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112-1143: The Immigration Office of the Ministry of the Interior was established in 1948 and abolished in 1989, when the Immigration Center of the Ministry of the Interior was founded, known since 1995 as the Directorate of Immigration. Since 2008, immigration matters have been handled by the Finnish Immigration Service. The Finnish Immigration Service is a decision-making organization on immigration, asylum, refugee, and citizenship matters. Its operations include implementing immigration policy, ensuring good governance, and promoting human and fundamental rights as well as controlled immigration. Since 2017, Migri's responsibilities have expanded to include managing extensions of existing residence permits and residency matters for EU citizens . The Finnish Immigration Service consists of result units, including

224-635: A European Citizens' Initiative (ECI). Citizenship of the EU confers the right to consular protection by embassies of other EU member states when an individual's country of citizenship is not represented by an embassy or consulate in the foreign country in which they require protection or other types of assistance. EU citizens have the right to address the European Parliament , the European Ombudsman and EU agencies directly, in any of

336-638: A directly effective right upon citizens to reside in another Member State. Before the case of Baumbast , it was widely assumed that non-economically active citizens had no rights to residence deriving directly from the EU Treaty, only from directives created under the Treaty. In Baumbast , however, the ECJ held that (the then) Article 18 of the EC Treaty granted a generally applicable right to residency, which

448-605: A broad if uneven hierarchy of law and protection. These localised hierarchies were based on the bond of common people to the land on which they worked, and to a lord, who would provide and administer both local law to settle disputes among the peasants, as well as protection from outside invaders. The western provinces soon were to be dominated by three great powers: first, the Franks ( Merovingian dynasty ) in Francia 481–843 AD, which covered much of present France and Germany; second,

560-455: A demonstration against the erroneous asylum decisions made by the Finnish Immigration Service. Demonstrators demanded a review of erroneous asylum decisions, cessation of forced returns, humanitarian protection, and assurance that asylum seekers are not removed from reception centers before the next accommodation is known. Errors in asylum decisions have been attributed to the rush and inexperience of officials, as well as political reasons, although

672-814: A distinct group in the central and eastern parts of Europe. The first great empire of the Middle Ages was the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne , while the Islamic conquest of Iberia established Al-Andalus . The Viking Age saw a second great migration of Norse peoples. Attempts to retake the Levant from the Muslim states that occupied it made the High Middle Ages the age of the Crusades , while

784-683: A limited form of EU citizenship is available to transgender people. Article 45 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union states that State employment reserved exclusively for nationals varies between member states. For example, training as a barrister in Britain and Ireland is not reserved for nationals, while the corresponding French course qualifies one as a 'juge' and hence can only be taken by French citizens. However, it

896-747: A member state may withhold EU citizenship from certain groups of citizens, most commonly in overseas territories of member states outside the EU. A previous example was for the United Kingdom. Owing to the complexity of British nationality law , a 1982 declaration by Her Majesty's Government defined who would be deemed to be a British "national" for European Union purposes: This declaration therefore excluded from EU citizenship various historic categories of British citizenship generally associated with former British colonies, such as British Overseas Citizens , British Nationals (Overseas) , British protected persons and any British subject who did not have

1008-465: A period of peace, civilisation and an efficient centralised government in the subject territories ended in the 3rd century, when a series of civil wars undermined Rome's economic and social strength. In the 4th century, the emperors Diocletian and Constantine were able to slow down the process of decline by splitting the empire into a Western part with a capital in Rome and an Eastern part with

1120-687: A permanent right to reside in Belgium and satisfy either of the following: Foreigners can also petition the federal government for naturalization by the Chamber of Representatives without a formal residence requirement if they demonstrate exceptional merits in art, science, culture, or sport. People born in Bulgaria who: History of Europe The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (800 BC to AD 500),

1232-693: A position held by Ilkka Haahtela since September 2022. The main office of the Finnish Immigration Service is in the Pasila administrative center in Helsinki . The Finnish Immigration Service's reception centers are located in Helsinki, Joutseno , and Oulu . Until March 2020, the agency operated an Immigration Library on Lintulahdenkatu. In May 2016, the Finnish Immigration Service announced that Iraq, Afghanistan, and Somalia were considered safer countries to return to. On February 10, 2017, asylum seekers began

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1344-638: Is a particularly important factor when considering the degree of integration. The ECJ's case law on citizenship has been criticised for subjecting an increasing number of national rules to the proportionality assessment. Also, the right to free movement is not fully available to certain groups of Union citizens because of the various hurdles they face in real life. For example, transgender EU citizens face problems getting identity documents and going through identity checks, reuniting with their family members and accompanying children, as well as accessing social assistance. The scale of those issues gives grounds that only

1456-485: Is broadly limited to those roles that exercise a significant degree of public authority, such as judges, police, the military, diplomats, senior civil servants or politicians. Note that not all Member States choose to restrict all of these posts to nationals. Much of the existing secondary legislation and case law was consolidated in the Citizens' Rights Directive 2004/38/EC on the right to move and reside freely within

