited the area of coverage chiefly to the rear hemisphere, and effective coordination of

1188-552: A form that would replace all others in the 1930s. As collective combat experience grew, the more successful pilots such as Oswald Boelcke , Max Immelmann , and Edward Mannock developed innovative tactical formations and maneuvers to enhance their air units' combat effectiveness. Allied and – before 1918 – German pilots of World War I were not equipped with parachutes , so in-flight fires or structural failures were often fatal. Parachutes were well-developed by 1918 having previously been used by balloonists, and were adopted by

1320-664: A great deal of ground-attack work. In World War II, the USAAF and RAF often favored fighters over dedicated light bombers or dive bombers , and types such as the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and Hawker Hurricane that were no longer competitive as aerial combat fighters were relegated to ground attack. Several aircraft, such as the F-111 and F-117, have received fighter designations though they had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons. The F-111B variant

1452-479: A maximum of 2,200 kg (4,850 lb) empty weight and 4,700 kg (10,360 lb) max weight. Equipment requirements were the presence of armoured protection for the pilot and the fuel tanks along with alternative arrangements of 4 × 12.7 mm (.5 in) machine guns or 2 × 20 mm or 30 mm autocannon . These operational specifications were viewed as not being straightforward to fulfil at that time. The challenge of providing an engine that matched

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1584-431: A number of twin-engine fighters were built; however they were found to be outmatched against single-engine fighters and were relegated to other tasks, such as night fighters equipped with radar sets. By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed. Since the weight of the turbojet engine was far less than a piston engine, having two engines

1716-550: A part of military nomenclature, a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use, along with a number to indicate the specific aircraft. The letters used to designate a fighter differ in various countries. In the English-speaking world, "F" is often now used to indicate a fighter (e.g. Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II or Supermarine Spitfire F.22 ), though "P" used to be used in

1848-638: A range of specialized aircraft types. Some of the most expensive fighters such as the US Grumman F-14 Tomcat , McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle , Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor and Russian Sukhoi Su-27 were employed as all-weather interceptors as well as air superiority fighter aircraft, while commonly developing air-to-ground roles late in their careers. An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target (or intercept) bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate. As

1980-742: A result, during the early months of these campaigns, Axis air forces destroyed large numbers of Red Air Force aircraft on the ground and in one-sided dogfights. In the later stages on the Eastern Front, Soviet training and leadership improved, as did their equipment. By 1942 Soviet designs such as the Yakovlev Yak-9 and Lavochkin La-5 had performance comparable to the German Bf 109 and Focke-Wulf Fw 190 . Also, significant numbers of British, and later U.S., fighter aircraft were supplied to aid

2112-424: A semi- monocoque design manufactured in three sections. The forward section, which was produced separate to the others before being rivetted to the centre fuselage, contains various radio navigation and communication equipment such as radio direction finder , transponder , ultra high frequency (UHF) radio, and identification friend or foe (IFF); the nose typically contained a total of three cameras. The cockpit

2244-643: A separate (and vulnerable) radiator, but had increased drag. Inline engines often had a better power-to-weight ratio . Some air forces experimented with " heavy fighters " (called "destroyers" by the Germans). These were larger, usually twin-engined aircraft, sometimes adaptations of light or medium bomber types. Such designs typically had greater internal fuel capacity (thus longer range) and heavier armament than their single-engine counterparts. In combat, they proved vulnerable to more agile single-engine fighters. The primary driver of fighter innovation, right up to

2376-420: A single operator, who flew the aircraft and also controlled its armament. They were armed with one or two Maxim or Vickers machine guns, which were easier to synchronize than other types, firing through the propeller arc. Gun breeches were in front of the pilot, with obvious implications in case of accidents, but jams could be cleared in flight, while aiming was simplified. The use of metal aircraft structures

2508-445: A six cm (two in) higher canopy, and the addition of a ventral fin. The second prototype had other modifications, including the installation of a full armament and a more powerful Orpheus engine capable of 4,850 lbf. In July 1957, the second prototype performed its first flight; it was not immediately sent to participate in the final evaluation process. Both the third and fourth G.91 prototypes were later sent to France to continue

2640-497: A study to add hooks onto the aircraft for the purpose compatibility with arresting gear and aircraft catapult for further increased short field performance; a number of production aircraft in Luftwaffe service were outfitted as such. On 20 February 1958, the first pre-production G.91 conducted its maiden flight. In August 1958, the 103mo Gruppo , 5a Aerobrigata , called " Caccia Tattici Leggeri " (Light Tactical Fighter Group),

2772-617: A total of 756 aircraft were completed, including the prototypes and pre-production models. The assembly lines were finally closed in 1977. The G.91 was also used as a basis for a twin-engined derivative: the Fiat/Aeritalia G.91Y . The G.91 had a relatively lengthy service life, outlasting the Cold War and being finally withdrawn in 1995. It was displaced by newer types such as the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet and

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2904-402: Is a fast, heavily armed and long-range type, able to act as an escort fighter protecting bombers , to carry out offensive sorties of its own as a penetration fighter and maintain standing patrols at significant distance from its home base. Bombers are vulnerable due to their low speed, large size and poor maneuvrability. The escort fighter was developed during World War II to come between

3036-504: Is a work prepared by, or on behalf of, AGARD's panels. For example, an agardograph on the AGARD-B wind tunnel model was prepared. Later examples of AGARD studies include such topics as non-lethal weapons , theatre ballistic missile defence, protection of large aircraft in peace support operations, and limiting collateral damage caused by air-delivered weapons. AGARD was also one of the first NATO organizations to cooperate with Russia in

3168-549: Is able to defend itself while conducting attack sorties. The word "fighter" was first used to describe a two-seat aircraft carrying a machine gun (mounted on a pedestal) and its operator as well as the pilot . Although the term was coined in the United Kingdom, the first examples were the French Voisin pushers beginning in 1910, and a Voisin III would be the first to shoot down another aircraft, on 5 October 1914. However at

