Misplaced Pages

#961038

85-990: It operates four sugar mills , the Lautoka mill, the Rarawai mill in Ba District, Fiji the Penang mill in Rakiraki in Viti Levu , and the Labasa mill in Vanua Levu . The mill in Lautoka is the largest in Fiji and once held the title of being the largest sugar mill in the southern hemisphere . The FSC was incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1972, and officially came to existence on April 1, 1973. As of May 31, 2009, of

170-424: A "true" cultivar name – the recognized scientific name in the public domain – and a "commercial synonym" – an additional marketing name that is legally protected. An example would be Rosa Fascination = 'Poulmax', in which Rosa is the genus, Fascination is the trade designation, and 'Poulmax' is scientific cultivar name. Because a name that is attractive in one language may have less appeal in another country,

255-445: A base for cattle-feed, industrial alcohol, yeast production and so on. Boiling in a vacuum pan used to be a batch process, but continuous pan boiling is inherently far more efficient. In the 1970s the first commercially successful continuous vacuum pans (CVPs) were developed. In the 1980s these first pans achieved a better uniform crystal size than that which some factories achieved with their batch process vacuum pans. The sugar from

340-424: A component of a cultigen can be accepted as a cultivar if it is recognisable and has stable characters. Therefore, all cultivars are cultigens, because they are cultivated, but not all cultigens are cultivars, because some cultigens have not been formally distinguished and named as cultivars. The Cultivated Plant Code notes that the word cultivar is used in two different senses: first, as a "classification category"

425-436: A constant state of development which makes the naming of such an assemblage as a cultivar a futile exercise." However, retired transgenic varieties such as the fish tomato , which are no longer being developed, do not run into this obstacle and can be given a cultivar name. Cultivars may be selected because of a change in the ploidy level of a plant which may produce more desirable characteristics. Every unique cultivar has

510-796: A cultivar. Some cultivars "come true from seed", retaining their distinguishing characteristics when grown from seed. Such plants are termed a "variety", "selection", or "strain" but these are ambiguous and confusing words that are best avoided. In general, asexually propagated cultivars grown from seeds produce highly variable seedling plants, and should not be labelled with, or sold under, the parent cultivar's name. Seed-raised cultivars may be produced by uncontrolled pollination when characteristics that are distinct, uniform and stable are passed from parents to progeny. Some are produced as "lines" that are produced by repeated self-fertilization or inbreeding or "multilines" that are made up of several closely related lines. Sometimes they are F1 hybrids which are

595-802: A database of new cultivars protected by PBR in all countries. An International Cultivar Registration Authority (ICRA) is a voluntary, non-statutory organization appointed by the Commission for Nomenclature and Cultivar Registration of the International Society of Horticultural Science. ICRAs are generally formed by societies and institutions specializing in particular plant genera such as Dahlia or Rhododendron and are currently located in Europe, North America, China, India, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Puerto Rico. Each ICRA produces an annual report and its reappointment

680-538: A high sugar yield and quality. Before the actual extraction of cane juice starts, the cane has to be prepared. This can be done by rotating knives or shredders. There are two modern types of processes for extracting juice from cane: The products of the extraction phase are: In 2004 and 2005 the Enterprise Sugar mill in Louisiana had a traditional mill and a diffuser, which both processed cane from

765-474: A juice of poor clarity, which can be recycled for further purification. The evaporation process serves to concentrate the clarified juice. The most widely used evaporator is a multiple-effect evaporator of the Roberts type. The product of this step is syrup of 78 to 86% purity with a soluble solid content of 60-65°Brix and containing 3.5-4.5% invert sugars. The temperature, velocity and retention time in

850-582: A modern vernacular language to distinguish them from botanical epithets. For example, the full cultivar name of the King Edward potato is Solanum tuberosum 'King Edward'. 'King Edward' is the cultivar epithet, which, according to the Rules of the Cultivated Plant Code , is bounded by single quotation marks. For patented or trademarked plant product lines developed from a given cultivar,

