68-510: Filippo Maria Visconti (3 September 1392 – 13 August 1447) was the duke of Milan from 1412 to 1447. Reports stated that he was "paranoid", but "shrewd as a ruler." He went to war in the 1420s with Romagna , Florence , and Venice in the Wars in Lombardy but was eventually forced to surrender under Pope Martin V . He would return to war again, where another peace agreement was required to stop
136-633: A French army under Napoleon Bonaparte conquered it, and it ceased to exist a year later as a result of the Treaty of Campo Formio , when Austria ceded it to the new Cisalpine Republic . After the defeat of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 restored many other states which he had destroyed, but not the Duchy of Milan. Instead, its former territory became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia , with
204-543: A bull was issued that threatened excommunication for any dealers in Christian slave and ordered Jews to wear a "badge of infamy" to deter, in part, the buying of Christians. In June 1425 Martin anathematized those who sold Christian slaves to Muslims. Traffic in Christian slaves was not banned, purely the sale to non-Christian owners. The papal bull of excommunication issued to the Genoese merchants of Caffa related to
272-671: A few other lands. Defeated and taken prisoner in Novara in 1500, he was deported to France , to the Castle of Loches , where he died on 27 May 1508. Louis XII remained Duke of Milan until 1512, when the Swiss army expelled the French from Lombardy and placed Maximilian Sforza , son of Ludovico il Moro, on the Milanese throne. Between 1512 and 1515 the Swiss cantons de facto controlled
340-533: A much smaller extension than present-day Lombardy. The government of the Habsburgs of Austria was characterized by significant administrative reforms, which the sovereigns of the Austrian house - inspired by the principles of the so-called enlightened absolutism - also introduced in their Lombard territories: for example, the rearrangement of the land register , the suppression of ecclesiastical censorship and
408-445: A new question for the succession to the throne. In this period, to be precise in 1532, Francesco II Sforza requested and obtained from Pope Clement VII the elevation of Vigevano , a city to which his family had always been deeply linked, to the capital of Vigevanasco , after it had obtained in 1530 the title of city and bishopric according to the same methods. The King Francis I of France and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor claimed
476-720: A niece of the King of Naples, who took the side of the legitimate heir. Ludovico il Moro responded by encouraging King Charles VIII of France to reclaim the Kingdom of Naples, as until 1442 the Neapolitan throne had belonged to Charles ancestors, the Capetian House of Anjou . In 1494 Charles VIII conquered Naples, upsetting the balance between the various Italian states and starting the Italian Wars . In 1495 Charles VIII
544-415: A procession to the town hall, where under the leadership of Jan Žižka of Trocnov , a noble of southern Bohemia, the building was stormed and people found inside were thrown out of the windows on to the spears and swords of the processionists, and hacked to pieces. In Kuttenberg, hundreds of captured Hussites were thrown by the miners into the shafts of disused silver mines. King Wenceslaus swore death to all
612-671: A town in what was then the Duchy of Brabant, and what is modern day Belgium . Martin V died in Rome of a stroke on 20 February 1431 at the age of 62. He is buried at St. John Lateran Basilica . The excitement of the Church during the Hussite movement rendered the Jews apprehensive, and through Emperor Sigismund , they obtained from Pope Martin V various bulls (1418 and 1422) in which their former privileges were confirmed and in which he exhorted
680-578: The Battle of Anghiari , in 1440— and with Francesco Sforza , he managed to recover the Lombard portion of his father's duchy. At the death of Giorgio Ordelaffi , lord of Forlì , he took advantage of his guardianship of the boy heir, Tebaldo Ordelaffi, to attempt conquests in Romagna (1423), starting a war with Florence . Venice , urged on by Francesco Bussone da Carmagnola, decided to intervene on
