In miniature wargaming , players enact simulated battles using scale models called miniature models , which can be anywhere from 2 to 54 mm in height, to represent warriors, vehicles, artillery, buildings, and terrain. These models are colloquially referred to as miniatures or minis .
70-571: Following is a list of lines of miniatures , produced by various companies for use with role-playing games , or for figure painting . The Wizards and Lizards line was featured in the pages of Dragon several times. In March 1981, Bill Fawcett rated the four miniatures from the WL07 Arthurian line very highly, saying, "You have to see this detail to believe it... excellent detail. The distinct facial expression and fine features are impressive... The owl familiar looks amazingly lifelike for
140-467: A computer numerical control machine that cuts the steel mould. They can also simply skip moulding steps and directly produce miniatures from 3D models. Originally, Dungeons & Dragons was an evolution of the Chainmail medieval miniatures game, with the distinction that each player controlled a single figure and had a wider variety of actions available. The original D&D boxed set bore
210-580: A base or folded into a triangular tent. Historically the size of miniatures was described in absolute scale in various different systems of measurement, most commonly in metric and English units . A 28mm miniature means that the size of the miniature will be 28mm from the feet of the mini to the chosen reference point. The most common miniatures were the 54 mm European miniatures and the 2 1/4" English models which are commonly considered to be 1:32 scale. Early wargames such as H.G Wells Little Wars used these commonly available miniatures. With metrication in
280-466: A coherent system the units of force , energy , and power are chosen so that the equations hold without the introduction of unit conversion factors. Once a set of coherent units has been defined, other relationships in physics that use this set of units will automatically be true. Therefore, Einstein 's mass–energy equation , E = mc , does not require extraneous constants when expressed in coherent units. The CGS system had two units of energy,
350-841: A commission to implement this new standard alone, and in 1799, the new system was launched in France. The units of the metric system, originally taken from observable features of nature, are now defined by seven physical constants being given exact numerical values in terms of the units. In the modern form of the International System of Units (SI), the seven base units are: metre for length, kilogram for mass, second for time, ampere for electric current, kelvin for temperature, candela for luminous intensity and mole for amount of substance. These, together with their derived units, can measure any physical quantity. Derived units may have their own unit name, such as
420-595: A decimal multiple of it; and the unit of mass should be the gram or a decimal multiple of it. Metric systems have evolved since the 1790s, as science and technology have evolved, in providing a single universal measuring system. Before and in addition to the SI, other metric systems include: the MKS system of units and the MKSA systems, which are the direct forerunners of the SI; the centimetre–gram–second (CGS) system and its subtypes,
490-450: A fourth base unit, the various anomalies in electromagnetic systems could be resolved. The metre–kilogram–second– coulomb (MKSC) and metre–kilogram–second– ampere (MKSA) systems are examples of such systems. The metre–tonne–second system of units (MTS) was based on the metre, tonne and second – the unit of force was the sthène and the unit of pressure was the pièze . It was invented in France for industrial use and from 1933 to 1955
560-462: A great degree of deeply etched detail... the features lend an air of intense concentration." In the February 1983 edition (Issue 70), Kim Eastland recalled that "For years Superior avoided 25mm fantasy figures, but when the company decided to get into that field, it did so with a bang. These three knights are excellent pieces... Note the plate armor, the realistic stances, and the detailed helms." In
630-474: A metre. This is unlike older systems of units in which the ratio between the units for longer and shorter distances varied: there are 12 inches in a foot, but the number of 5,280 feet in a mile is not a power of 12. For many everyday applications, the United States has resisted the adoption of a decimal-based system, continuing to use "a conglomeration of basically incoherent measurement systems ". In
700-556: A number of different ways over the centuries. The SI system originally derived its terminology from the metre, kilogram, second system of units , though the definitions of the fundamental SI units have been changed to depend only on constants of nature. Other metric system variants include the centimetre–gram–second system of units , the metre–tonne–second system of units , and the gravitational metric system . Each of these has some unique named units (in addition to unaffiliated metric units ) and some are still in use in certain fields. In