935-413: A name, the first letter of the word "Group" is itself capitalized. Since the 1990s there has been an increasing use of legal protection for newly produced cultivars. Plant breeders expect legal protection for the cultivars they produce. According to proponents of such protections, if other growers can immediately propagate and sell these cultivars as soon as they come on the market, the breeder's benefit

SECTION 10

#1732790117962

1020-499: A particular disease. Genetically modified plants with characteristics resulting from the deliberate implantation of genetic material from a different germplasm may form a cultivar. However, the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants notes, "In practice such an assemblage is often marketed from one or more lines or multilines that have been genetically modified. These lines or multilines often remain in

1105-595: A particular part of the plant, such as a lateral branch, or from a particular phase of the life cycle, such as a juvenile leaf, or from aberrant growth as occurs with witch's broom . Plants whose distinctive characters are derived from the presence of an intracellular organism may also form a cultivar provided the characters are reproduced reliably from generation to generation. Plants of the same chimera (which have mutant tissues close to normal tissue) or graft-chimeras (which have vegetative tissue from different kinds of plants and which originate by grafting) may also constitute

1190-538: A plant may be given different selling names from country to country. Quoting the original cultivar name allows the correct identification of cultivars around the world. The main body coordinating plant breeders' rights is the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants ( Union internationale pour la protection des obtentions végétales , UPOV) and this organization maintains

1275-402: A three roller crusher, which together open most of the thin-walled cells. The juice is then removed from these opened cells by leaching. I.e. the sucrose from these opened cells dissolves in water. The diffusion process proper takes place on the 10-16% of sugar containing cells that have not been opened. First hot water is applied to kill the protoplasm of the cells. This makes that the walls of

1360-462: A unique name within its denomination class (which is almost always the genus). Names of cultivars are regulated by the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants , and may be registered with an International Cultivar Registration Authority (ICRA). There are sometimes separate registration authorities for different plant types such as roses and camellias. In addition, cultivars may be associated with commercial marketing names referred to in

1445-709: A vernacular language. From circa the 1900s, cultivated plants in Europe were recognised in the Scandinavian, Germanic, and Slavic literature as stamm or sorte , but these words could not be used internationally because, by international agreement, any new denominations had to be in Latin. In the twentieth century an improved international nomenclature was proposed for cultivated plants. Liberty Hyde Bailey of Cornell University in New York , United States created

1530-610: A year. Such expansion would require substantial investment. Under the Seaqaqa cane development scheme , over 5,000 hectares were brought under cane by 1980. This project cost $ 22 million and accommodated 800 ethnic Fijian and Ind-Fijian farmers. Funds were borrowed from the World Bank to help finance the project. The government recognizes the problem of being excessively dependent on just one crop. The government has, among other measures, encouraged tourism in an effort to diversify

1615-409: Is capitalized (with some permitted exceptions such as conjunctions). It is permissible to place a cultivar epithet after a common name provided the common name is botanically unambiguous. Cultivar epithets published before 1 January 1959 were often given a Latin form and can be readily confused with the specific epithets in botanical names; after that date, newly coined cultivar epithets must be in

1700-424: Is added to serve as nuclei for sugar crystals, and more syrup is added as the water evaporates. The growth of crystals continues till the vacuum pan is full. The crystals and the mother liquor (molasses) now form a dense mass known as massecuite . The 'strike' (contents of the pan) is then discharged into a crystallizer. In the crystallizer, the crystallization process of the massecuite continues. The purpose of

1785-402: Is also used to refer to the equipment that crushes the sticks of sugar cane to extract the juice. There are a number of steps in producing raw sugar from cane: These processing steps will produce a brown or raw sugar. Raw sugar is generally sent to a sugar refinery to produce white sugar. This sugar refining can be done either at a completely separate factory or at a back-end refinery which