1568-413: Is limited by secondary legislation, but only where that secondary legislation is proportionate. Member States can distinguish between nationals and Union citizens but only if the provisions satisfy the test of proportionality. Migrant EU citizens have a "legitimate expectation of a limited degree of financial solidarity... having regard to their degree of integration into the host society" Length of time

1680-437: The 2013 enlargement , some countries implemented restrictions on Croatian nationals following the country's EU accession on 1 July 2013. As of March 2021, all EU countries have dropped restrictions entirely. There is no common EU policy on the acquisition of European citizenship as it is supplementary to national citizenship. (EC citizenship was initially granted to all nationals of European Community member states in 1994 by

1792-631: The Aegean Sea , on the coast of Asia Minor , the Levant , Cyprus and Italy. Mycenaean artefacts have been found well outside the limits of the Mycenean world. Quite unlike the Minoans, whose society benefited from trade, the Mycenaeans advanced through conquest. Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior aristocracy . Around 1400 BC, the Mycenaeans extended their control to Crete,

1904-515: The Battle of Adrianople on 14 April 1205. The reign of Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria led to maximum territorial expansion and that of Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria to a Second Golden Age of Bulgarian culture . The Byzantine Empire was fully re-established in 1261. In the 11th century, populations north of the Alps began to settle new lands. Vast forests and marshes of Europe were cleared and cultivated. At

2016-799: The British Isles . Around 12,500 BC, the Würm glaciation ended. Magdalenian culture persisted until c. 10,000 BC, when it quickly evolved into two microlithist cultures: Azilian ( Federmesser ), in Spain and southern France , and then Sauveterrian , in southern France and Tardenoisian in Central Europe, while in Northern Europe the Lyngby complex succeeded the Hamburg culture with

2128-822: The Corinthian War and the defeat of Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra . At the same time at the north ruled the Thracian Odrysian Kingdom between the 5th century BC and the 1st century AD. Hellenic infighting left Greek city states vulnerable, and Philip II of Macedon united the Greek city states under his control. The son of Philip II, known as Alexander the Great , invaded neighboring Persia , toppled and incorporated its domains, as well as invading Egypt and going as far off as India, increasing contact with people and cultures in these regions that marked

2240-832: The Cro-Magnon population, Early European Farmers who migrated from Anatolia during the Neolithic Revolution , and Yamnaya pastoralists who expanded into Europe in the context of the Indo-European expansion . The Indo-European migrations started in Southeast Europe at around c. 4200 BC. through the areas around the Black sea and the Balkan peninsula . In the next 3000 years the Indo-European languages expanded through Europe. Around this time, in

2352-607: The EU Treaty languages , provided the issue raised is within that institution's competence. EU citizens have the legal protections of EU law, including the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU and acts and directives regarding protection of personal data, rights of victims of crime, preventing and combating trafficking in human beings, equal pay, as well as protection from discrimination in employment on grounds of religion or belief, sexual orientation and age. The office of

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2464-691: The Early European modern humans . Some locally developed transitional cultures ( Uluzzian in Italy and Greece, Altmühlian in Germany, Szeletian in Central Europe and Châtelperronian in the southwest) use clearly Upper Paleolithic technologies at very early dates. Nevertheless, the definitive advance of these technologies is made by the Aurignacian culture, originating in the Levant (Ahmarian) and Hungary (first full Aurignacian). By 35,000 BC,

2576-513: The Edict of Serdica in 311), declaring the legality of Christianity in the Roman Empire. In addition, Constantine officially shifted the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to the Greek town of Byzantium , which he renamed Nova Roma – it was later named Constantinople ("City of Constantine"). Theodosius I , who had made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire , would be

2688-664: The European Communities in 1985, the autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark remains associated with the European Union , being one of the overseas countries and territories of the EU. The relationship with the EU means that all Danish citizens residing in Greenland are EU citizens. This allows Greenlanders to move and reside freely within the EU. This contrasts with Danish citizens living in

2800-628: The European migrant crisis , and the Russian invasion of Ukraine . Homo erectus migrated from Africa to Europe before the emergence of modern humans. Homo erectus georgicus , which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in Georgia , is the earliest hominid to be discovered in Europe. The earliest appearance of anatomically modern people in Europe has been dated to 45,000 BC, referred to as

2912-600: The Faroe Islands who are excluded from EU citizenship. This is a summary of nationality laws for each of the twenty-seven EU member states. People born in Austria: Austrian nationality is acquired by descent under one of the following conditions: People born in Belgium who: Belgian nationality is acquired by descent under one of the following conditions: Foreigners can obtain nationality by declaration at their municipality of residence if they have

3024-712: The Franks and part of the Carolingian dynasty , was crowned by the pope as emperor. His empire based in modern France, the Low Countries and Germany expanded into modern Hungary, Italy, Bohemia , Lower Saxony and Spain. He and his father received substantial help from an alliance with the Pope, who wanted help against the Lombards . His death marked the beginning of the end of the dynasty, which collapsed entirely by 888. The fragmentation of power led to semi-autonomy in