770-420: A representative quantity is defined as a base unit of measure. The definition of base units has increasingly been realised in terms of fundamental natural phenomena, in preference to copies of physical artefacts. A unit derived from the base units is used for expressing quantities of dimensions that can be derived from the base dimensions of the system—e.g., the square metre is the derived unit for area, which
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#1732794345809840-406: A second greater than 1; the non-SI units of minute , hour and day are used instead. On the other hand, prefixes are used for multiples of the non-SI unit of volume, the litre (l, L) such as millilitres (ml). Each variant of the metric system has a degree of coherence—the derived units are directly related to the base units without the need for intermediate conversion factors. For example, in
910-480: A standard without reliance on an artefact held by another country. In practice, such realisation is done under the auspices of a mutual acceptance arrangement . In 1791 the commission originally defined the metre based on the size of the earth, equal to one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole. In the SI, the standard metre is now defined as exactly 1 ⁄ 299 792 458 of
980-437: Is 1/72 or 1 inch equals 6 foot which uses 20 mm, to 25 mm miniatures. It is mostly used for historical gaming in part due to a wide selection of 1/72 scale models. Figures are commonly used with a variety of scales. It is not uncommon for there to be a mismatch between the game scale and miniature size. Chainmail used a scale of 1:360, appropriate to 5 mm miniatures, but was played with 30 mm miniatures, and
1050-480: Is a decimal -based system of measurement . The current international standard for the metric system is the International System of Units (Système international d'unités or SI), in which all units can be expressed in terms of seven base units: the metre (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), ampere (A), kelvin (K), mole (mol), and candela (cd). These can be made into larger or smaller units with
1120-411: Is derived from length. These derived units are coherent , which means that they involve only products of powers of the base units, without any further factors. For any given quantity whose unit has a name and symbol, an extended set of smaller and larger units is defined that are related by factors of powers of ten. The unit of time should be the second ; the unit of length should be either the metre or
1190-470: Is expressed in g/cm , force expressed in dynes and mechanical energy in ergs . Thermal energy was defined in calories , one calorie being the energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 15.5 °C to 16.5 °C. The meeting also recognised two sets of units for electrical and magnetic properties – the electrostatic set of units and the electromagnetic set of units. The CGS units of electricity were cumbersome to work with. This
1260-439: Is generally assumed to be the idea of the average height of the human male, within a 6-inch (15 cm) interval between 5.5 and 6 feet (168 and 183 cm), unless otherwise indicated by the designer. Average human height is heavily dependent on the population measured within a geographical region and historical era. The following chart provides a numerical relationship between model scale and multiple figurine scales based on
1330-402: Is no equivalent "mm" number for these scales as individual figures would be nearly microscopic and are not used as such in the games. A further complication is differing interpretations of body proportions . Many gaming figures are unrealistically bulky for their height, with oversized feet, heads, hands, wrists, and weapons. Making these parts oversized allows for more details to be present in
1400-408: Is therefore dependent on a defined reference height. Thus 15 mm in the context of a dwarven world where the reference humanoid is 60 inches (152 cm) tall, is not equivalent to 15 mm in the context an NBA model where the reference humanoid is 2 meters tall. Both models can be described as 15 mm, but the real world sizes depend on the size of the reference humanoid. In practice, the reference humanoid
1470-597: The Avogadro number number of specified molecules, was added along with several other derived units. The system was promulgated by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (French: Conférence générale des poids et mesures – CGPM) in 1960. At that time, the metre was redefined in terms of the wavelength of a spectral line of the krypton-86 atom (krypton-86 being a stable isotope of an inert gas that occurs in undetectable or trace amounts naturally), and
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#17327943458091540-538: The CGS electrostatic (cgs-esu) system, the CGS electromagnetic (cgs-emu) system, and their still-popular blend, the Gaussian system ; the metre–tonne–second (MTS) system; and the gravitational metric systems , which can be based on either the metre or the centimetre, and either the gram, gram-force, kilogram or kilogram-force. The SI has been adopted as the official system of weights and measures by nearly all nations in