3300-623: Is known as an interceptor . Recognized classes of fighter include: Of these, the Fighter-bomber , reconnaissance fighter and strike fighter classes are dual-role, possessing qualities of the fighter alongside some other battlefield role. Some fighter designs may be developed in variants performing other roles entirely, such as ground attack or unarmed reconnaissance . This may be for political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, or other reasons. The Sopwith Camel and other "fighting scouts" of World War I performed

3432-403: Is positioned directly above the chin-mounted air intake for the engine. It is surrounded on three sides with steel armour plating, the glass windshield is also armoured. The cockpit is furnished with a Martin-Baker Mk.4 ejector seat ; it is both pressurised and equipped with manually controlled climate controls . The center fuselage section houses the armament bay, which is set beneath

3564-607: The Aermacchi MB-326 . As a result of experiences from the Korean War alongside newly developed concepts of aerial cooperation, the members of NATO recognised a need to reequip their inventories with suitable jet -powered ground attack aircraft . In December 1953, NATO Supreme Command issued specifications for a new light tactical support aircraft. European manufacturers were invited to submit their designs for this requested Light Weight Strike Fighter role. The G.91

3696-531: The Breguet Br.1001 Taon . On 18 March 1953, these submitted designs formally began to be assessed by the AGARD committee, which was under the chairmanship of Theodore von Kármán . The initial project selection process took 18 months to complete. On 3 June 1955, it was announced that the Fiat G.91 had been selected as the design with the most promise. Out of the submissions, the two winning projects were, in order:

3828-562: The Combined Bomber Offensive . Unescorted Consolidated B-24 Liberators and Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers, however, proved unable to fend off German interceptors (primarily Bf 109s and Fw 190s). With the later arrival of long range fighters, particularly the North American P-51 Mustang , American fighters were able to escort far into Germany on daylight raids and by ranging ahead attrited

3960-408: The G.91 PAN . By 1957, Fiat Aviazione was in the process of establishing the first production line for the G.91 at their facility at Turin-Aeritalia Airport , Piedmont , Italy. In total, Fiat constructed 174 G.91s of various variants for Italy, along with an additional 144 G.91 R/3 variants for West Germany (including 50 that had been ordered and then cancelled by Greece and Turkey). The first order

4092-507: The G.91 PAN . The G.91 PAN reportedly accumulated roughly 1,500 flight hours per year, and had an average efficiency in excess of 90 per cent. In late 1964, the first batch of two-seater G.91T/1 aircraft, which had lengthened fuselage to accommodate an additional seat for training purposes, was delivered to the Scuola Volo Basico Avanzato (Amendola flying school for advanced jet training). These aircraft were used for

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4224-585: The Junkers D.I , made with corrugated duralumin , all based on his experience in creating the pioneering Junkers J 1 all-metal airframe technology demonstration aircraft of late 1915. While Fokker would pursue steel tube fuselages with wooden wings until the late 1930s, and Junkers would focus on corrugated sheet metal, Dornier was the first to build a fighter (the Dornier-Zeppelin D.I ) made with pre-stressed sheet aluminum and having cantilevered wings,

4356-677: The Portuguese Colonial War . Portugal had deployed a detachment of F-86 Sabres to Portuguese Guinea in August 1961, prior to the outbreak of major fighting, but was forced to withdraw the jet fighters back to Europe owing to pressure from the United States and the United Nations, who imposed an arms embargo. This left a gap in air cover for Portugal's African colonies, both in the close air support role, and in

4488-453: The RAF and the USAAF against German industry intended to wear down the Luftwaffe. Axis fighter aircraft focused on defending against Allied bombers while Allied fighters' main role was as bomber escorts. The RAF raided German cities at night, and both sides developed radar-equipped night fighters for these battles. The Americans, in contrast, flew daylight bombing raids into Germany delivering

4620-588: The Sopwith Tabloid and Bristol Scout . The French and the Germans didn't have an equivalent as they used two seaters for reconnaissance, such as the Morane-Saulnier L , but would later modify pre-war racing aircraft into armed single seaters. It was quickly found that these were of little use since the pilot couldn't record what he saw while also flying, while military leaders usually ignored what

4752-792: The Stangensteuerung in German, for "pushrod control system") devised by the engineers of Anthony Fokker 's firm was the first system to enter service. It would usher in what the British called the " Fokker scourge " and a period of air superiority for the German forces, making the Fokker Eindecker monoplane a feared name over the Western Front , despite its being an adaptation of an obsolete pre-war French Morane-Saulnier racing airplane, with poor flight characteristics and

4884-486: The United States Air Force , and thus the prospective G.91 procurement was not pursued. The Fiat G.91 is a lightweight tactical ground attack aircraft. It is a subsonic aircraft that was designed for both simplicity and agility. A key function of the aircraft is its short-field capability, having been constructed with a rugged airframe to withstand the demands imposed by high-intensity operations and

5016-535: The Breguet Br.1001 Taon and the Fiat G.91. A third aircraft design was subsequently added: the Dassault Mystère XXVI. As a result of the G.91's selection, an immediate order was received for three prototypes and a total of 27 pre-production aircraft. Fiat quickly set about developing the concept to the prototype phase; noticeable changes in the design occurred during this phase, such as increases in

5148-668: The British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force referred to them as " scouts " until the early 1920s, while the U.S. Army called them "pursuit" aircraft until the late 1940s (using the designation P, as in Curtiss P-40 Warhawk , Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and Bell P-63 Kingcobra ). The UK changed to calling them fighters in the 1920s , while the US Army did so in the 1940s. A short-range fighter designed to defend against incoming enemy aircraft