3136-612: The Middle Ages (AD 500–1500), and the modern era (since AD 1500). The first early European modern humans appear in the fossil record about 48,000 years ago, during the Paleolithic era. Settled agriculture marked the Neolithic era, which spread slowly across Europe from southeast to the north and west. The later Neolithic period saw the introduction of early metallurgy and the use of copper-based tools and weapons, and

3248-644: The Moors invaded the Christian Visigothic kingdom of Hispania in 711, under the Berber general Tariq ibn Ziyad . They landed at Gibraltar on 30 April and worked their way northward. Tariq's forces were joined the next year by those of his Arab superior, Musa ibn Nusair . During the eight-year campaign most of the Iberian Peninsula was brought under Muslim rule – save for small areas in

3360-580: The Roman and Greek cultures. Classical antiquity , also known as the classical era, classical period, classical age, or simply antiquity, is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD comprising the interwoven civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome known together as the Greco-Roman world , centered on the Mediterranean Basin . It is

3472-725: The Vikings who raided, traded, conquered and settled swiftly and efficiently with their advanced seagoing vessels such as the longships . The Vikings had left a cultural influence on the Anglo-Saxons and Franks as well as the Scots . The Hungarians pillaged mainland Europe, the Pechenegs raided Bulgaria, Rus States and the Arab states. In the 10th century independent kingdoms were established in Central Europe including Poland and

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3584-693: The Visigothic kingdom 418–711 AD in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain); and third, the Ostrogothic kingdom 493–553 AD in Italy and parts of the western Balkans. The Ostrogoths were later replaced by the Kingdom of the Lombards 568–774 AD. Although these powers covered large territories, they did not have the great resources and bureaucracy of the Roman empire to control regions and localities; more power and responsibilities were left to local lords. On

3696-646: The Western part fell to the Heruli chieftain Odoacer . Roman authority in the Western part of the empire had collapsed, and a power vacuum left in the wake of this collapse; the central organization, institutions, laws and power of Rome had broken down, resulting in many areas being open to invasion by migrating tribes. Over time, feudalism and manorialism arose, providing for division of land and labour, as well as

3808-469: The fall of the Western Roman Empire (or by some scholars, before that) in the 5th century to the beginning of the early modern period in the 16th century marked by the rise of nation states , the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation , the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance , and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the Columbian Exchange . Many consider Emperor Constantine I (reigned 306–337) to be

3920-456: The political system of feudalism came to its height. The Late Middle Ages were marked by large population declines, as Europe was threatened by the bubonic plague , as well as invasions by the Mongol peoples from the Eurasian Steppe . At the end of the Middle Ages, there was a transitional period, known as the Renaissance . Early Modern Europe is usually dated to the end of the 15th century. Technological changes such as gunpowder and

4032-647: The printing press changed how warfare was conducted and how knowledge was preserved and disseminated. The Reformation saw the fragmentation of religious thought, leading to religious wars . The Age of Exploration led to colonization , and the exploitation of the people and resources of colonies brought resources and wealth to Western Europe. After 1800, the Industrial Revolution brought capital accumulation and rapid urbanization to Western Europe, while several countries transitioned away from absolutist rule to parliamentary regimes. The Age of Revolution saw long-established political systems upset and turned over. In

4144-545: The 'right of abode' under British immigration law. In 2002, with the passing of the British Overseas Territories Act 2002 , EU citizenship was extended to almost all British overseas territories citizens when they were automatically granted full British citizenship (with the exception of those with an association to the British sovereign base areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia on the Island of Cyprus). This had effectively granted them full EU citizenship rights, including free movement rights, although only residents of Gibraltar had

4256-522: The 10th century, and by the year 1000, the Roman Catholic Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary was recognised in central Europe. With the brief exception of the Mongol invasions , major barbarian incursions ceased. Bulgarian sovereignty was re-established with the anti-Byzantine uprising of the Bulgarians and Vlachs in 1185. The crusaders invaded the Byzantine Empire, captured Constantinople in 1204 and established their Latin Empire . Kaloyan of Bulgaria defeated Baldwin I , Latin Emperor of Constantinople , in

4368-628: The 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries show a rapidly increasing population of Europe, which caused great social and political change from the preceding era. By 1250, the robust population increase greatly benefited the economy, reaching levels it would not see again in some areas until the 19th century. From about the year 1000 onwards, Western Europe saw the last of the barbarian invasions and became more politically organized. The Vikings had settled in Britain, Ireland, France and elsewhere, whilst Norse Christian kingdoms were developing in their Scandinavian homelands. The Magyars had ceased their expansion in

4480-405: The 1957 Treaty of Rome provided for the free movement of workers and services. However, we can find traces of an emerging European personal status in the legal framework regulating the rights and obligations of foreign residents in Europe well before a formal status of European citizenship was introduced. In particular through the interplay between secondary European legislation and the case-law of

4592-493: The 20th century, World War I led to a remaking of the map of Europe as the large empires were broken up into nation-states . Lingering political issues would lead to World War II , during which Nazi Germany perpetrated The Holocaust . The subsequent Cold War saw Europe divided by the Iron Curtain into capitalist and communist states, many of them members of NATO and the Warsaw Pact , respectively. The West's remaining colonial empires were dismantled . The last decades saw