SECTION 20

#1732790117962

1870-529: Is any plant that is deliberately selected for or altered in cultivation, as opposed to an indigen ; the Cultivated Plant Code states that cultigens are "maintained as recognisable entities solely by continued propagation". Cultigens can have names at any of many taxonomic ranks, including those of grex , species , cultivar group , variety , form , and cultivar; and they may be plants that have been altered in cultivation, including by genetic modification , but have not been formally denominated. A cultigen or

1955-408: Is attached to the raw sugar factory. A cane sugar mill can also produce sugar that is suitable for direct domestic or industrial consumption. This is called plantation white sugar or mill white sugar, see below. The overall quality of raw sugar that goes into the factory is dependent on agricultural practices and the cultivar used. Harvesting can be done by machines or by hand. If done by hand, it

2040-444: Is considered every four years. The main task is to maintain a register of the names within the group of interest and where possible this is published and placed in the public domain. One major aim is to prevent the duplication of cultivar and Group epithets within a genus, as well as ensuring that names are in accord with the latest edition of the Cultivated Plant Code . In this way, over the last 50 years or so, ICRAs have contributed to

2125-409: Is generally controlled by a central process control system, which directly controls most of the machines and components. Only for certain special machines such as the centrifuges in the sugar house decentralized PLCs are used. This also has to do with security for security reasons. Sugar mills date back to Arab Egypt in the 12th century. An artisanal version is the trapiche , later substituted by

2210-404: Is largely lost. Legal protection for cultivars is obtained through the use of Plant breeders' rights and plant Patents but the specific legislation and procedures needed to take advantage of this protection vary from country to country. The use of legal protection for cultivars can be controversial, particularly for food crops that are staples in developing countries, or for plants selected from

2295-409: Is normally preceded by burning the field. However, stalks from a burnt field more quickly loose sugar content while waiting to be processed. Cane is transported by truck, narrow-gauge railway , container or cart . On arrival the cane is sold based on weight or sugar content. There are several ways to unload the harvest. Overall, limiting the time between cutting and milling is essential for achieving

2380-441: Is normally used. Sugarcane diffusion is the process of extracting the sucrose from the cane by osmosis and lixiviation also known as leaching . There are two types of diffusers. One relies on immerging the mat of bagasse in the juice by counterflow. The other relies on percolation of the juice through the mat of bagasse. At a chemical level, the first step is to open the cells. This is usually done by revolving cane-knives and

2465-432: Is simply a matter of convenience as the category was created to serve the practical needs of horticulture , agriculture , and forestry . Members of a particular cultivar are not necessarily genetically identical. The Cultivated Plant Code emphasizes that different cultivated plants may be accepted as different cultivars, even if they have the same genome, while cultivated plants with different genomes may be regarded as

2550-407: Is the exception. There are multiple ways to use sulphitation for making plantation white sugar. In the purification stage of cold acid sulphitation, SO 2 is added to the mixed juice in order to lower the pH to 3.8-4.2. Lime is then added to increase the pH to 7.2-7.4. Next the juice is heated to 103-105°C before moving to the clarifier. In the clarifier the impurities settle, and the resulting

2635-424: Is the sense of cultivar that is most generally understood and which is used as a general definition. A cultivar is an assemblage of plants that (a) has been selected for a particular character or combination of characters, (b) is distinct, uniform and stable in those characters, and (c) when propagated by appropriate means, retains those characters. Which plants are chosen to be named as cultivars

Fiji Sugar Corporation - Misplaced Pages Continue

2720-403: Is then again heated to 55°C and lime and CO 2 is added till a pH of 8.4-8.6 is reached. This is followed by a second pressure filtration. At the end of the evaporation step, Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) is added to lower the pH of the syrup to 7.0. In sugar factories, carbonation is not widely used, because it requires large quantities of lime and CO 2 , and sulphitation is cheaper. India

2805-447: Is then allowed to flash to its saturation temperature: this process precipitates impurities, which get held up in calcium carbonate crystals. The flashed juice is then transferred to a clarification tank. In this clarification tank, the suspended solids are sedimented. The supernatant , known as clear juice is drawn off of the clarifier. The clarified juice is then sent to the evaporators. The settled solids can be filtered to produce