5280-639: The British, the Americans, the Spanish (in the Spanish civil war) and the Germans. Given limited budgets, air forces were conservative in aircraft design, and biplanes remained popular with pilots for their agility, and remained in service long after they ceased to be competitive. Designs such as the Gloster Gladiator , Fiat CR.42 Falco , and Polikarpov I-15 were common even in the late 1930s, and many were still in service as late as 1942. Up until

5412-761: The European battlefield, played a crucial role in the eventual defeat of the Axis, which Reichmarshal Hermann Göring , commander of the German Luftwaffe summed up when he said: "When I saw Mustangs over Berlin, I knew the jig was up." AGARD AGARD was founded as an Agency of the NATO Military Committee. It was set up in May 1952 with headquarters in Neuilly sur Seine , France . In

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5544-430: The G.91 R/3 aircraft had been lost to accidents, a loss rate of 6 per cent. During the early 1980s, the G.91 R/3 was replaced in German service by the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet which operated in the same role; the last G.91 aircraft were officially retired in 1982. From 1961, Portugal became involved in fighting against nationalist movements in its African overseas territories , the series of conflicts becoming known as

5676-762: The G.91 was picked as the winning design of the NBMR-1 competition. During 1961, the G.91 entered into operational service with the Italian Air Force , and with the West German Luftwaffe in the following year. Various other nations adopted it, such as the Portuguese Air Force , who made extensive use of the type during the Portuguese Colonial War in Angola and Mozambique. The G.91 remained in production for 19 years, during which

5808-483: The German flying services during the course of that year. The well known and feared Manfred von Richthofen , the "Red Baron", was wearing one when he was killed, but the allied command continued to oppose their use on various grounds. In April 1917, during a brief period of German aerial supremacy a British pilot's average life expectancy was calculated to average 93 flying hours, or about three weeks of active service. More than 50,000 airmen from both sides died during

5940-618: The German invasion. The period of improving the same biplane design over and over was now coming to an end, and the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire started to supplant the Gloster Gladiator and Hawker Fury biplanes but many biplanes remained in front-line service well past the start of World War II. While not a combatant in Spain, they too absorbed many of the lessons in time to use them. The Spanish Civil War also provided an opportunity for updating fighter tactics. One of

6072-756: The Italians developed several monoplanes such as the Fiat G.50 Freccia , but being short on funds, were forced to continue operating obsolete Fiat CR.42 Falco biplanes. From the early 1930s the Japanese were at war against both the Chinese Nationalists and the Russians in China, and used the experience to improve both training and aircraft, replacing biplanes with modern cantilever monoplanes and creating

6204-905: The Japanese Nakajima Ki-27 , Nakajima Ki-43 and Mitsubishi A6M Zero and the Italian Fiat G.50 Freccia and Macchi MC.200 . In contrast, designers in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Soviet Union, and the United States believed that the increased speed of fighter aircraft would create g -forces unbearable to pilots who attempted maneuvering dogfights typical of the First World War, and their fighters were instead optimized for speed and firepower. In practice, while light, highly maneuverable aircraft did possess some advantages in fighter-versus-fighter combat, those could usually be overcome by sound tactical doctrine, and

6336-508: The Luftwaffe conducted a series of trials to determine the capabilities of the type in terms of austere and unfavourable climate performance, including an overseas deployment to Béchar Province , Algeria , to test the G.91's versatility and operational efficiency within such climate conditions. An additional 45 G.91 T/3 Fiat-built two-seat trainer aircraft were ordered for the Luftwaffe , the first 35 being allocated to Waffenschule 50 with

6468-613: The Luftwaffe to establish control of the skies over Western Europe. By the time of Operation Overlord in June 1944, the Allies had gained near complete air superiority over the Western Front. This cleared the way both for intensified strategic bombing of German cities and industries, and for the tactical bombing of battlefield targets. With the Luftwaffe largely cleared from the skies, Allied fighters increasingly served as ground attack aircraft. Allied fighters, by gaining air superiority over

6600-662: The Luftwaffe, and while the Luftwaffe maintained a qualitative edge over the Red Air Force for much of the war, the increasing numbers and efficacy of the Soviet Air Force were critical to the Red Army's efforts at turning back and eventually annihilating the Wehrmacht . Meanwhile, air combat on the Western Front had a much different character. Much of this combat focused on the strategic bombing campaigns of

6732-536: The PAIGC started to be supplied with Soviet-made Strela 2 (NATO designation SA-7 Grail) MANPADS in early 1973, these immediately became a threat to Portuguese air superiority. On 25 March 1973, and 28 March, two FAP G.91s were shot down by missiles within three days, with a further two lost to conventional ground fire later in the year. (By comparison, only two G.91s had been lost in Guinea from 1966 to 1973.) A final G.91

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6864-538: The Portuguese in Mozambique did not lose any aircraft to missiles with Chinese support, even if it forced Portuguese pilots to change their tactics. The only G.91 destroyed in combat in Mozambique was the serial number 5429 , flown by Lt. Emilio Lourenço: his plane was destroyed and Lourenço killed by a premature detonation of its bombs while flying a strike against rebel positions on 15 March 1973. In 1973, with

6996-555: The Soviet Polikarpov I-16 . The later German design was earlier in its design cycle, and had more room for development and the lessons learned led to greatly improved models in World War II. The Russians failed to keep up and despite newer models coming into service, I-16s remaining the most common Soviet front-line fighter into 1942 despite being outclassed by the improved Bf 109s in World War II. For their part,

7128-598: The Soviet war effort as part of Lend-Lease , with the Bell P-39 Airacobra proving particularly effective in the lower-altitude combat typical of the Eastern Front. The Soviets were also helped indirectly by the American and British bombing campaigns, which forced the Luftwaffe to shift many of its fighters away from the Eastern Front in defense against these raids. The Soviets increasingly were able to challenge