748-610: The Cispadane Republic in 1797 to form the Cisalpine Republic , of which Milan became the capital. After the defeat of Napoleon, on the basis of the decisions taken by the Congress of Vienna on 9 June 1815, the Duchy of Milan was not restored but became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia , a constituent land of the Austrian Empire . The kingdom ceased to exist when the remaining portion of it
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#1732775724385816-519: The Emperor of Austria as its king. In 1859, Lombardy was ceded to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia , which became the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. The fate of the city of Milan was intertwined since the 13th century with that of the Visconti family , who resumed the policy of territorial expansionism inherited from the city's municipality. One of the first Visconti exponents to lead the Lombard city
884-564: The Gotthard Pass to the gates of Como (today's Canton of Ticino ). The Treaty of Noyon of 1516 confirmed the possession of the Duchy of Milan to the French. Francis of Valois governed the duchy until 1521, when Charles V, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor , raised Maximilian's young brother, Francesco II Sforza , to the throne of the duchy. After the decisive French defeat in the Battle of Pavia on 24 February 1525, which left
952-702: The Marche was held by local "vicars", who were in fact petty hereditary lords. In particular, Martin confirmed Giorgio Ordelaffi in Forlì , Ludovico Alidosi in Imola , Malatesta IV Malatesta in Rimini , and Guidantonio da Montefeltro in Spoleto , who would later marry the pope's niece Caterina Colonna. In exchange for the recognition of Joan II of Naples , Martin obtained the restitution of Benevento , several fiefs in
1020-855: The Ottoman Turks , however, endangered the structure of the Venetian possessions in the Aegean Sea and after 4 years of war the Peace of Lodi was signed in 1454. With this document Francesco Sforza and Alfonso of Aragon were recognized respectively as Duke of Milan and King of Naples, the Republic of Venice extended its dominion up to the Adda and the Holy Italian League against the Turks
1088-689: The Papal States from 11 November 1417 to his death in February 1431. His election effectively ended the Western Schism of 1378–1417. He is the last pope to date to take on the pontifical name "Martin". Oddone Colonna was born at Genazzano , the son of Agapito Colonna and Caterina Conti, between 26 January and 20 February 1369. He belonged to one of the oldest and most distinguished families of Rome . His brother Giordano became Prince of Salerno and Duke of Venosa , while his sister Paola
1156-533: The license to quarter the Visconti's biscione with the imperial eagle in the new ducal flag. The duchy, as defined in the diploma of 1395, included the territory surrounding Milan, between the Adda and Ticino rivers, but the dominions of Gian Galeazzo Visconti extended beyond, including 26 towns and spanned from Piedmont to Veneto and from present-day Canton of Ticino to Umbria . Milan thus became one of
1224-672: The 1635–1659 Franco-Spanish War, Milan sent and paid for on average 4,000 soldiers per year to the Spanish crown, with many of these men serving in the Low Countries against the Dutch States Army. Pope Martin V Pope Martin V ( Latin : Martinus V ; Italian : Martino V ; January/February 1369 – 20 February 1431), born Otto (or Oddone ) Colonna , was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of
1292-465: The Council of Constance was long divided by the conflicting claims of Pope Gregory XII (1406–15) and Antipope Benedict XIII (1394–1423). Martin was elected pope, at the age of 48, at the Council of Constance on St. Martin's Day , 11 November 1417. Participants in the conclave included 23 cardinals and 30 delegates of the council. He was ordained a priest on 13 November 1417, and consecrated bishop
1360-542: The Council of Constance. Adherents of Jan Hus , who had been previously burned at the stake as a heretic by the council, adopted the practice of Communion under both kinds . The Council sent letters to the civil and ecclesiastical authorities in Bohemia, insisting they deal with the heresy. Bohemian and Moravian nobles responded that the sentence on Hus was unjust and insulting to their country, and promised to protect priests against episcopal prosecutions for heresy. Prague