2890-562: Is then dissolved and fed back to the syrup, while the C-sugar is dissolved or used as seed for the B-sugar. In storage, plantation white is more vulnerable than raw sugar. Sugar produced by carbonation is especially vulnerable to color change. Ash content also contributes to discoloration. In Brazil discoloration is countered by storing at a maximum temperature of 35-40°C and by producing sugar of 166 IU so lots of color can be lost before

2975-402: Is then filtered. The purification stage of hot acid sulphitation involves first heating the mixed juice to 70°C before lowering the pH to 3.8-4.2 by adding SO 2 . The process then runs like that of cold acid sulphitation. The purification stage of double liming consists of first heating the mixed juice to 70°C and adding lime till a pH of 7.2-7.4 is reached. SO 2 is then added to lower

3060-440: Is to replace the Latin scientific names on plant labels in retail outlets with appealing marketing names that are easy to use, pronounce, and remember. Marketing names lie outside the scope of the Cultivated Plant Code which refers to them as "trade designations". If a retailer or wholesaler has the sole legal rights to a marketing name then that may offer a sales advantage. Plants protected by plant breeders' rights (PBR) may have

3145-485: The Colonial Sugar Refining Company continued to act as Fiji's sugar marketing agent overseas until 1976 when the government formed Fiji Sugar Marketing Company, Ltd. to handle marketing activities. FSC has its head office in Lautoka. With farmers wanting more say in their dealings with FSC, the government decided on reforms within the industry. The Sugar Industry Act of 1984 restructured

3230-402: The Cultivated Plant Code as "trade designations" (see below). A cultivar name consists of a botanical name (of a genus, species , infraspecific taxon , interspecific hybrid or intergeneric hybrid) followed by a cultivar epithet . The cultivar epithet is enclosed by single quotes; it should not be italicized if the botanical name is italicized; and each of the words within the epithet

3315-417: The Cultivated Plant Code . Each ICRA also ensures that new names are formally established (i.e. published in hard copy, with a description in a dated publication). They record details about the plant, such as parentage, the names of those concerned with its development and introduction, and a basic description highlighting its distinctive characters. ICRAs are not responsible for assessing the distinctiveness of

3400-495: The International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP), and not all cultivated plants qualify as cultivars. Horticulturists generally believe the word cultivar was coined as a term meaning " cultivated variety ". Popular ornamental plants like roses , camellias , daffodils , rhododendrons , and azaleas are commonly cultivars produced by breeding and selection or as sports , for floral colour or size, plant form, or other desirable characteristics. Similarly,

3485-604: The Latin names in Linnaeus ' (1707–1778) Species Plantarum (tenth edition) and Genera Plantarum (fifth edition). In Species Plantarum , Linnaeus enumerated all plants known to him, either directly or from his extensive reading. He recognised the rank of varietas (botanical "variety", a rank below that of species and subspecies ) and he indicated these varieties with letters of the Greek alphabet , such as α, β, and λ, before

Fiji Sugar Corporation - Misplaced Pages Continue

3570-514: The cultigen , which is defined as a plant whose origin or selection is primarily due to intentional human activity. A cultivar is not the same as a botanical variety , which is a taxonomic rank below subspecies , and there are differences in the rules for creating and using the names of botanical varieties and cultivars. In recent times, the naming of cultivars has been complicated by the use of statutory patents for plants and recognition of plant breeders' rights . The International Union for

3655-832: The engenho or ingenio . In the 1820s a general description of sugar plantations on Jamaica was given. What we now call a sugar mill then consisted of: the sugar mill proper, a boiling house and a still house. These were aligned on a slope, so the sugar juice could flow downwards from the mill to the still house. Cultivar A cultivar is a kind of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and which retains those traits when propagated . Methods used to propagate cultivars include division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting , tissue culture , or carefully controlled seed production. Most cultivars arise from deliberate human manipulation , but some originate from wild plants that have distinctive characteristics. Cultivar names are chosen according to rules of