7260-468: The Total Independence of Angola ( UNITA ) forces, being finally withdrawn back to Portugal in January 1975. In 1976, a second purchase of 14 G.91 R/3s and 7 G.91 T/3 trainers was made from Germany, which were followed by further aircraft when the G.91 was withdrawn from Luftwaffe service in from 1980 to 1982, giving a total of 70 R/3s and 26 T/3s, although not all of these entered service, with many being broken up for spare parts. Portugal finally phased out

7392-425: The U.S. defense industry to do it for them." There were annual meetings, frequently in Paris, but also in Delft , Turin , Cambridge , Washington DC . The Advisory Group administered a consultant and exchange program including lecture series and technical panels. The AGARD publishing program included a multilingual aeronautical dictionary, about ninety titles per year, with a normal run of 1200. An Agardograph

7524-451: The US for pursuit (e.g. Curtiss P-40 Warhawk ), a translation of the French "C" ( Dewoitine D.520 C.1 ) for Chasseur while in Russia "I" was used for Istrebitel , or exterminator ( Polikarpov I-16 ). As fighter types have proliferated, the air superiority fighter emerged as a specific role at the pinnacle of speed, maneuverability, and air-to-air weapon systems – able to hold its own against all other fighters and establish its dominance in

7656-426: The United Nations weapons embargo against Portugal, the Air Force faced problems purchasing further numbers of close air support aircraft. An attempt was then made to acquire more Fiat G.91s from Germany by having Dornier disassembling the aircraft and then selling them as spare parts to Switzerland and Spain. These spare parts would be later sold to Portugal and assembled locally with different serial numbers. However,

7788-403: The United States in order to participate in a formal evaluation program for the United States Army ; these aircraft were subjected to several evaluation trials, the majority of which taking place within Alabama and New Mexico . The US Army studied the use of the type as a possible Forward Air Control aircraft. However, the service subsequently relinquished all fixed-wing aircraft operations to

7920-529: The United States, Russia, India and China. The first step was to find ways to reduce the aircraft's reflectivity to radar waves by burying the engines, eliminating sharp corners and diverting any reflections away from the radar sets of opposing forces. Various materials were found to absorb the energy from radar waves, and were incorporated into special finishes that have since found widespread application. Composite structures have become widespread, including major structural components, and have helped to counterbalance

8052-440: The ability to gather information by reconnaissance over the battlefield. Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were biplanes built with a wooden frame covered with fabric, and a maximum airspeed of about 100 mph (160 km/h). A successful German biplane, the Albatross, however, was built with a plywood shell, rather than fabric, which created a stronger, faster airplane. As control of

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8184-409: The advantages of fighting above Britain's home territory allowed the RAF to deny Germany air superiority, saving the UK from possible German invasion and dealing the Axis a major defeat early in the Second World War. On the Eastern Front , Soviet fighter forces were overwhelmed during the opening phases of Operation Barbarossa . This was a result of the tactical surprise at the outset of the campaign,

8316-661: The air defence role. In 1965, as the scale of fighting increased, Portugal attempted to purchase 100 surplus Canadian built Sabre Mk 6s from West Germany, but instead, it was offered 40 G.91R/4s, which had originally been built for Greece and Turkey and which differed from the rest of the Luftwaffe G.91s sufficiently to create maintenance problems in exchange for allowing Germany to build and use an airbase at Beja in Portugal for training. G.91s arrived in Portuguese Guinea in 1966, equipping Esquadra 121 Tigres based at Bissau , and being used for reconnaissance and close support with rockets, napalm and bombs against PAIGC rebels. When

8448-431: The air forces of the various NATO nations. The G.91 was specifically designed to fulfil the requirements of this competition, being relatively lightweight and capable of operating from austere airstrips while also being armoured and suitably armed while remaining relatively affordable in comparison to many frontline fighters. On 9 August 1956, the prototype conducted its maiden flight . After reviewing multiple submissions,

8580-460: The aircraft's maximum weight due to the addition of supplementary equipment and structural strengthening measures. On 9 August 1956, the prototype G.91 conducted its maiden flight at the Caselle airfield , Turin , Italy; it was flown by Chief Test Pilot Riccardo Bignamini. Accordingly, the G.91 had achieved a seven-month head start over the Dassault prototype and almost a year ahead of the Breguet Taon. An intensive series of test flights followed

8712-534: The airspace over armies became increasingly important, all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations. Between the wars, wood was largely replaced in part or whole by metal tubing, and finally aluminum stressed skin structures (monocoque) began to predominate. By World War II , most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of machine guns or cannons and some were capable of speeds approaching 400 mph (640 km/h). Most fighters up to this point had one engine, but

8844-532: The balance of the order divided between operational units. In early 1961, Waffenschule 50 began its first training courses for pilot instructors. Of these, 22 aircraft were built by Dornier between 1971 and 1973; this variant were used to train Weapons Systems Officers for the F-4 Phantom . Fifty G.91 R/4 aircraft were taken up from a cancelled Greek/Turkish order but were deemed to be unsuitable for operational use. Alternatively, these were used as training aircraft and were operated solely by Waffenschule 50 . When

8976-433: The basis for an effective "fighter" in the modern sense of the word. It was based on small fast aircraft developed before the war for air racing such with the Gordon Bennett Cup and Schneider Trophy . The military scout airplane was not expected to carry serious armament, but rather to rely on speed to "scout" a location, and return quickly to report, making it a flying horse. British scout aircraft, in this sense, included

9108-462: The bids that various aircraft manufacturers submitted in response, a special Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development (AGARD) committee conducted extensive evaluations. The designs were required within two months of the competition, in which time an assortment of submissions were made, mainly by European companies. Besides the G.91, these included the Northrop N-156 , Dassault Mystère XXVI , Sud-Est Baroudeur , Aerfer Sagittario 2 and