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4704-444: The 5th millennium BC the Varna culture evolved. In 4700 – 4200 BC, the Solnitsata town, believed to be the oldest prehistoric town in Europe, flourished. The first well-known literate civilization in Europe was the Minoan civilization that arose on the island of Crete and flourished from approximately the 27th century BC to the 15th century BC. The Minoans were replaced by the Mycenaean civilization which flourished during

4816-479: The 7th century Byzantine history was greatly affected by the rise of Islam and the Caliphates . Muslim Arabs first invaded historically Roman territory under Abū Bakr , first Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate , who entered Roman Syria and Roman Mesopotamia . As the Byzantines and neighboring Sasanids were severely weakened by the time, amongst the most important reason(s) being the protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars , which included

4928-399: The 9th century AD, at the Preslav Literary School , and experienced the Golden Age of Bulgarian cultural prosperity during the reign of emperor Simeon I the Great (893–927). Two states, Great Moravia and Kievan Rus' , emerged among the Slavic peoples respectively in the 9th century. In the late 9th and 10th centuries, northern and western Europe felt the burgeoning power and influence of

5040-447: The Aurignacian culture and its technology had extended through most of Europe. The last Neanderthals seem to have been forced to retreat to the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula . Around 29,000 BC a new technology/culture appeared in the western region of Europe: the Gravettian . This technology/culture has been theorised to have come with migrations of people from the Balkans (see Kozarnika ). Around 16,000 BC, Europe witnessed

5152-438: The Court to hold that a mere recipient of services has free movement rights under the Treaty, so that almost every national of an EU country moving to another member state as a recipient of services, whether economically active or not, but provided they do not constitute an unreasonable burden for the host state, shall non be granted equality of treatment had a right to non-discrimination on the ground of nationality even prior to

5264-412: The EU. New member states may undergo transitional regimes for Freedom of movement for workers , during which their nationals only enjoy restricted access to labour markets in other member states. EU member states are permitted to keep restrictions on citizens of the newly acceded countries for a maximum of seven years after accession. For the EFTA states (Iceland, Lichtenstein, Norway and Switzerland),

5376-438: The European Court of Justice. This formed an embryo of the future European Citizenship, and came to be defined by the practice of freedom of movement of workers within the newly established European Economic Community. The rights of an "embryonic" European citizenship have been developed by the European Court of Justice well before the formal institution of European citizenship by the Maastricht Treaty. This could happen after

5488-416: The European Ombudsman can be directly approached by EU citizens. The modern EU citizenship status partially relies on the millennia of European history and Europe's common cultural heritage. "The introduction of a European form of citizenship with precisely defined rights and duties was considered as long ago as the 1960s", but the roots of "the key rights of EU citizenship—primarily the right to live and

5600-480: The European Personal Status were firstly recognized "to certain categories of workers, then expanded to all workers, to certain categories of non-workers (e.g. retirees, students), and finally perhaps to all citizens". In line with the model of social citizenship proposed by Thomas Humphrey Marshall , the "European Personal Status" or "Proto-European citizenship" was built by recognizing the social rights connected to freedom of movement and freedom of establishment in

5712-447: The European Union was first introduced by the Maastricht Treaty , and was extended by the Treaty of Amsterdam . Prior to the 1992 Maastricht Treaty, the European Communities treaties provided guarantees for the free movement of economically active People, but not, generally, for others. The 1951 Treaty of Paris establishing the European Coal and Steel Community established a right to free movement for workers in these industries and

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5824-432: The Maastricht Treaty. The Maastricht Treaty dispositions on the status of European citizenship (having direct effect, i.e. directly conferring the status of European citizen to all member states nationals) were not immediately applied by the Court, which continued following the previous interpretative approach and employed European citizenship as a supplementary argument in order to confirm and consolidate precedent law. It

5936-404: The Maastricht treaty concluded between the member states of the European community under international law, this changed into citizenship of the European Union in 2007 when the European Community changed its legal identity to be the European Union. Many more people became EU citizens when each new EU member state was added and, at each point, all the existing member states ratified the adjustments to

6048-419: The Roman Empire in about 380. The Roman Empire had been repeatedly attacked by invading armies from Northern Europe and in 476, Rome finally fell . Romulus Augustus , the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire , surrendered to the Germanic King Odoacer . When Emperor Constantine had reconquered Rome under the banner of the cross in 312, he soon afterwards issued the Edict of Milan in 313 (preceded by

6160-414: The UK (e.g. they had lived in the UK for five years, were born in the UK, or had parents or grandparents born in the UK) and had no EU voting rights. (see Guernsey passport , Isle of Man passport , Jersey passport ). Another example are the residents of Faroe Islands of Denmark who, though in possession of full Danish citizenship, are outside the EU and are explicitly excluded from EU citizenship under

6272-403: The Union shall have the right to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States, subject to the limitations and conditions laid down in this Treaty and by the measures adopted to give it effect. The European Court of Justice has remarked that, EU Citizenship is destined to be the fundamental status of nationals of the Member States The ECJ has held that this Article confers