1610-529: The International System of Units (SI). The International System of Units is the modern metric system. It is based on the metre–kilogram–second–ampere (MKSA) system of units from early in the 20th century. It also includes numerous coherent derived units for common quantities like power (watt) and irradience (lumen). Electrical units were taken from the International system then in use. Other units like those for energy (joule) were modelled on those from
1680-570: The Mètre des Archives and Kilogramme des Archives (or their descendants) as their base units, but differing in the definitions of the various derived units. In 1832, Gauss used the astronomical second as a base unit in defining the gravitation of the Earth, and together with the milligram and millimetre, this became the first system of mechanical units . He showed that the strength of a magnet could also be quantified in terms of these units, by measuring
1750-551: The Practical System of Electric Units , or QES (quad–eleventhgram–second) system, was being used. Here, the base units are the quad, equal to 10 m (approximately a quadrant of the Earth's circumference), the eleventhgram, equal to 10 g , and the second. These were chosen so that the corresponding electrical units of potential difference, current and resistance had a convenient magnitude. In 1901, Giovanni Giorgi showed that by adding an electrical unit as
1820-486: The erg that was related to mechanics and the calorie that was related to thermal energy ; so only one of them (the erg) could bear a coherent relationship to the base units. Coherence was a design aim of SI, which resulted in only one unit of energy being defined – the joule . Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism contained a factor of 1 / ( 4 π ) {\displaystyle 1/(4\pi )} relating to steradians , representative of
1890-448: The watt (J/s) and lux (cd/m ), or may just be expressed as combinations of base units, such as velocity (m/s) and acceleration (m/s ). The metric system was designed to have properties that make it easy to use and widely applicable, including units based on the natural world, decimal ratios, prefixes for multiples and sub-multiples, and a structure of base and derived units. It is a coherent system , derived units were built up from
1960-508: The 15 to 20 mm range while taller characters like ogres , trolls and dragons would use 30 mm or larger figures. Manufacturer's use of scale is not uniform and can deviate by as much as 30%. Some manufacturers measure figure height from the feet to the eyes rather than the top of the head; therefore, a figure that is 30mm to the top of its head could be considered to be a 28mm miniature. Figures of 15 mm, 20 mm, 25 mm, 28 mm, 30 mm, 32 mm, and 35 mm are
2030-440: The 20th century; bigger details come out better, and larger surfaces are easier to paint. When a company sees that people are still buying the larger models, that's an incentive for them to continue making larger ones. This is a relative scale that that compares the size of the model to the size of a real life object. This ratio will show how many times the model is smaller than the original size. The meaning of 15 mm (for example)
2100-877: The April 1983 edition (Issue 72), Eastland was equally as impressed by Dragon #6, calling it "one of the finest dragons on the market... You couldn't ask for better detail on the wings, scales and face... A truly gorgeous figure." Miniature model (gaming) Miniature models are commonly made of metal, plastic, or paper. They are used to augment the visual aspects of a game and track position, facing, and line of sight of characters. Miniatures are typically painted and can be artfully sculpted, making them collectible in their own right. Pre-painted plastic figures, such as Clix miniatures produced by WizKids and unpainted plastic figures for Warhammer by Games Workshop , have become popular. The hobby of painting, collecting, and playing with miniatures originated with toy soldiers , though
2170-473: The New York legislature introduced a bill outlawing lead in miniatures, citing public health concerns. Many miniature manufacturers, anticipating that other states would also impose bans, began making figures with lead-free alloys, often at increased prices. After months of debate and protests by miniature manufacturers and enthusiasts, New York Governor Mario Cuomo signed a bill which exempted miniatures from
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2240-527: The United Kingdom , United States manufacturers began to use the metric system to describe miniatures, as opposed to the previously popular customary units , so that their table-top wargaming models would be compatible. Today,the scale of a figure is often described in millimeters, for example one of the most common scales is 28 mm. Manufacturers set up a size of the miniature and try to make every miniature similar size or at least have an average with