9240-414: The bombers and enemy attackers as a protective shield. The primary requirement was for long range, with several heavy fighters given the role. However they too proved unwieldy and vulnerable, so as the war progressed techniques such as drop tanks were developed to extend the range of more nimble conventional fighters. The penetration fighter is typically also fitted for the ground-attack role, and so

9372-404: The center section is integral with the fuselage. It is swept at a 37-degree angle at quarter-chord with a thickness-to-chord ratio of 10 per cent. The wing features single-slotted flaps and hydraulically -actuated ailerons . The tailplane is electrically actuated and had irreversible hydraulic elevators fitted with an artificial feel system as well as hydraulically-actuated air brakes and

9504-473: The cockpit, and the seven split fuel tanks , which are protected against damage from ground fire by armour plating. The armament bay can accommodate up to four 12.7 mm (0.50 in) M2 Browning machine guns with 300 rounds of ammo per gun, or alternatively up to two 30 mm (1.18 in) DEFA cannons with 120 rounds per cannon. Other munitions included various rockets and bombs ; while gun pods and external drop tanks can be installed on hardpoints fitted on

9636-489: The competition. In April 1958, following a meeting of NATO defence ministers, an agreement was formed that the G.91 would be the first NATO lightweight strike fighter, and that it was to be followed in 1961 by "a developed version" of the Breguet Taon. In May 1958, a production meeting was scheduled to discuss the production of the aircraft with financial support from the United States; the Americans would provide some of

9768-603: The deal did not follow through as the German government vetoed it. In April 1974, the Portuguese government fell in the Carnation Revolution , with the new government seeking to grant its colonies independence. Portugal withdrew its G.91s from Guinea when it was granted independence in 1974, with its forces also leaving Mozambique. One of the G.91 squadrons was briefly deployed to Angola in late 1974, in order to try to prevent fighting between rival National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) and National Union for

9900-610: The defense budgets of modern armed forces. The global combat aircraft market was worth $ 45.75 billion in 2017 and is projected by Frost & Sullivan at $ 47.2 billion in 2026: 35% modernization programs and 65% aircraft purchases, dominated by the Lockheed Martin F-35 with 3,000 deliveries over 20 years. A fighter aircraft is primarily designed for air-to-air combat . A given type may be designed for specific combat conditions, and in some cases for additional roles such as air-to-ground fighting. Historically

10032-668: The design approach of the Italians and Japanese made their fighters ill-suited as interceptors or attack aircraft. During the invasion of Poland and the Battle of France , Luftwaffe fighters—primarily the Messerschmitt Bf 109 —held air superiority, and the Luftwaffe played a major role in German victories in these campaigns. During the Battle of Britain , however, British Hurricanes and Spitfires proved roughly equal to Luftwaffe fighters. Additionally Britain's radar-based Dowding system directing fighters onto German attacks and

10164-522: The early 1960s since both were believed unusable at the speeds being attained, however the Vietnam War showed that guns still had a role to play, and most fighters built since then are fitted with cannon (typically between 20 and 30 mm (0.79 and 1.18 in) in caliber) in addition to missiles. Most modern combat aircraft can carry at least a pair of air-to-air missiles. In the 1970s, turbofans replaced turbojets, improving fuel economy enough that

10296-512: The evaluation flights. The final selection of the competing designs was planned for late 1957. In September 1957, at the Centre d'Essais en Vol at Brétigny-sur-Orge , in France, the three rival aircraft types met for evaluation trials. During these trials, the Italian aircraft is claimed to have delivered an impressive performance. In January 1958, the Fiat G.91 was officially declared the winner of

10428-513: The fighter. Rifle-caliber .30 and .303 in (7.62 and 7.70 mm) calibre guns remained the norm, with larger weapons either being too heavy and cumbersome or deemed unnecessary against such lightly built aircraft. It was not considered unreasonable to use World War I-style armament to counter enemy fighters as there was insufficient air-to-air combat during most of the period to disprove this notion. The rotary engine , popular during World War I, quickly disappeared, its development having reached

10560-526: The finance for the French, German and Italian aircraft, in addition to paying for the Turkish aircraft. The defence ministers reached an agreement to order 50 aircraft for each country. Given the large economic and commercial interests at stake, there was a certain amount of controversy surrounding this decision. After the loss of the first G.91 prototype, the French government preferred to pursue development of

10692-577: The first Dornier-built G.91 performed its first flight. The G.91R/3 equipped four newly formed Leichte Kampfgeschwader (light attack wings), often being used to replace older aircraft such as the American-built Republic F-84F Thunderstreak . In October 1961, Aufklärungsgeschwader 53 became the first operational G.91 unit to achieve active status; in late May 1962, this same unit proceeded to carry out its first operational training flights. During 1962 and 1963,

10824-475: The first German-built G.91 conducted its first flight from Oberpfaffenhofen Airfield . Aeritalia also negotiated a comprehensive license manufacturing agreement for the Orpheus engine that powered the type. Messier-Bugatti-Dowty produced the aircraft's undercarriage. The G.91 was also considered by a number of nations, including Austria, Norway, and Switzerland. During early 1961, four G.91s were shipped to

10956-541: The further training of pilots that had recently graduated from the Aermacchi MB-326 jet trainer. In 1995, the last G.91 was phased out and retired by Italy. In September 1960, the Luftwaffe received their first two Fiat-built G.91 R/3 aircraft. An initial five G.91R/3 aircraft were delivered to Erprobungstelle 61 for trials with subsequent deliveries being allocated to Aufklärungsgeschwader 53 (53rd Reconnaissance Group) based at Erding , near Munich along with Waffenschule 50 (Weapons School 50). On 20 July 1961,