6384-462: The Union. Citizenship of the Union shall be additional to and not replace national citizenship." While nationals of Member States are citizens of the union, "It is for each Member State, having due regard to Union law, to lay down the conditions for the acquisition and loss of nationality." As a result, there is a great variety in rules and practices with regard to the acquisition and loss of citizenship in EU member states. In practice this means that

6496-592: The agency denies political influence in decision-making. Translation errors are also common. European Union citizenship European Union citizenship is afforded to all nationals of member states of the European Union (EU). It was formally created with the adoption of the 1992 Maastricht Treaty , at the same time as the creation of the EU. EU citizenship is additional to, as it does not replace, national citizenship. It affords EU citizens with rights, freedoms and legal protections available under EU law . EU citizens have freedom of movement , and

6608-410: The appearance of a new culture, known as Magdalenian , possibly rooted in the old Gravettian. This culture soon superseded the Solutrean area and the Gravettian of mainly France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal and Ukraine. The Hamburg culture prevailed in Northern Europe in the 14th and the 13th millennium BC as the Creswellian (also termed the British Late Magdalenian) did shortly after in

6720-503: The beginning of the Hellenistic period . After the death of Alexander the Great , his empire split into multiple kingdoms ruled by his generals, the Diadochi . The Diadochi fought against each other in a series of conflicts called the Wars of the Diadochi . In the beginning of the 2nd century BC, only three major kingdoms remained: the Ptolemaic Egypt , the Seleucid Empire and Macedonia . These kingdoms spread Greek culture to regions as far away as Bactria . Much of Greek learning

6832-412: The beginning of the geometric period, the Greek Dark Ages of traditional historiography. The Bronze Age collapse may be seen in the context of technological history that saw the slow spread of ironworking technology from present-day Bulgaria and Romania in the 13th and the 12th centuries BC. The Tumulus culture and the following Urnfield culture of central Europe were part of the origin of

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6944-411: The birth of children, the right to reside with a non-spousal partner, the payment of funeral expenses. As later stated in Levin, the Court found that the "freedom to take up employment was important, not just as a means towards the creation of a single market for the benefit of the member state economies, but as a right for the worker to raise her or his standard of living". Under the ECJ case-law,

7056-405: The building of megalithic structures, as exemplified by Stonehenge . During the Indo-European migrations , Europe saw migrations from the east and southeast. The period known as classical antiquity began with the emergence of the city-states of ancient Greece . Later, the Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean Basin . The Migration Period of the Germanic people began in

7168-403: The capital in Byzantium, or Constantinople (now Istanbul). Constantinople is generally considered to be the center of " Eastern Orthodox civilization ". Whereas Diocletian severely persecuted Christianity , Constantine declared an official end to state-sponsored persecution of Christians in 313 with the Edict of Milan , thus setting the stage for the Church to become the state church of

7280-403: The causes, the Mycenaean civilization had disappeared after LH III C , when the sites of Mycenae and Tiryns were again destroyed and lost their importance. This end, during the last years of the 12th century BC, occurred after a slow decline of the Mycenaean civilization, which lasted many years before dying out. The beginning of the 11th century BC opened a new context, that of the protogeometric,

7392-455: The centre of the Minoan civilization, and adopted a form of the Minoan script (called Linear A ) to write their early form of Greek in Linear B . The Mycenaean civilization perished with the collapse of Bronze-Age civilization on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The collapse is commonly attributed to the Dorian invasion , although other theories describing natural disasters and climate change have been advanced as well. Whatever

7504-409: The changeover was gradual and by 330, when Constantine inaugurated his new capital, the process of hellenization and increasing Christianisation was already under way. The Empire is generally considered to have ended after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Plague of Justinian was a pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople , in

7616-441: The citizens of European Economic Area countries and Switzerland. However, with the creation of EU citizenship, certain political rights came into being. The adoption of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (CFR) enshrined specific political, social, and economic rights for EU citizens and residents. Title Five of the CFR focuses specifically on the rights of EU Citizens. Protected rights of EU citizens include

7728-494: The climactic Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 , under Umar , the second Caliph, the Muslims entirely toppled the Sasanid Persian Empire , and decisively conquered Syria and Mesopotamia, as well as Roman Palestine , Roman Egypt , and parts of Asia Minor and Roman North Africa . In the mid 7th century AD, following the Muslim conquest of Persia , Islam penetrated into the Caucasus region, of which parts would later permanently become part of Russia. This trend, which included

7840-489: The condition of having health insurance and "sufficient resources" in order not to become an "unreasonable burden" for the social assistance system of the host Member State, which otherwise can legitimately expel them. The rights of EU Citizens are enumerated in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union and the Charter of Fundamental Rights. Historically, the main benefit of being a citizen of an EU state has been that of free movement. The free movement also applies to

7952-452: The conquests by the invading Muslim forces and by that the spread of Islam as well continued under Umar's successors and under the Umayyad Caliphate , which conquered the rest of Mediterranean North Africa and most of the Iberian Peninsula . Over the next centuries Muslim forces were able to take further European territory, including Cyprus , Malta, Crete , and Sicily and parts of southern Italy . The Muslim conquest of Hispania began when