1428-629: The Kingdom of Naples for his relatives and, most important of all, an agreement that Muzio Attendolo, then hired by the Neapolitans, should leave Rome. After a long stay in Florence while these matters were arranged, Martin was able to enter Rome in September 1420. He at once set to work establishing order and restoring the dilapidated churches, palaces, bridges, and other public structures. For this reconstruction he engaged some famous masters of
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#17327757243851496-653: The Lateran to Santa Maria Maggiore and, from 1424, the Basilica of Santi Apostoli near the Palazzo Colonna . He also frequently sojourned in towns held by his family in the Latium ( Tivoli , Vicovaro , Marino , Gallicano and others). When the second Pope to take the name Martin was elected in 1281, there was confusion over how many Popes had taken the name before. It was believed then that there were three, so
1564-671: The Lombard cities of Como , Crema , Lodi and the Valtellina in 1335, Bormio (Lombardy) and Piacenza (Emilia) in 1336, and Brescia and the Val Camonica in 1337. The brothers Luchino and Giovanni Visconti added Bellinzona (present-day Switzerland in 1342, Parma (Emilia) in 1346 and several territories in southwestern Piedmont in 1347: Tortona , Alessandria , Asti , and Mondovì . Bernabò conquered Reggio Emilia in 1371 and Riva del Garda in 1380, and Gian Galeazzo greatly expanded Milan's dominions, first eastwards, with
1632-736: The Milanese declared the so-called Golden Ambrosian Republic , which soon faced revolts and attacks from its neighbors. In 1450 mercenary captain Francesco Sforza , having previously married Filippo Maria Visconti's illegitimate daughter Bianca Maria, conquered the city and restored the duchy, founding the House of Sforza . The Venetian republic had not abandoned its desire to expand into Lombardy and therefore entered into an alliance with Alfonso V of Aragon , King of Naples , and with Emperor Frederick III , against Francesco I Sforza and his allies. The fall of Constantinople , conquered by
1700-655: The Republic of Venice which ceded the entire Apulian coast ( Brindisi , Monopoli , Gallipoli , Polignano , Lecce , Bari and Trani ) in exchange for the withdrawal of imperial claims on Milan, also due to the fact that Charles V did not want to clash with the Venetians, and he knew he didn't have the means to succeed, because the Venetians were too concerned that Milan not fall into the hands of foreigners powers, given that they did not consider themselves "capable of occupying it nor proportionate to be able to hold it". Francesco II Sforza died without heirs in 1535, opening
1768-593: The Tuscan school and helped instigate the Roman Renaissance. Faced with competing plans for general reform offered by various nations, Martin V submitted a counter-scheme and entered into negotiations for separate concordats , for the most part vague and illusory, with the Holy Roman Empire , England , France and Spain . By 1415 Bohemia was in turmoil and the subject of much discussion at
1836-406: The assassination of Gian Maria (16 May 1412) and her brother Condottiero Faucino Cane, Filippo Maria occupied himself to Condottiero's widow Beatrice di Tenda Lascaris . In doing so, he acquired control over Condottiero's wealth and his armies urging him to gain control over Milan. Filippo Maria was the brother of the deceased Gian Maria, the legal heir, as the son of Gian Galeazzo, who had usurped
1904-529: The buying and selling of Christians, but has been considered ineffectual as prior injunctions against the Viennese, including the Laws of Gazaria, made allowances for the sale of both Christian and Muslim slaves. Ten black African slaves were presented to Martin by Prince Henry of Portugal . According to Koschorke, Martin supported colonial expansion. Davidson (1961) argues that Martin's injunction against slavery
1972-569: The conquest of the Venetian cities of Verona (1387), Vicenza (1387), Feltre (1388), Belluno (1388) and Padua (briefly, from 1388 to 1390), and later southwards, conquering Lucca , Pisa and Siena in Tuscany in 1399, Perugia in Umbria in 1400, Bologna in Emilia in 1402, and Assisi in Umbria also in 1402. When the last Visconti duke, Filippo Maria , died in 1447 without a male heir,
2040-518: The death of Gian Maria. They would hold the title until the 16 June of that same year, when Filippo Maria managed to retake the city. That same year, he confiscated several properties belonging to the Scotti family, including the Agazzano Castle . From Filippo's marriage to Beatrice Lascaris di Tenda, Countess of Biandrate and the widow of Facino Cane —the condottiere who had power between