2310-436: The base units using logical rather than empirical relationships while multiples and submultiples of both base and derived units were decimal-based and identified by a standard set of prefixes . The metric system is extensible, and new derived units are defined as needed in fields such as radiology and chemistry. For example, the katal , a derived unit for catalytic activity equivalent to one mole per second (1 mol/s),
2380-405: The conceit that each figure represented 20 men. In the table below, figure height alone (excluding base thickness) is the feature from which approximate scale is calculated. Scales smaller still are used when the game involves large vehicles (such as starships or battleships). For instance Axis & Allies Naval Miniatures: War at Sea uses 1:1800 scale, and scales down to 1:6000 are seen. There
2450-463: The definition of the International System of Units (SI) in the mid-20th century, under the oversight of an international standards body. Adopting the metric system is known as metrication . The historical evolution of metric systems has resulted in the recognition of several principles. A set of independent dimensions of nature is selected, in terms of which all natural quantities can be expressed, called base quantities. For each of these dimensions,
2520-421: The distance that light travels in a second . The metre can be realised by measuring the length that a light wave travels in a given time, or equivalently by measuring the wavelength of light of a known frequency. The kilogram was originally defined as the mass of one cubic decimetre of water at 4 °C, standardised as the mass of a man-made artefact of platinum–iridium held in a laboratory in France, which
2590-401: The early days, multipliers that were positive powers of ten were given Greek-derived prefixes such as kilo- and mega- , and those that were negative powers of ten were given Latin-derived prefixes such as centi- and milli- . However, 1935 extensions to the prefix system did not follow this convention: the prefixes nano- and micro- , for example have Greek roots. During the 19th century
2660-425: The fact that electric charges and magnetic fields may be considered to emanate from a point and propagate equally in all directions, i.e. spherically. This factor made equations more awkward than necessary, and so Oliver Heaviside suggested adjusting the system of units to remove it. The basic units of the metric system, as originally defined, represented common quantities or relationships in nature. They still do –
2730-414: The final commercial figures. Polyethylene and polystyrene figures are made by injection moulding. A machine heats plastic and injects it under high pressure into a steel mould. This is an expensive process; it is only cost effective when manufacturing large amounts of figures, since the quantity renders the cost per cast minimal. Many miniatures companies do not produce their figures themselves but leave
2800-458: The internet. There are two basic methods of manufacturing figures: centrifugal/gravity casting and plastic injection casting . Most metal and resin figures are made through spin casting . Larger resin models, like buildings and vehicles, are sometimes gravity cast, which is a slower process. To gravity cast, a sculptor develops a master figure, which is then used to create rubber master and production moulds. The production moulds are used to cast
2870-421: The kilogram in terms of fundamental constants. A base quantity is one of a conventionally chosen subset of physical quantities, where no quantity in the subset can be expressed in terms of the others. A base unit is a unit adopted for expressing a base quantity. A derived unit is used for expressing any other quantity, and is a product of powers of base units. For example, in the modern metric system, length has
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2940-528: The latter were generally sold pre-painted. Miniature models are derived from toy soldiers which were constructed of a variety of materials, These toy figures came to be mass produced from tin in late 1700s Germany, where they were called Zinnsoldaten (lit. "tin soldiers"). These early figures were flat models commonly called "flats", and became quite common in western Europe. By the mid 1800s manufactures in several countries were producing 3d miniatures of tin and lead alloys, common called white metal . In 1993,
3010-621: The manufacturing to specialized casting companies or miniatures companies that have casting facilities. Most miniatures are hand sculpted using two-component epoxy putties in the same size as the final figure. The components of the putty are mixed together to create a sculpting compound that hardens over 48 hours. Some common brands include Polymerics Kneadatite blue\yellow (also known as "green stuff" and "Duro" in Europe), Milliput, A&B, Magic sculpt, and Kraftmark's ProCreate. Until recently, sculptors avoided polymer clays as they cannot withstand
3080-419: The metric system, multiples and submultiples of units follow a decimal pattern. A common set of decimal-based prefixes that have the effect of multiplication or division by an integer power of ten can be applied to units that are themselves too large or too small for practical use. The prefix kilo , for example, is used to multiply the unit by 1000, and the prefix milli is to indicate a one-thousandth part of