3740-415: The etymology and it has been suggested that the word is actually a blend of culti gen and var iety . The neologism cultivar was promoted as "euphonious" and "free from ambiguity". The first Cultivated Plant Code of 1953 subsequently commended its use, and by 1960 it had achieved common international acceptance. The words cultigen and cultivar may be confused with each other. A cultigen

3825-457: The 1995 edition, it is still widely used and recommended by other authorities. Where several very similar cultivars exist they can be associated into a Group (formerly Cultivar-group ). As Group names are used with cultivar names it is necessary to understand their way of presentation. Group names are presented in normal type and the first letter of each word capitalised as for cultivars, but they are not placed in single quotes. When used in

3910-466: The 44,399,998 fully paid shares , the government owned 30,239,160 shares (68.1%), and statutory bodies, local public companies and individuals held the rest of the shares. FSC has a board of directors appointed by the government, and the board acts as a policy -making and governing body. It is managed and staffed predominantly by Fiji citizens. Following independence from the Great Britain ,

3995-443: The Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV – French : Union internationale pour la protection des obtentions végétales ) offers legal protection of plant cultivars to persons or organisations that introduce new cultivars to commerce. UPOV requires that a cultivar be "distinct", "uniform", and "stable". To be "distinct", it must have characters that easily distinguish it from any other known cultivar. To be "uniform" and "stable",

4080-433: The addition of phosphoric acid; surface-active agents and phosphate, followed by heating and aeration of the syrup and addition of flocculant . The syrup is then moved to a special clarifier. The crystallization and centrifugation steps for plantation white might differ on account of the boiling system used. For plantation white the regular three-boiling system can be used. An alternative is to only ship A-Sugar. The B-sugar

4165-473: The botanical variety except in respect to its origin. In that essay, Bailey used only the rank of species for the cultigen, but it was obvious to him that many domesticated plants were more like botanical varieties than species, and that realization appears to have motivated the suggestion of the new category of cultivar . Bailey created the word cultivar . It is generally assumed to be a blend of culti vated and var iety but Bailey never explicitly stated

4250-414: The cell becomes semipermeable . By osmosis, water or thinner juice can then enter the cell and replace heavier juice until an equilibrium is reached. In this phase sucrose penetrates the walls faster than non-sugar with higher molecular weight. This makes that the purity of the last extracted juice from diffusion is higher than that acquired by straight milling, even while diffusing extracts more sugar. In

4335-424: The centrifuges is dried and cooled and then stored. During bulk storage the quality of the raw sugar decreases because of a chemical reaction between amino acids and degraded invert sugars, known as the maillard reaction . The raw sugar can also be directly packed into bags for shipment. In many cane sugar producing countries the standard sugar product is generally known as plantation white sugar. In rich countries,

SECTION 50

#1732790117962

4420-421: The commercial product name is typically indicated by the symbols "TM" or "®", or is presented in capital letters with no quotation marks, following the cultivar name, as in the following example, where "Bloomerang" is the commercial name and 'Penda' is the cultivar epithet: Syringa 'Penda' BLOOMERANG. Although "cv." has not been permitted by the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants since

4505-497: The contract terms were Sir Malcolm Eve (later, Lord Silso) and a judge, Lord Denning, both British. Soon after it took over assets of the Colonial Sugar Refining Company, FSC embarked upon expansion of Fiji's milling capacity. The four mills are currently capable of manufacturing more than 500,000 tonnes of sugar per season. Some consideration has been given to increase mill capacity up to 600,000 tonnes

4590-415: The crystallizer for more than a day. The C-sugar from the centrifuge is mingled with syrup and used as massecuite seed, and so returns to the start of the process. The molasses resulting from this centrifuge step are called final molasses, or blackstrap. It is a heavy viscous material containing about one-third sucrose, one-fifth reducing sugars, and the remainder ash, organic non-sugars and water. It serves as