2108-557: The development of the silk industry. Following Napoleon Bonaparte 's victorious campaign in northern Italy in 1796, the duchy, entrusted to an interim government junta, was ceded to the French Republic by the Habsburgs with the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797. But already in 1796 the French had established the vassal state of the Transpadane Republic on the territories of the Duchy of Milan, which merged with
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2176-554: The duchy by making war. The latter, claiming it as an imperial fief upon the extinction of the Sforza, obtained control of the duchy and installed his son Philip II there with an imperial diploma signed in Brussels on 11 October 1540 and made public in 1554. Philip's possession of the duchy was finally recognized by King Henry II of France in 1559, with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis . The duchy, having lost all forms of independence,
2244-513: The duchy. Under the reign of King Francis I , the French Crown managed to re-establish its sovereignty over the Milanese duchy. In 1515, after the bloody Battle of Marignano , which saw the defeat of the Swiss army, the French sovereign deposed Maximilian and installed himself on the ducal throne. Despite the defeat, the Swiss managed to retain the territories along the road that leads from
2312-544: The east, the Swiss Confederacy to the north, and separated from the Mediterranean by Republic of Genoa to the south. The duchy was at its largest at the beginning of the 15th century, at which time it included almost all of what is now Lombardy and parts of what are now Piedmont , Veneto, Tuscany , and Emilia-Romagna . Under the House of Sforza , Milan experienced a period of great prosperity with
2380-502: The emperor; but hostilities were resumed at the first pretext by Filippo Maria, leading to the defeat of Maclodio (12 October 1427), followed by a more lasting peace signed at Ferrara with the mediation of Niccolò III d'Este, Marquis of Ferrara . The following year the duke married his second wife; Marie of Savoy, Duchess of Milan , daughter of Duke Amadeus VIII of Savoy , an ally. With Visconti's support, Amadeus reigned as antipope Felix V from November 1439 to April 1449. He invited
2448-557: The enslavement of Christians. However, voyages and discoveries brought other continents, where slavery still existed, into European consciousness, raising the question of whether slavery of unbelievers and outside of Europe was permitted. According to Burton, Martin authorized a crusade against Africa in 1418, and this, coupled with a later bull of Pope Eugene IV (1441), sanctioned the Portuguese trade in African slaves. In March 1425
2516-515: The event of the extinction of the Visconti dynasty, the title of Duke of Milan went to Valentina's descendants. Louis XII, claiming to be the legitimate heir of the Viscontis, invaded the Milanese state in 1499, driving out Ludovico il Moro. The former Sforza ruler tried in vain to counter the transalpine troops, even asking the Emperor for help, but only managed to briefly recapture the capital and
2584-470: The factions of Filippo's elder brother and his mother, and Caterina Visconti, the regent—Filippo Maria received half a million florins ; but when Beatrice was interested in the affairs of state, he accused her of adultery and had her beheaded at the castle of Binasco in 1418. Even though after some reports of self-hate, he was purportedly a good politician , and by employing condottieri to Carmagnola , Piccinino —where his troops were stationed at
2652-747: The famous scholar Gasparino Barzizza to establish a school in Milan. Barzizza would also serve as his court orator . He died in 1447. He was the last of the Visconti family's in direct male line. He was succeeded in the duchy, after the short-lived Ambrosian republic , by Francesco Sforza (1401–1466). In 1441, Francesco married Filippo Maria's only heir, his natural daughter Bianca Maria (1425–1468) by his mistress Agnese del Maino (1401–1465). The oldest extant Tarot decks , then called carte da trionfi , were probably commissioned by Filippo Maria Visconti. Duchy of Milan The Duchy of Milan ( Italian : Ducato di Milano ; Lombard : Ducaa de Milan )