3150-452: The miniatures. Some of these exaggerations began as concessions to the limitations of primitive mold-making and sculpting techniques, but they have evolved into stylistic conventions. Figurines with these exaggerated features are often referred to as heroic scale . There is a noted tendency in miniature figure manufacture where over time for bigger and bigger figures to be produced. Larger models were easier to produce correctly, especially in
3220-510: The modern precisely defined quantities are refinements of definition and methodology, but still with the same magnitudes. In cases where laboratory precision may not be required or available, or where approximations are good enough, the original definitions may suffice. Basic units: metre , kilogram , second , ampere , kelvin , mole , and candela for derived units, such as Volts and Watts, see International System of Units . A number of different metric system have been developed, all using
3290-410: The most common for role-playing and table-top games. Smaller figures of 2 mm, 6 mm, 10 mm, 15 mm, and 20 mm are used for mass-combat wargames. Large sizes such as 40 mm and 54 mm were popular with wargamers in the past and are still used by painters and collectors. While the large miniatures have become popular again since the late 20th century, they are not as popular as
3360-430: The older CGS system, but scaled to be coherent with MKSA units. Two additional base units – the kelvin , which is equivalent to degree Celsius for change in thermodynamic temperature but set so that 0 K is absolute zero , and the candela , which is roughly equivalent to the international candle unit of illumination – were introduced. Later, another base unit, the mole , a unit of amount of substance equivalent to
3430-607: The original, called the IPK . It became apparent that either the IPK or the replicas or both were deteriorating, and are no longer comparable: they had diverged by 50 μg since fabrication, so figuratively, the accuracy of the kilogram was no better than 5 parts in a hundred million or a relative accuracy of 5 × 10 . The revision of the SI replaced the IPK with an exact definition of the Planck constant as expressed in SI units, which defines
3500-606: The oscillations of a magnetised needle and finding the quantity of "magnetic fluid" that produces an acceleration of one unit when applied to a unit mass. The centimetre–gram–second system of units (CGS) was the first coherent metric system, having been developed in the 1860s and promoted by Maxwell and Thomson. In 1874, this system was formally promoted by the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS). The system's characteristics are that density
3570-442: The platonic idea of the height of a human being (humanoid). Many role-playing gamers and wargamers paint their miniatures to differentiate characters or units on a gaming surface (terrain, battle mat, or unadorned table top). Fantasy, role-playing, miniatures, and wargaming conventions sometimes feature miniature painting competitions, such as Games Workshop's Golden Demon contest . There are also many painting competitions on
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#17327943458093640-454: The prefix myria- , derived from the Greek word μύριοι ( mýrioi ), was used as a multiplier for 10 000 . When applying prefixes to derived units of area and volume that are expressed in terms of units of length squared or cubed, the square and cube operators are applied to the unit of length including the prefix, as illustrated below. Prefixes are not usually used to indicate multiples of
3710-410: The required size. The master is measured with a probe linked to a pantograph that reduces the measurements to the correct size and drives the cutter that makes the moulds. A more recent development is the use of digital 3D models made by computer artists. These digital models create a physical model for mould-making using rapid prototyping techniques. Alternatively, they can be used directly to drive
3780-523: The size they've set up. While a model may be described as 28 mm the actual height of the model may be different. This is because of a number of factors such as manufacturer, model proportion, method of measuring the model, the model's pose, and what sort of man the model is meant to represent. A manufacturer might advertise its figures as 28 mm, but their products may be over 30 mm tall. In 28 mm scale, short characters such as dwarves , hobbits , and goblins might be represented by figures in
3850-504: The small scale." Fawcett didn't like the fact that the miniatures were packaged in plastic bags rather than hard plastic bubble packs, and recommended that buyers examine the figures carefully before buying, since "it would be a shame to have the high quality of these figures marred by shipping damage." In the May 1981 edition (Issue 49), Fawcett was equally as enthusiastic about WL06, a line of four wizards, using phrases like "expertly inscribed...