11088-406: The guns were subjected). Shooting with this traditional arrangement was also easier because the guns shot directly ahead in the direction of the aircraft's flight, up to the limit of the guns range; unlike wing-mounted guns which to be effective required to be harmonised , that is, preset to shoot at an angle by ground crews so that their bullets would converge on a target area a set distance ahead of

11220-421: The initial training programme was completed, all R/4 aircraft were retired in 1966 and 40 surviving airframes were sold to Portugal. Other R/4 aircraft remained in Germany and were transferred to ground instructional use or for static displays at recruitment presentations. It has been claimed that the Luftwaffe had intended to equip a further four wings with the G.91R/3; however, initial operating experience with

11352-433: The innovations was the development of the " finger-four " formation by the German pilot Werner Mölders . Each fighter squadron (German: Staffel ) was divided into several flights ( Schwärme ) of four aircraft. Each Schwarm was divided into two Rotten , which was a pair of aircraft. Each Rotte was composed of a leader and a wingman. This flexible formation allowed the pilots to maintain greater situational awareness, and

11484-514: The interceptor. The equipment necessary for daytime flight is inadequate when flying at night or in poor visibility. The night fighter was developed during World War I with additional equipment to aid the pilot in flying straight, navigating and finding the target. From modified variants of the Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2c in 1915, the night fighter has evolved into the highly capable all-weather fighter. The strategic fighter

11616-696: The last of its G.91s in 1993. On 6 September 1961, the first G.91 R/4 was delivered to the Hellenic Air Force (HAF) for evaluation purposes. The G.91 R/4 variant, of which 25 aircraft were intended to be delivered to both Greece and Turkey, employed the same armament as the G.91 R/1 while using the equipment of the R/3 variant. However, both Greece and Turkey would ultimately not induct any G.91s, these aircraft were instead passed onto Germany's inventory instead. Data from: Warpaint No.49:Fiat G.91 Trainer and reconnaissance variants were produced right from

11748-420: The last piston engine support aircraft could be replaced with jets, making multi-role combat aircraft possible. Honeycomb structures began to replace milled structures, and the first composite components began to appear on components subjected to little stress. With the steady improvements in computers, defensive systems have become increasingly efficient. To counter this, stealth technologies have been pursued by

11880-584: The leadership vacuum within the Soviet military left by the Great Purge , and the general inferiority of Soviet designs at the time, such as the obsolescent Polikarpov I-15 biplane and the I-16 . More modern Soviet designs, including the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3 , LaGG-3 and Yakolev Yak-1 , had not yet arrived in numbers and in any case were still inferior to the Messerschmitt Bf 109 . As

12012-571: The locally designed Étendard instead. The British government similarly ignored the competition to concentrate on Hawker Hunter production for the same role. The Italian government had elected to order the G.91 for the Italian Air Force prior to the results of the competition being known. These pre-production machines would later go on to serve for many years with the Italian aerobatic team, the Frecce Tricolori , designated as

12144-506: The mid-1930s, the majority of fighters in the US, the UK, Italy and Russia remained fabric-covered biplanes. Fighter armament eventually began to be mounted inside the wings, outside the arc of the propeller, though most designs retained two synchronized machine guns directly ahead of the pilot, where they were more accurate (that being the strongest part of the structure, reducing the vibration to which

12276-495: The most modern weapons, against an enemy in complete command of the air, fights like a savage…" Throughout the war, fighters performed their conventional role in establishing air superiority through combat with other fighters and through bomber interception, and also often performed roles such as tactical air support and reconnaissance . Fighter design varied widely among combatants. The Japanese and Italians favored lightly armed and armored but highly maneuverable designs such as

12408-607: The opposition. Subsequently, radar capabilities grew enormously and are now the primary method of target acquisition . Wings were made thinner and swept back to reduce transonic drag, which required new manufacturing methods to obtain sufficient strength. Skins were no longer sheet metal riveted to a structure, but milled from large slabs of alloy. The sound barrier was broken, and after a few false starts due to required changes in controls, speeds quickly reached Mach 2, past which aircraft cannot maneuver sufficiently to avoid attack. Air-to-air missiles largely replaced guns and rockets in

12540-413: The other was to counter the trend towards larger and more expensive aircraft. The specified technical requirements included a 1,100 m (3,610 ft) takeoff distance over a 15 m (49 ft) obstacle, the capability to operate from semi-prepared grass airstrips and roads, a maximum speed of Mach  0.95, a range of 280 km (170 mi) with 10 minutes over the target while possessing

12672-488: The outbreak of World War I , front-line aircraft were mostly unarmed and used almost exclusively for reconnaissance . On 15 August 1914, Miodrag Tomić encountered an enemy airplane while on a reconnaissance flight over Austria-Hungary which fired at his aircraft with a revolver, so Tomić fired back. It was believed to be the first exchange of fire between aircraft. Within weeks, all Serbian and Austro-Hungarian aircraft were armed. Another type of military aircraft formed

12804-451: The outset for dual roles. Other fighter designs are highly specialized while still filling the main air superiority role, and these include the interceptor and, historically, the heavy fighter and night fighter . Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare . Fighters continued to be developed throughout World War I, to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles

12936-487: The period of rapid re-armament in the late 1930s, were not military budgets, but civilian aircraft racing. Aircraft designed for these races introduced innovations like streamlining and more powerful engines that would find their way into the fighters of World War II. The most significant of these was the Schneider Trophy races, where competition grew so fierce, only national governments could afford to enter. At

13068-433: The period, going from a typical 180 hp (130 kW) in the 900 kg (2,000 lb) Fokker D.VII of 1918 to 900 hp (670 kW) in the 2,500 kg (5,500 lb) Curtiss P-36 of 1936. The debate between the sleek in-line engines versus the more reliable radial models continued, with naval air forces preferring the radial engines, and land-based forces often choosing inlines. Radial designs did not require