2720-691: The five major states of the Italian peninsula in the 15th century. The House of Visconti had been expanding their dominions for nearly a century, under the reigns of Azzone Visconti , Luchino Visconti , Giovanni Visconti , Bernabò Visconti and Gian Galeazzo Visconti: during the rule of Azzone Visconti, the Ossola in Piedmont had been conquered in 1331, followed by Bergamo and Pavia (Lombardy) and Novara (Piedmont) in 1332, Pontremoli (Tuscany) in 1333, Vercelli (Piedmont) and Cremona (Lombardy) in 1334,
2788-581: The forces of Charles V in a strong position within the Italian peninsula, Francesco II Sforza joined the League of Cognac against Charles: together with him, the Republic of Venice , the Florentine Republic , Pope Clement VII and the Kingdom of France . The Duke was quickly overwhelmed by Charles troops, but managed to maintain control over some cities and strongholds of the duchy. Thanks to
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2856-578: The friars to use moderate language. In the last years of his pontificate, however, he repealed several of his ordinances. A gathering, convoked by the Jews in Forlì , sent a deputation asking Pope Martin V to abolish the oppressive laws promulgated by Antipope Benedict XIII . The deputation succeeded in its mission. During the Middle Ages, slavery had fallen out of usage in Europe. The Church denounced
2924-459: The introduction of the silk industry, becoming one of the wealthiest states during the Renaissance . From the late 15th century, the Duchy of Milan was contested between the forces of the Habsburg Monarchy and the Kingdom of France . It was ruled by Habsburg Spain from 1556 and it passed to Habsburg Austria in 1707 during the War of the Spanish Succession as a vacant Imperial fief . The duchy remained an Austrian possession until 1796 when
2992-439: The lordship of Milan by overthrowing and murdering his uncle and father-in-law Bernabo Visconti, known as the maternal grandfather of Filippo Maria. Therefore, his succession to the lordship of Milan was opposed by other people, like his uncle Estorre Visconti and his cousin Giancarlo Visconti, who wa an illegitimate son and legitimate grandson of Bernabo Visconti. They had support by the Milanese people themselves, just after
3060-493: The new Duke of Milan. Their mother Caterina worked for her son. Gian Maria, however, was through the interference of people close to him. So, he came to regard Caterina as threat to his power. On 18 August 1404, he had their mother imprisoned at Monza, where she died on 17 October 1404, the death was rumored to be caused by poison. Filippo Maria Visconti became ruler of Pavia in 1402, succeeding his assassinated brother Gian Maria Visconti as Duke of Milan in 1412. After
3128-456: The next day. Martin left Constance at the close of the council (May 1418), but travelled slowly through Italy and lingered at Florence . His authority in Rome was represented by his brother Giordano, who had fought under Muzio Attendolo against the condottiero Braccio da Montone . The Pope at the time ruled only Rome (when not rebellious) and its environs: Braccio held Umbria , Bologna as an independent commune, while much of Romagna and
3196-431: The option of the seller, were lawful. When the lawfulness of annuities was established, they were widely used in commerce; it seems that city states used them to raise compulsory loans from their citizens. A decree of the Council of Constance ( Frequens ) ordered that councils should be held every five years. Martin V summoned a council in 1423 that met first at Pavia and later at Siena (the " Council of Siena "). It
3264-430: The ordinary income of 1,200,000 gold florins , another 800,000 in extraordinary subsidies. The duchy was officially established on 11 May 1395, when Gian Galeazzo Visconti , the Dominus Generalis of Milan, obtained the title of Duke of Milan by means of a diploma signed in Prague by Wenceslaus of Bohemia . The nomination was ratified and celebrated in Milan on 5 September 1395. Gian Galeazzo Visconti also obtained
3332-424: The pope commanded that the remains of Wycliffe , who was posthumously declared a heretic in 1415, be dug up and burned. The crusades against the Lollards, however, were ultimately unsuccessful. According to Burton, Pope Martin authorized a crusade against Africa in 1418 in relation to the slave trade . In addition to the Hussite Crusades, Martin declared a Crusade against the Ottoman Empire in 1420 in response to