3920-420: The smaller sizes. In many games there is a definite scale specified for the square grid that the game is played upon. One of the most common is 1 inch represents 5 feet. This specifies an exact scale of 1:60. That implies that a 28 mm tall figurine represents a 1.68 m (5 ft 6 in) person – which is a reasonable number for a modern 50th percentile male (See: Human height ). Another popular scale
3990-460: The standard metre artefact from 1889 was retired. Today, the International system of units consists of 7 base units and innumerable coherent derived units including 22 with special names. The last new derived unit, the katal for catalytic activity, was added in 1999. All the base units except the second are now defined in terms of exact and invariant constants of physics or mathematics, barring those parts of their definitions which are dependent on
4060-419: The state's public health law. Despite this, most American manufacturers continued to use non-lead alloys. In the 20th century miniatures would also be manufactured from plastic and composite materials. Some wargames use "box miniatures", consisting of card stock folded into simple cuboids with representative art printed on the outside. Other games use 2d cardboard miniatures that are either held in
4130-411: The subtitle, "Rules for Fantastic Miniature Wargames Campaigns Playable with Paper and Pencil and Miniature Figures". However, Dungeons & Dragons did not require miniatures, referring to them as "only aesthetically pleasing". Advanced Dungeons & Dragons likewise included a relatively short section describing miniature use, in conjunction with the official AD&D miniatures being produced at
4200-452: The time. As the game developed, miniatures became more of an optional add-on. The AD&D 2nd Edition accessory Player's Option: Combat & Tactics introduced a more elaborate grid-based combat system that emphasized the use of miniatures; a streamlined version of some of these concepts appeared in D&;D 3rd edition. Although not strictly necessary, the 4th edition of the game assumes
4270-418: The traditional mould-making process. Modern techniques using RTV silicone and softer-quality rubbers have made it possible to use weaker materials, so that polymer clay masters have become more common. Fimo clay is popular, though due to the individual properties of certain colours, only a limited selection of colours is used. Masters for plastic miniatures are often made in a larger scale, often three times
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#17327943458094340-411: The unit metre and time has the unit second, and speed has the derived unit metre per second. Density, or mass per unit volume, has the unit kilogram per cubic metre. A characteristic feature of metric systems is their reliance upon multiples of 10. For example, the base unit of length is the metre, and distances much longer or much shorter than 1 metre are measured in units that are powers of 10 times
4410-454: The unit. Thus the kilogram and kilometre are a thousand grams and metres respectively, and a milligram and millimetre are one thousandth of a gram and metre respectively. These relations can be written symbolically as: The decimalised system is based on the metre , which had been introduced in France in the 1790s . The historical development of these systems culminated in
4480-627: The use of metric prefixes . SI derived units are named combinations – such as the hertz (cycles per second), newton (kg⋅m/s ), and tesla (1 kg⋅s ⋅A ) – or a shifted scale, in the case of degrees Celsius . Certain units have been officially accepted for use with the SI . Some of these are decimalised, like the litre and electronvolt , and are considered "metric". Others, like the astronomical unit are not. Ancient non-metric but SI-accepted multiples of time ( minute and hour ) and angle ( degree , arcminute , and arcsecond ) are sexagesimal (base 60). The "metric system" has been formulated in
4550-555: The use of miniatures, and many game mechanics refer explicitly to the combat grid. In addition to reducing ambiguity about the size and position of characters, this allows the game to specify rules for reach, threatened areas, and movement rates. The 5th edition de-emphasized these mechanics, and returned the use of miniatures to mostly optional. Some games feature miniatures printed on cardboard or cardstock, and some companies have published such miniatures to be used in place of miniature models. Metric system The metric system
4620-644: The world. The French Revolution (1789–99) enabled France to reform its many outdated systems of various local weights and measures. In 1790, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord proposed a new system based on natural units to the French National Assembly , aiming for global adoption. With the United Kingdom not responding to a request to collaborate in the development of the system, the French Academy of Sciences established
4690-435: Was added in 1999. The base units used in a measurement system must be realisable . Each of the definitions of the base units in the SI is accompanied by a defined mise en pratique [practical realisation] that describes in detail at least one way in which the base unit can be measured. Where possible, definitions of the base units were developed so that any laboratory equipped with proper instruments would be able to realise
4760-543: Was remedied at the 1893 International Electrical Congress held in Chicago by defining the "international" ampere and ohm using definitions based on the metre , kilogram and second , in the International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units . During the same period in which the CGS system was being extended to include electromagnetism, other systems were developed, distinguished by their choice of coherent base unit, including
4830-530: Was used both in France and in the Soviet Union . Gravitational metric systems use the kilogram-force (kilopond) as a base unit of force, with mass measured in a unit known as the hyl , Technische Masseneinheit (TME), mug or metric slug . Although the CGPM passed a resolution in 1901 defining the standard value of acceleration due to gravity to be 980.665 cm/s , gravitational units are not part of
4900-472: Was used until a new definition was introduced in May 2019 . Replicas made in 1879 at the time of the artefact's fabrication and distributed to signatories of the Metre Convention serve as de facto standards of mass in those countries. Additional replicas have been fabricated since as additional countries have joined the convention. The replicas were subject to periodic validation by comparison to
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