4675-445: The crystallizer is to reduce loss of sucrose by it remaining in the mother liquor / molasses, in particular with low-grade massecuites. The crystallizer works by cooling the massecuite. This decreases solubility and again increases saturation, forcing crystallization to continue. Crystallizers are cylindrical or U-shaped vessels equipped with low-speed stirring elements. They are often connected in series for continues operation. Cooling

4760-496: The cultivar is defined in Article 2 of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (2009, 8th edition) as follows: The basic category of cultivated plants whose nomenclature is governed by this Code is the cultivar. There are two other classification categories for cultigens, the grex and the group . The Code then defines a cultivar as a "taxonomic unit within the classification category of cultivar". This

4845-480: The cultivar must retain these characters in repeated propagation. The naming of cultivars is an important aspect of cultivated plant taxonomy , and the correct naming of a cultivar is prescribed by the Rules and Recommendations of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP, commonly denominated the Cultivated Plant Code ). A cultivar is given a cultivar name, which consists of

4930-401: The diffuser and this dilute juice is allowed to percolate through the bed of cane. At this point the concentration of sucrose in the cane is higher than the concentration of sucrose in the dilute juice just mentioned and so sucrose diffuses from the cane to the juice; this now slightly richer juice is pumped back up the diffuser and the process is repeated, typically, 12 to 15 times (compared with

5015-473: The economy. Tourism is sensitive to a number of factors, and its contribution to the economy is still less than that of sugar. The corporation has availed Line of Credit worth $ 55.78 million granted by India . Sugar mill A sugar cane mill is a factory that processes sugar cane to produce raw sugar or plantation white sugar. Some sugar mills are situated next to a back-end refinery, that turns raw sugar into (refined) white sugar . The term

5100-452: The evaporator are regulated to prevent sucrose inversion , or decomposition of sucrose in glucose and fructose. Another concern is scale formation on the heating surface of the evaporator. The application of a magnetic flow can help to prevent scaling. Crystallization is done with a single-effect vacuum boiling pan and a crystallizer. In the vacuum pan, the syrup is evaporated until it gets supersaturated with sugar. At this point seed grain

5185-565: The first stage, A-sugar, is stored. The molasses from the A-centrifugation, A-molasses, are fed to the B vacuum pan. This results in B-sugar and B-molasses. A mix of A-sugar and B-sugar forms the commercial product of the factory. The B-molasses are of a much lower purity. They are boiled again in the C-pan. While the A and B stage do not always use a crystallizer, it is essential for this low-grade massecuite. The massecuite remains in

SECTION 60

#1732790117962

5270-532: The four to six times for the milling process) The mixed juice has a pH of about 4.0 to 4.5 which is quite acidic. During purification, calcium hydroxide, also known as milk of lime or limewater, is added to the cane juice to adjust its pH to about 7 or 8. This can be done while the juice is still cold (cold liming) or after it has been heated to about 104°C (hot liming). It can also be done in phases (fractional liming). The lime helps to prevent sucrose's decay into glucose and fructose. The superheated limed juice

5355-749: The industry and established three new organizations : the Sugar Commission of Fiji, the Sugar Industry Tribunal and the Sugar Cane Growers Council . It also established the Mill Area Committees as an advisory body on local sugar matters. The Sugar Commission is the coordinating body, and the Tribunal adjudicates contractual relations between farmers and FSC, as well as any disputes among

5440-425: The low standard of 230 IU is reached. Some cane sugar mills have so-called back-end refineries. In back-end refineries, raw sugar produced in the mill is converted to refined sugar with a higher purity for local consumption, export, or bottling companies. Wastage is used for heat generation in the sugar mills. The remaining fibrous solids from the juice extraction phase, called bagasse , are burned for fuel in