3400-443: The rebels, but died of a stroke in August, 1419. The next months were marked by deeds of violence; many citizens, especially Germans, had to flee. Wenceslaus was succeeded by his brother Sigismund, King of the Romans and King of Hungary , who prepared to restore order. On 1 March 1420, Pope Martin V issued a Bull inviting all Christians to unite in a crusade against the Wycliffites ( Lollards ), Hussites, and other heretics. In 1428,
3468-404: The rising pressure from the Ottoman Turks. In 1419–1420 Martin had diplomatic contacts with the Byzantine emperor Manuel II , who was invoking a council in Constantinople. On 12 July 1420 the Pope conceded to attach an indulgence to anyone who would contribute to a crusade against the latter, which would be led by Sigismund , King of the Romans. The main concern of Martin's pontificate from 1423
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#17327757243853536-502: The side of Florence (1425) and the war spread to Lombardy. In March 1426 Carmagnola fomented riots in Brescia , which he had conquered for Visconti just five years previously. After a long campaign, Venice conquered Brescia, extending its mainland possessions to the western shores of Lake Garda . Filippo Maria unsuccessfully sought imperial aid but was constrained to accept the peace proposed by Pope Martin V , favouring Venice and Carmagnola. The terms were grudgingly accepted in Milan and by
3604-409: The vicariate of Todi , Orvieto , Perugia and Umbria . He was excommunicated for this in 1411 by Pope Gregory XII . Oddone was with John XXIII's entourage at the Council of Constance and followed him in his escape at Schaffhausen on 21 March 1415. Later he returned to Constance and took part in the process leading to the deposition of John XXIII. After deposing Antipope John XXIII in 1415,
3672-433: The war with Braccio da Montone in exchange for his recognition as vicar and reconciled with the deposed John XXIII, to whom he gave the title of Cardinal of Tusculum. Canon law prohibited interest upon a loan. To avoid this, annuities were paid, interest in effect but not in name. The dispute as to the legality of annuity contracts was brought before Martin V in 1423. He held that purchased annuities, which were redeemable at
3740-401: The war. He married twice. Her second wife was Marie , from which he married in 1448. She was the daughter of his ally Amadeus VIII . When he died, Fillippo was the last of the Visconti male line and was succeeded by Francesco Sforza , husband to his daughter . In 1402, when Filippo Maria was ten years old, his father died because of the plague, and his brother, 14-year-old Gian.Maria, became
3808-522: Was Lady of Piombino between 1441 and 1445. Oddone studied law at the University of Pavia . He became apostolic protonotary under Pope Urban VI (1378–1389), and was created Cardinal-Deacon of San Giorgio in Velabro by Pope Innocent VII in 1405. In 1409 he took part in the Council of Pisa , and was one of the supporters of Antipope Alexander V . Later he confirmed his allegiance to Alexander's successor, John XXIII , by whom his family obtained several privileges, while Oddone obtained for himself
3876-418: Was Ottone Visconti , elected archbishop in 1262 and who defeated the Della Torre family in the Battle of Desio in 1277. In the first half of the following century, his nephews and great-grandsons who came to govern Milan: Matteo I , Galeazzo I , Azzone and the Archbishop Giovanni , expanding the area of Visconti influence over the surrounding regions. An equal policy of enlargement and consolidation
3944-424: Was a state in Northern Italy , created in 1395 by Gian Galeazzo Visconti , then the lord of Milan, and a member of the important Visconti family , which had been ruling the city since 1277. At that time, it included twenty-six towns and the wide rural area of the middle Padan Plain east of the hills of Montferrat . During much of its existence, it was wedged between Savoy to the west, Republic of Venice to
4012-417: Was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy in 1866. Under the Spanish viceroys from 1535, Milan became one of the contributors to the Spanish king's army. At the time Lombardy had the most developed manufacturing and commercial economy anywhere in the world, making it a valuable tool for the Spanish military: an armory of paramount strategic importance. In addition to resources, Milan also provided soldiers. During