13200-456: The pilot's maneuvering with the gunner's aiming was difficult. This option was chiefly employed as a defensive measure on two-seater reconnaissance aircraft from 1915 on. Both the SPAD S.A and the Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.9 added a second crewman ahead of the engine in a pod but this was both hazardous to the second crewman and limited performance. The Sopwith L.R.T.Tr. similarly added a pod on

13332-451: The pilots reported. Attempts were made with handheld weapons such as pistols and rifles and even light machine guns, but these were ineffective and cumbersome. The next advance came with the fixed forward-firing machine gun, so that the pilot pointed the entire aircraft at the target and fired the gun, instead of relying on a second gunner. Roland Garros bolted metal deflector plates to the propeller so that it would not shoot itself out of

13464-410: The point where rotational forces prevented more fuel and air from being delivered to the cylinders, which limited horsepower. They were replaced chiefly by the stationary radial engine though major advances led to inline engines gaining ground with several exceptional engines—including the 1,145 cu in (18,760 cm ) V-12 Curtiss D-12 . Aircraft engines increased in power several-fold over

13596-417: The pre-production aircraft of 103mo Gruppo were replaced by production standard G.91 R/1 combat aircraft; thus 16 of the pre-production aircraft were converted for service with the Italian aerobatic team, the Frecce Tricolori ; these conversions, which had their armament removed and other modifications such as the addition of pitch dampers, ballast , and smoke tanks beneath the wings, were designated as

13728-420: The presence of NATO officials; during this stage of the trials, German pilots also flew the aircraft. In 1961, the next operational unit to be formed was 14mo Gruppo , Seconda Aerobrigata . This unit had its role shifted to tactical support, because its groups were 14mo, 103mo (dispatched from 5 A/B to this Aerobrigade ) and 13mo (only in reserve). All of them were based at Treviso-Sant'Angelo . During 1964,

13860-520: The propeller arc was evident even before the outbreak of war and inventors in both France and Germany devised mechanisms that could time the firing of the individual rounds to avoid hitting the propeller blades. Franz Schneider , a Swiss engineer, had patented such a device in Germany in 1913, but his original work was not followed up. French aircraft designer Raymond Saulnier patented a practical device in April 1914, but trials were unsuccessful because of

13992-461: The propeller arc. Wing guns were tried but the unreliable weapons available required frequent clearing of jammed rounds and misfires and remained impractical until after the war. Mounting the machine gun over the top wing worked well and was used long after the ideal solution was found. The Nieuport 11 of 1916 used this system with considerable success, however, this placement made aiming and reloading difficult but would continue to be used throughout

14124-458: The propeller blades were fitted with metal wedges to protect them from ricochets . Garros' modified monoplane first flew in March 1915 and he began combat operations soon after. Garros scored three victories in three weeks before he himself was downed on 18 April and his airplane, along with its synchronization gear and propeller was captured by the Germans. Meanwhile, the synchronization gear (called

14256-426: The propensity of the machine gun employed to hang fire due to unreliable ammunition. In December 1914, French aviator Roland Garros asked Saulnier to install his synchronization gear on Garros' Morane-Saulnier Type L parasol monoplane . Unfortunately the gas-operated Hotchkiss machine gun he was provided had an erratic rate of fire and it was impossible to synchronize it with the propeller. As an interim measure,

14388-400: The prototype's loss was linked to problems encountered with the horizontal control system which had led to structural failure; this led to the tail assembly being subjected to rigorous testing to identify the cause of the failure. The re-engineering work that had been performed to cure the vibration problem was very extensive and resulted in the second prototype being fitted with a larger tail,

14520-602: The requirements of lightness and power, reliability and ease of maintenance was solved by using the Bristol Siddeley Orpheus turbojet then at the start of development in the UK. Development of this engine was aided by substantial contribution from the US Mutual Weapons Development Programme. Nine of the ten designs to be subsequently submitted for the competition were powered by the Orpheus engine. In order to evaluate

14652-421: The role of fighter aircraft is to establish air superiority of the battlespace . Domination of the airspace above a battlefield permits bombers and attack aircraft to engage in tactical and strategic bombing of enemy targets, and helps prevent the enemy from doing the same. The key performance features of a fighter include not only its firepower but also its high speed and maneuverability relative to

14784-532: The skies above the battlefield. The interceptor is a fighter designed specifically to intercept and engage approaching enemy aircraft. There are two general classes of interceptor: relatively lightweight aircraft in the point-defence role, built for fast reaction, high performance and with a short range, and heavier aircraft with more comprehensive avionics and designed to fly at night or in all weathers and to operate over longer ranges . Originating during World War I, by 1929 this class of fighters had become known as

14916-417: The sky and a number of Morane-Saulnier Ns were modified. The technique proved effective, however the deflected bullets were still highly dangerous. Soon after the commencement of the war, pilots armed themselves with pistols, carbines , grenades , and an assortment of improvised weapons. Many of these proved ineffective as the pilot had to fly his airplane while attempting to aim a handheld weapon and make

15048-718: The start of G.91 production, but the basic design of the aircraft remained virtually unchanged throughout almost the entire production run of the aircraft. The one major difference is that the R series aircraft were single-seaters, while the T series aircraft had two seats. To accommodate the extra seat, the T series aircraft had a slightly longer fuselage. Data from Profile Publications General characteristics Performance Armament Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Fighter aircraft Fighter aircraft (early on also pursuit aircraft ) are military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat . In military conflict,

15180-408: The steady increases in aircraft weight—most modern fighters are larger and heavier than World War II medium bombers. Because of the importance of air superiority, since the early days of aerial combat armed forces have constantly competed to develop technologically superior fighters and to deploy these fighters in greater numbers, and fielding a viable fighter fleet consumes a substantial proportion of

15312-420: The target aircraft. The success or failure of a combatant's efforts to gain air superiority hinges on several factors including the skill of its pilots, the tactical soundness of its doctrine for deploying its fighters, and the numbers and performance of those fighters. Many modern fighter aircraft also have secondary capabilities such as ground attack and some types, such as fighter-bombers , are designed from