5525-470: The massecuite increases viscosity . At the optimum temperature for crystallization, the massecuite is too viscous for the centrifuge to properly separate the crystals from the molasses. However, as the mother liquor of the massecuite is still supersaturated at this point, the viscosity can be reduced without re-solution of the crystals. This can be done by bringing it to a state of saturation by heating or adding water. The sugar centrifuge serves to separate

5610-430: The massecuite into sugar crystals and mother liquor / molasses. These centrifuges consist of a cylindrical basket suspended on a spindle. The perforated sides are lined with wire cloth , inside of which are metal sheets containing 400-600 perforations per square inch. The basket revolves at 1000-1800 rpm. While the mother liquor, molasses passes through the holes in the centrifuge, the sugar crystals are retained. After

5695-655: The mill's steam boilers. These boilers produce high-pressure steam, which is passed through a turbine to generate electrical energy ( cogeneration ). The exhaust steam from the turbine is passed through the multiple effect evaporator station and used to heat vacuum pans in the crystallization stage as well as for other heating purposes in the sugar mill. Bagasse makes a sugar mill more than energy self-sufficient; surplus bagasse goes in animal feed, in paper manufacture, or to generate electricity for sale. As in many other industries factory automation has been promoted heavily in sugar refineries in recent decades. The production process

5780-401: The milling extraction efficiency, imbibition water is added at each mill. Hot water is poured over the cane just before it enters the last mill in the milling train and is recirculated up to reach the first mill. The juice squeezed from this cane is low in sugar concentration and is pumped to the preceding mill and poured onto the cane just before it enters the rollers, the juice from this mill is

5865-448: The pH to 5.4-5.6. Now a second portion of lime is added to again reach a pH of 7.2-7.4. Following this, the juice is heated to 103-105°C before moving to the clarifier. The evaporation step for plantation white is the same as that for raw sugar. At the end Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) is added to lower the pH of the syrup from 6.5 to 5.5. After evaporation, an extra clarification process can be inserted. Basic steps of this sub-process are:

5950-426: The parties. The Sugar Cane Growers Council acts on behalf of farmers, and trade unions represent interests of FSC employees. One of the major functions of the Sugar Industry Tribunal is to establish and regulate master awards controlling contractual relationship between FSC and cane farmers. The master award came into effect on November 23, 1989. It replaced the sugar cane contract. Independent arbitrators who had set

6035-403: The percolation system process, shredded cane is introduced into the diffuser at the feed end; hot water is poured over the shredded cane just before the discharge end of the diffuser. The hot water percolates through the bed of cane and removes sucrose from the cane. This dilute juice is then collected in a compartment under the bed of cane and is pumped to a point a little closer to the feed end of

6120-462: The purification, evaporation, and storage steps. In the purification step, the objective of carbonation is to separate non-sugar contents such as colloids and insoluble particles as well as colored material. If carbonation is used, the mixed juice is heated to 55°C and lime is added till a pH of 10.5-11 is reached. Next, Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is added, and the juice is pushed through pressure filters. This results in calcium carbonate mud. The juice

6205-428: The result of a deliberate repeatable single cross between two pure lines. A few F2 hybrid seed cultivars also exist, such as Achillea 'Summer Berries'. Some cultivars are agamospermous plants, which retain their genetic composition and characteristics under reproduction. Occasionally cultivars are raised from seed of a specially selected provenance – for example the seed may be taken from plants that are resistant to

6290-417: The same area. Weekly raw juice samples were taken and analyzed. These were found to be very similar, despite the diffuser achieving a higher extraction. Juice extraction by milling is the process of squeezing the juice from the cane under a set of mills using high pressure between heavy iron rollers. Those mills can have from 3 up to 6 rolls; every set of mills is called a tandem mill or mill train. To improve