4080-404: Was concluded. The political balance achieved with the Peace of Lodi lasted until the death of Lorenzo de' Medici , ruler of the Florentine Republic , and the incursion of King Charles VIII of France into Italy in 1494, except for some Swiss incursions which resulted in the Peace of Lucerne. Galeazzo Maria , son of Francesco Sforza, due to his government considered by many to be tyrannical,
4148-477: Was expelled from the Peninsula by a League composed of many Italian states, the Holy Roman Empire, the Spanish Empire and the Kingdom of England , but only three years later, in 1498, the Duke of Orléans, who had become King of France with the name of Louis XII , assert his claims on the Duchy of Milan: one of his ancestors, Louis of Orleans , had in fact married Valentina Visconti , daughter of Duke Gian Galeazzo, in 1389, whose marriage contract established that, in
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#17327757243854216-565: Was murdered in a conspiracy. His son, Gian Galeazzo , governed under the regency of his mother Bona of Savoy , until his uncle, Ludovico il Moro usurped the throne of the duchy. Ludovico il Moro, son of Francesco Sforza, managed to obtain the guardianship of his nephew Gian Galeazzo and confine him to the Visconti Castle of Pavia , where in 1494 he died in such mysterious circumstances that many suspicions gathered around Ludovico himself. Relations between Ludovico and Ferdinand II of Aragon therefore deteriorated: Gian Galeazzo had in fact married
4284-485: Was not a condemnation of slavery itself, but rather driven through fear of "infidel power". Norman Housley finds it "... hard to avoid the conclusion that the pope was agreeing to whatever was asked of him by the king. ... [P]olitical weakness compelled the Renaissance Papacy to adopt an acquiescent and unchallenging position when approached for requests for privileges in favour of these ventures." During his permanence in Rome, Martin moved his residence from
4352-458: Was placed under interdict for sheltering the excommunicated Jan of Jesenice . Beghards arrived attracted by Bohemia's reputation for religious liberty. In 1419 King Wenceslaus IV , who had resisted what he considered interference in his kingdom, commanded that all ejected Catholic beneficiaries should be reinstated in their offices and revenues. Prague prepared for armed resistance. Jan Želivský , an extreme anti-Catholic preacher of Prague, led
4420-463: Was pursued in the second half of the century by their successors: Matteo II , Bernabò and Gian Galeazzo . After a period marked by tensions between the various members of the powerful family, Gian Galeazzo Visconti, nephew of Bernabò, came to power with a coup in 1385 and gradually unified the vast family domains scattered across Northern Italy . It is said that the territories subject to his dominion earned Gian Galeazzo in one year, in addition to
4488-506: Was rather poorly attended, which gave the Pope a pretext for dissolving it, as soon as it had come to the resolution that "internal church union by reform ought to take precedence over external union". It was prorogued for seven years. The seventeenth council then met as the " Council of Basel " in February 1431 shortly before Martin's death. On December 9, 1425, Martin founded the University of Louvain or Universitas Lovaniensis in Leuven (also known as "Louvain" in both English and French),
4556-423: Was the resumed war against Braccio da Montone. The following year, the combined Papal-Neapolitan army, led by Giacomo Caldora and Francesco Sforza , defeated him at the Battle of L'Aquila (2 June 1424); Braccio died a few days later. In the same year Martin obtained a reduction of the autonomy of the commune of Bologna, whose finances would be thenceforth under the authority of a papal treasurer. He also ended
4624-402: Was then reduced to a regional state subjected to foreign domination. With the Treaty of Baden , which ended the War of the Spanish Succession , the Duchy of Milan was ceded to the Austrian Habsburgs . During the 18th century, the surface area of the duchy - despite its unification in 1745 with the Duchy of Mantua , which however had strong autonomy from Milan - was further reduced, reaching
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