15444-485: The top wing with no better luck. An alternative was to build a "pusher" scout such as the Airco DH.2 , with the propeller mounted behind the pilot. The main drawback was that the high drag of a pusher type's tail structure made it slower than a similar "tractor" aircraft. A better solution for a single seat scout was to mount the machine gun (rifles and pistols having been dispensed with) to fire forwards but outside

15576-464: The two Rotten could split up at any time and attack on their own. The finger-four would be widely adopted as the fundamental tactical formation during World War Two, including by the British and later the Americans. World War II featured fighter combat on a larger scale than any other conflict to date. German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel noted the effect of airpower: "Anyone who has to fight, even with

15708-404: The type had allegedly left the Luftwaffe disappointed with the aircraft's performance and thus the intended further orders for the type were cut. A number of Luftwaffe G.91s were emblazoned with a "pig" emblem, this has been interpreted as a comment on the aircraft's lacklustre performance. On 1 January 1970, the Luftwaffe fleet consisted of 310 G.91 R/3 and 40 G.91T aircraft; by 1976, only 20 of

15840-415: The type's maiden flight, these were not without setbacks. The most serious problem discovered during these was the presence of aeroelastic vibrations , leading to a series of investigative flights to resolve this condition. On 20 February 1957, during a test flight intended to explore the limits of the aircraft's speed-load envelope, difficulties led to the destruction of the first G.91 prototype. The cause of

15972-515: The use of semi-prepared airstrips ; the undercarriage is furnished with low-pressure tyres for the same purpose. The standard mission of the G.91 was the attack of targets within a 170-mile radius of its base with a typical loiter time of ten minutes, travelling at maximum speed in the combat area and traversing at cruise speeds. The G.91 is typically powered by a single Bristol Siddeley Orpheus turbojet engine. The all-metal fuselage uses conventional and straightforward construction methods, being

16104-542: The very end of the inter-war period in Europe came the Spanish Civil War . This was just the opportunity the German Luftwaffe , Italian Regia Aeronautica , and the Soviet Union's Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily needed to test their latest aircraft. Each party sent numerous aircraft types to support their sides in the conflict. In the dogfights over Spain, the latest Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters did well, as did

16236-478: The war as the weapons used were lighter and had a higher rate of fire than synchronized weapons. The British Foster mounting and several French mountings were specifically designed for this kind of application, fitted with either the Hotchkiss or Lewis Machine gun , which due to their design were unsuitable for synchronizing. The need to arm a tractor scout with a forward-firing gun whose bullets passed through

16368-443: The war. Fighter development stagnated between the wars, especially in the United States and the United Kingdom, where budgets were small. In France, Italy and Russia, where large budgets continued to allow major development, both monoplanes and all metal structures were common. By the end of the 1920s, however, those countries overspent themselves and were overtaken in the 1930s by those powers that hadn't been spending heavily, namely

16500-480: The wing. Both weapons and ammunition in the armament bay were mounted on panel doors, which could be easily removed and quickly swapped by two men during rearming on the ground. In addition, various access panels are incorporated to enable simple field maintenance duties to be readily performed on the type. The G.91 is equipped with a swept wing , which uses an all-metal two-spar structure; the outer panels can all be detached for transportation or easy replacement, while

16632-450: Was designed to this specification by the Italian engineer Giuseppe Gabrielli , hence the "G" designation. The competition was intended to produce an aircraft that was light, small, expendable, equipped with basic weapons and avionics and capable of operating with minimal ground support. These specifications were developed for two reasons: the first was the nuclear threat to large air bases, many cheaper aircraft could be better dispersed, and

16764-454: Was for 50 aircraft from Aeritalia, then Dornier and other German firms had an order for 232 machines, which was later increased to 294. The Luftwaffe ( German Air Force ) also bought 44 G.91T/3 two-seat trainers and another 22 were produced in Germany, ending production in 1972. The German order involved a production run of 294 G.91s that were domestically constructed in Germany under a license production arrangement by Flugzeug-Union Süd ,

16896-409: Was formed for the purpose of conducting operational evaluation of the aircraft, initially based at Pratica di Mare Air Force Base . In 1959, the 103Mo were transferred to Frosinone Airport for trialling the austere basing capabilities of the G.91, including operating from various types of terrain. The unit also performed exercises in the vicinity of Venice , such as at Maniago and Campoformido , in

17028-518: Was lost to a missile on 31 January 1974, while Strelas were also responsible for the loss of a T-6 Texan and two Do.27 K-2s. G.91s deployed to Mozambique at the end of 1968, equipping Esquadra 502 Jaguares ininitally at Beira , later moving to Nacala , with a second squadron Esquadra 702 Escorpiões (Scorpions) forming in September 1970 at Tete , flying against FRELIMO forces. FRELIMO also received Strelas in 1973, although unlike elsewhere,

17160-420: Was no longer a handicap and one or two were used, depending on requirements. This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape, and G-suits to counter the much greater forces being applied to the pilot during maneuvers. In the 1950s, radar was fitted to day fighters, since due to ever increasing air-to-air weapon ranges, pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for

17292-485: Was originally intended for a fighter role with the U.S. Navy , but it was canceled. This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for "attack" or "strike" operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs and incendiaries. Versatile multi role fighter-bombers such as the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having

17424-508: Was pioneered before World War I by Breguet but would find its biggest proponent in Anthony Fokker, who used chrome-molybdenum steel tubing for the fuselage structure of all his fighter designs, while the innovative German engineer Hugo Junkers developed two all-metal, single-seat fighter monoplane designs with cantilever wings: the strictly experimental Junkers J 2 private-venture aircraft, made with steel, and some forty examples of

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