6375-899: The same cultivar. The production of cultivars generally entails considerable human involvement although in a few cases it may be as little as simply selecting variation from plants growing in the wild (whether by collecting growing tissue to propagate from or by gathering seed). Cultivars generally occur as ornamentals and food crops: Malus ' Granny Smith ' and Malus ' Red Delicious ' are cultivars of apples propagated by cuttings or grafting , Lactuca 'Red Sails' and Lactuca 'Great Lakes' are lettuce cultivars propagated by seeds. Named cultivars of Hosta and Hemerocallis plants are cultivars produced by micropropagation or division. Cultivars that are produced asexually are genetically identical and known as clones ; this includes plants propagated by division , layering , cuttings , grafts , and budding . The propagating material may be taken from

6460-412: The same way pumped back up the milling train. Mixed juice (that is to say cane juice mixed with the water introduced at the last mill) is withdrawn from the first and second mills and is sent for further processing. Milling trains typically have four, five or six mills in the tandem. To improve the milling extraction performance before the cane reaches the first mill, knife and shredder preparation equipment

6545-468: The scientific Latin botanical name followed by a cultivar epithet . The cultivar epithet is usually in a vernacular language. The word cultivar originated from the need to distinguish between wild plants and those with characteristics that arose in cultivation, presently denominated cultigens . This distinction dates to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus (370–285 BC), the "Father of Botany", who

6630-479: The stability of cultivated plant nomenclature. In recent times many ICRAs have also recorded trade designations and trademarks used in labelling plant material, to avoid confusion with established names. New names and other relevant data are collected by and submitted to the ICRA and in most cases there is no cost. The ICRA then checks each new epithet to ensure that it has not been used before and that it conforms with

6715-542: The standard sugar product for direct consumption or industrial use is white sugar . In Codex White A quality, white sugar has a minimum polarization of 99.7% and an ICUMSA color of 60 IU. Plantation white might have a polarization of e.g. 99.4-99.7% and a color between 80 and 250 IU. Plantation white sugar is produced by making changes to some of the stages mentioned above. There are two ways to make plantation white sugar, carbonation and sulphitation. To make plantation white sugar by carbonation requires changes to

6800-427: The sugar is purged, it is cut down, making the centrifuge ready for the next badge. It is quite common for sugar to result from repeatedly undergoing the crystallization and centrifugation steps. This depends on the boiling system The most common boiling scheme is the three-boiling system. This method boils the sugar liquors in three crystallization/centrifugation stages, called A-, B- and C-. The sugar resulting from

6885-432: The varietal name, rather than using the abbreviation "var." as is the present convention. Most of the varieties that Linnaeus enumerated were of "garden" origin rather than being wild plants. In time the need to distinguish between wild plants and those with variations that had been cultivated increased. In the nineteenth century many "garden-derived" plants were given horticultural names, sometimes in Latin and sometimes in

6970-428: The wild and propagated for sale without any additional breeding work; some people consider this practice unethical . The formal scientific name of a cultivar, like Solanum tuberosum 'King Edward', is a way of uniquely designating a particular kind of plant. This scientific name is in the public domain and cannot be legally protected. Plant retailers wish to maximize their share of the market and one way of doing this

7055-414: The word cultivar in 1923 when he wrote that: The cultigen is a species, or its equivalent, that has appeared under domestication – the plant is cultigenous. I now propose another name, cultivar, for a botanical variety, or for a race subordinate to species, that has originated under cultivation; it is not necessarily, however, referable to a recognized botanical species. It is essentially the equivalent of

7140-406: The world's agricultural food crops are almost exclusively cultivars that have been selected for characters such as improved yield, flavour, and resistance to disease, and very few wild plants are now used as food sources. Trees used in forestry are also special selections grown for their enhanced quality and yield of timber . Cultivars form a major part of Liberty Hyde Bailey 's broader group,

7225-477: Was keenly aware of this difference. Botanical historian Alan Morton noted that Theophrastus in his Historia Plantarum ( Enquiry into Plants ) "had an inkling of the limits of culturally induced ( phenotypic ) changes and of the importance of genetic constitution" ( Historia Plantarum , Book 3, 2, 2 and Causa Plantarum , Book 1, 9, 3). The International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants uses as its starting point for modern botanical nomenclature

#961038