8064-533: The dominant state was the remaining Eastern Roman Empire. In the feudal system, new princes and kings arose, the most powerful of which was arguably the Frankish ruler Charlemagne . In 800, Charlemagne, reinforced by his massive territorial conquests, was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III , solidifying his power in western Europe. Charlemagne's reign marked the beginning of a new Germanic Roman Empire in

8176-821: The end of the 1st century BC, under Augustus and his authoritarian successors. The Roman Empire had its centre in the Mediterranean, controlling all the countries on its shores; the northern border was marked by the Rhine and Danube rivers. Under the emperor Trajan (2nd century AD) the empire reached its maximum expansion, controlling approximately 5,900,000 km (2,300,000 sq mi) of land surface, including Italia , Gallia , Dalmatia , Aquitania , Britannia , Baetica , Hispania , Thrace , Macedonia , Greece , Moesia , Dacia , Pannonia , Egypt, Asia Minor , Cappadocia , Armenia , Caucasus , North Africa, Levant and parts of Mesopotamia . Pax Romana ,

8288-731: The ensuing Greco-Persian Wars , namely during the Second Persian invasion of Greece , and precisely after the Battle of Thermopylae and the Battle of Artemisium , almost all of Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth had been overrun by the Persians, but the Greek city states reached a decisive victory at the Battle of Plataea . With the end of the Greco-Persian wars, the Persians were eventually forced to withdraw from their territories in Europe. The Greco-Persian Wars and

8400-656: The fall of remaining dictatorships in Western Europe and a gradual political integration , which led to the European Community , later the European Union . After the Revolutions of 1989 , all European communist states transitioned to capitalism. The 21st century began with most of them gradually joining the EU . In parallel, Europe suffered from the Great Recession and its after-effects ,

8512-454: The first " Byzantine emperor ". It was he who moved the imperial capital in 324 from Nicomedia to Byzantium , which re-founded as Constantinople, or Nova Roma (" New Rome "). The city of Rome itself had not served as the capital since the reign of Diocletian (284–305). Some date the beginnings of the Empire to the reign of Theodosius I (379–395) and Christianity's official supplanting of

8624-472: The first years of the EEC, when workers' rights in the host state were progressively extended to their family members even beyond the status of "worker", so as to promote the full social integration of the workers and their families in the host member state. When Regulation 1612/68 abolished movement and residence restrictions for member state workers and their families in the entire EEC territory, thus ending

8736-489: The following: The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union provides for citizens to be "directly represented at Union level in the European Parliament " and "to participate in the democratic life of the Union" ( Treaty on the European Union , Title II, Article 10). Specifically, the following rights are afforded: Article 21 (1) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union states that Every citizen of

8848-422: The freedom of settlement and employment across the EU . They are free to trade and transport goods, services and capital through EU state borders, with no restrictions on capital movements or fees. EU citizens have the right to vote and run as a candidate in certain (often local) elections in the member state where they live that is not their state of origin, while also voting for EU elections and participating in

8960-476: The immigration, asylum, reception, and citizenship units. Support units, including the customer and communication unit, and the headquarters, which comprises the legal and country information unit, human resources management, electronic services unit, office, and development services. The agency employs over 1,000 people. The Finnish Immigration Service is supervised and developed by the Director General,

9072-522: The influence of the Federmesser group as well. Evidence of permanent settlement dates from the 8th millennium BC in the Balkans. The Neolithic reached Central Europe in the 6th millennium BC and parts of Northern Europe in the 5th and 4th millenniums BC. The modern indigenous populations of Europe are largely descended from three distinct lineages: Mesolithic hunter-gatherers , a derivative of

9184-654: The intervention of Tervel of Bulgaria and weakened the Umayyad dynasty and reduced their prestige. In 722 Don Pelayo formed an army of 300 Astur soldiers, to confront Munuza's Muslim troops. In the battle of Covadonga , the Astures defeated the Arab-Moors, who decided to retire. The Christian victory marked the beginning of the Reconquista and the establishment of the Kingdom of Asturias , whose first sovereign

9296-751: The last emperor to preside over a united Roman Empire, until his death in 395. The empire was split into two halves: the Western Roman Empire centred in Ravenna , and the Eastern Roman Empire (later to be referred to as the Byzantine Empire ) centred in Constantinople. The Roman Empire was repeatedly attacked by Hunnic , Germanic , Slavic and other "barbarian" tribes (see: Migration Period ), and in 476 finally

9408-682: The late 4th century AD and made gradual incursions into various parts of the Roman Empire. The fall of the Western Roman Empire in AD 476 traditionally marks the start of the Middle Ages . While the Eastern Roman Empire would continue for another 1000 years, the former lands of the Western Empire would be fragmented into a number of different states. At the same time, the early Slavs began to become established as

9520-705: The late 6th century BC, the Greek city states in Asia Minor had been incorporated into the Persian Empire , while the latter had made territorial gains in the Balkans (such as Macedon , Thrace , Paeonia , etc.) and Eastern Europe proper as well. During the 5th century BC, some of the Greek city states attempted to overthrow Persian rule in the Ionian Revolt , which failed. This sparked the first Persian invasion of mainland Greece . At some point during

9632-915: The maximum is nine years. Following the 2004 enlargement , three "old" member states—Ireland, Sweden and the United Kingdom—decided to allow unrestricted access to their labour markets. By December 2009, all but two member states— Austria and Germany—had completely dropped controls. These restrictions too expired on 1 May 2011. Following the 2007 enlargement , all pre-2004 member states except Finland and Sweden imposed restrictions on Bulgarian and Romanian citizens, as did two member states that joined in 2004: Malta and Hungary . As of November 2012, all but 8 EU countries have dropped restrictions entirely. These restrictions too expired on 1 January 2014. Norway opened its labour market in June 2012, while Switzerland kept restrictions in place until 2016. Following

9744-528: The newly settled Kingdom of Hungary . The Kingdom of Croatia also appeared in the Balkans. The subsequent period, ending around 1000, saw the further growth of feudalism , which weakened the Holy Roman Empire. In eastern Europe, Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in 921, after Almış I converted to Islam under the missionary efforts of Ahmad ibn Fadlan . Slavery in the early medieval period had mostly died out in western Europe by about

9856-659: The northwest ( Asturias ) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees . In 711, Visigothic Hispania was weakened because it was immersed in a serious internal crisis caused by a war of succession to the throne. The Muslims took advantage of the crisis within the Hispano - Visigothic society to carry out their conquests. This territory, under the Arab name Al-Andalus , became part of the expanding Umayyad empire. The second siege of Constantinople (717) ended unsuccessfully after

9968-538: The onslaught of the arising Islamic Caliphate ( Rashidun and Umayyad ). By 650, the provinces of Egypt , Palestine and Syria were lost to the Muslim forces , followed by Hispania and southern Italy in the 7th and 8th centuries (see Muslim conquests ). The Arab invasion from the east was stopped after the intervention of the Bulgarian Empire (see Han Tervel ). The Middle Ages are commonly dated from

10080-443: The other hand, and the following is not meant to diminish this first fact, the inclusion of a certain group results in the differentiation of others. Only through active differentiation and demarcation, i.e. exclusion, an identity with formal criteria can be created. Due to the history of the EU and its mentioned development, the progress of including and excluding is inevitably full of tensions. Many dynamics in citizenship grounded in

10192-571: The other hand, it also meant more freedom, particularly in more remote areas. In Italy, Theodoric the Great began the cultural romanisation of the new world he had constructed. He made Ravenna a centre of Romano-Greek culture of art and his court fostered a flowering of literature and philosophy in Latin . In Iberia, King Chindasuinth created the Visigothic Code . In the Eastern part

10304-573: The pagan Roman religion , or following his death in 395, when the empire was split into two parts, with capitals in Rome and Constantinople. Others place it yet later in 476, when Romulus Augustulus , traditionally considered the last western emperor, was deposed, thus leaving sole imperial authority with the emperor in the Greek East . Others point to the reorganisation of the empire in the time of Heraclius (c. 620) when Latin titles and usages were officially replaced with Greek versions. In any case,

10416-474: The period during which Greece and Rome flourished and had major influence throughout much of Europe , North Africa , and West Asia . The Hellenic civilisation was a collection of city-states or poleis with different governments and cultures that achieved notable developments in government, philosophy, science, mathematics, politics, sports, theatre and music. The most powerful city-states were Athens , Sparta , Thebes , Corinth , and Syracuse . Athens

10528-776: The period roughly between 1600 BC, when Helladic culture in mainland Greece was transformed under influences from Minoan Crete, and 1100 BC. The major Mycenaean cities were Mycenae and Tiryns in Argolis, Pylos in Messenia, Athens in Attica, Thebes and Orchomenus in Boeotia, and Iolkos in Thessaly. In Crete , the Mycenaeans occupied Knossos . Mycenaean settlement sites also appeared in Epirus , Macedonia , on islands in

10640-470: The region, and has been defined as a critical starting point for the formation of states in Europe. To the east, Bulgaria was established in 681 and became the first Slavic country. The powerful Bulgarian Empire was the main rival of Byzantium for control of the Balkans for centuries and from the 9th century became the cultural centre of Slavic Europe. The Empire created the Cyrillic script during

10752-724: The right to vote in European Parliament elections. In contrast, British citizens in the Crown Dependencies of Jersey , Guernsey and the Isle of Man had always been considered to be EU citizens but, unlike residents of the British overseas territories , were prohibited from exercising EU free movement rights under the terms of the British Accession Treaty if they had no other connection with

10864-600: The right to work anywhere within the territory of the Member States—can be traced back to the free movement provisions contained in the Treaty of Paris establishing the European Coal and Steel Community, which entered into force in 1952." The Treaty of Paris introduced freedom of movement for the professionals in the coal and steel industry which may be considered the nascent form of free movement that developed into EU citizenship four decades later. The citizenship of

10976-575: The rights of free movement of workers applies regardless of the worker's purpose in taking up employment abroad, to both part-time and full-time work, and whether or not the worker required additional financial assistance from the member state into which he moves. Before the institution of the European citizenship the ECJ interpreted the status of "worker" it beyond its purely literal meaning, progressively extending it to subjects such as non-economically active family members, students, tourists. This led

11088-498: The tension between the formal law part and the non-/beyond-law surrounding; such as the enlargement of freedom and rights to every kind of explicitly or implicitly economically active persons. Homeless and poor people do not enjoy these freedoms, because of a lack of economic action. The situation is the same when the home state says someone might no longer enjoy these rights. Economically inactive EU citizens who want to stay longer than three months in another Member State have to fulfill

11200-530: The terms of the Danish Accession Treaty. This is in contrast to residents of the Danish territory of Greenland who, whilst also outside the EU as a result of the 1984 Greenland Treaty , do receive EU citizenship as this was not specifically excluded by the terms of that treaty (see Faroe Islands and the European Union ; Greenland and the European Union ). Although Greenland withdrew from

11312-478: The transitional period established by article 49 of the Rome Treaty, not only this created the conditions for a full exercise of free movement rights, but a number of important new rights were subsequently recognized by the ECJ, such as: the right to a minimum wage in the host state, the reduction of fares on public transport for large families, the right to a check for disabled adults, interest-free loans for

11424-405: The treaties to allow the creation of those extra citizenship rights for the individual. European citizenship is also generally granted at the same time as national citizenship is granted). Article 20 (1) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union states that: "Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding the nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of

11536-511: The two landmark decisions in the cases Van Gend en Loos and Costa/ENEL , which established (a) the principle of direct effect of EEC law, and (b) the supremacy of European law over national law, including the constitutional one. In particular, the 1957 Rome Treaty provisions were interpreted by the European Court of Justice not as having a narrow economic purpose, but rather a wider social and economic one. The rights associated with

11648-582: The victory of the Greek city states directly influenced the entire further course of European history and would set its further tone. Some Greek city-states formed the Delian League to continue fighting Persia, but Athens' position as leader of this league led Sparta to form the rival Peloponnesian League . The Peloponnesian Wars ensued, and the Peloponnesian League was victorious. Subsequently, discontent with Spartan hegemony led to

11760-671: The west, the Holy Roman Empire . Outside his borders, new forces were gathering. The Kievan Rus' were marking out their territory, a Great Moravia was growing, while the Angles and the Saxons were securing their borders. For the duration of the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire was embroiled in a series of deadly conflicts, first with the Persian Sassanid Empire (see Roman–Persian Wars ), followed by

11872-656: The year 1000 AD, replaced by serfdom . It lingered longer in England and in peripheral areas linked to the Muslim world, where slavery continued to flourish. Church rules suppressed slavery of Christians. Most historians argue the transition was quite abrupt around 1000, but some see a gradual transition from about 300 to 1000. In 1054, the East–West Schism occurred between the two remaining Christian seats in Rome and Constantinople (modern Istanbul). The High Middle Ages of

11984-523: The years 541–542. It is estimated that the Plague of Justinian killed as many as 100 million people. It caused Europe's population to drop by around 50% between 541 and 700. It also may have contributed to the success of the Muslim conquests . During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe, and Constantinople

12096-665: Was Don Pelayo. The conquerors intended to continue their expansion in Europe and move northeast across the Pyrenees, but were defeated by the Frankish leader Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732. The Umayyads were overthrown in 750 by the ' Abbāsids , and, in 756, the Umayyads established an independent emirate in the Iberian Peninsula. The Holy Roman Empire emerged around 800, as Charlemagne, King of

12208-700: Was a powerful Hellenic city-state and governed itself with an early form of direct democracy invented by Cleisthenes ; the citizens of Athens voted on legislation and executive bills themselves. Athens was the home of Socrates , Plato , and the Platonic Academy . The Hellenic city-states established colonies on the shores of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea ( Asia Minor , Sicily , and Southern Italy in Magna Graecia ). By

12320-521: Was assimilated by the nascent Roman state as it expanded outward from Italy, taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite: the only challenge to Roman ascent came from the Phoenician colony of Carthage , and its defeats in the three Punic Wars marked the start of Roman hegemony . First governed by kings , then as a senatorial republic (the Roman Republic ), Rome became an empire at

12432-603: Was one of the largest and wealthiest cities in Europe. The Early Middle Ages span roughly five centuries from 500 to 1000. In the East and Southeast of Europe new dominant states formed: the Avar Khaganate (567–after 822), Old Great Bulgaria (632–668), the Khazar Khaganate (c. 650–969) and Danube Bulgaria (founded by Asparuh in 680) were constantly rivaling the hegemony of the Byzantine Empire. From

12544-522: Was only a few years after the entry into force of the Treaty of Maastricht that the Court finally decided to abandon this approach and to recognize the status of European citizen in order to decide the controversies. Two landmark decisions in this sense are Martinez Sala , and Grelczyk . On the one hand, citizenship has an inclusive character, as it allows its holders freedoms and encourages and enables active participation and active use of these rights. On

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