Misplaced Pages

#552447

106-570: The history of the Jews in Finland goes back to the late 18th century. Many of the first Jews to arrive were nineteenth-century Russian soldiers (known as cantonists ) who stayed in Finland after their military service ended. The two synagogues in active use today in Finland were built by Jewish congregations in Helsinki and Turku in 1906 and 1912, respectively. The Vyborg Synagogue (built 1910–1911)

212-710: A Finnish coastal artillery fort at Utö island prevented German net-laying ships from passing into the Baltic Sea on 15 September, as they had been ordered to intern the German forces. On 16 September, a German naval detachment consisting of the German cruiser  Prinz Eugen escorted by five destroyers arrived at Utö. The German cruiser stayed out of range of the Finnish 152 mm (6.0 in) guns and threatened to open fire with its artillery. In order to avoid bloodshed,

318-672: A bridge crossing the Olhava river between Kemi and Oulu. Finnish troops, who had been ordered to take the bridge intact, were attempting to disarm explosives rigged to the bridge when the Germans detonated them, demolishing the bridge and killing, among others, the Finnish company commander. On 30 September, the Finns attempted to encircle the Germans at Pudasjärvi into a pocket (called a motti in Finnish, originally meaning 1 m (35 cu ft) of firewood) with flanking movements through

424-588: A district medical officer in the Finnish Army, organized an evacuation of a German field hospital when it came under Soviet shelling. More than 600 patients, including SS soldiers, were evacuated. Captain Salomon Klass, also of the Finnish Army, led a Finnish unit that rescued a German company from encirclement by the Soviets. Dina Poljakoff, a member of Lotta Svärd, the Finnish women's auxiliary service,

530-434: A diversionary raid, with the main assault to take place at Kemi, where the Finnish battalion-sized Detachment Pennanen ( Finnish : Osasto Pennanen ) was already in control of important industrial facilities on the island of Ajos. Various factors—including a stronger than expected German garrison at Kemi already alerted by local attacks—made the Finns switch the target to Röyttä, Tornio's outer port. The Finns initially landed

636-611: A failed offensive landing operation by Germany in the Gulf of Finland , the evacuation proceeded peacefully at first. The Finns escalated the situation into warfare on 28 September after Soviet pressure to adhere to the terms of the armistice. The Finnish Army was required by the Soviet Union to push Wehrmacht troops out of Finnish territory. After a series of minor battles, the war came to an effective end in November 1944, when all of

742-784: A high rate of immigration to Israel (known as " aliyah "), which led to a shrinking Jewish population. The community was partly revitalized when some Soviet Jews immigrated to Finland following the collapse of the Soviet Union. As of 2020, the number of Jews in Finland was approximately 1,800, of whom 1,400 lived in Helsinki, about 200 in Turku , and about 50 in Tampere . Jews are well integrated into Finnish society and are represented in nearly all sectors. Most Finnish Jews are corporate employees or self-employed professionals. Most Finnish Jews speak Finnish or Swedish as their mother tongue . Yiddish , German, Russian, and Hebrew are also spoken in

848-623: A mere 600 men. The Germans continued their withdrawal but remained in positions first at Palojoensuu village, 150 km (93 mi) from Norway, in early November 1944. From there, they moved to the fortified Sturmbock-Stellung position along the Lätäseno River , 100 km (62 mi) from Norway, on 26 November. The German 7th Mountain Division held these positions until 10 January 1945 when northern Norway had been cleared and positions at Lyngen Fjord were manned. On 12 January,

954-561: A possible enemy advance from the south. The accidental death of Generaloberst Eduard Dietl on 23 June 1944 brought Generaloberst Lothar Rendulic to the command of the 20th Mountain Army. After the Soviet strategic Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive in southern Finland from June to July and a change in Finnish leadership in August 1944, Finland negotiated a separate peace agreement with

1060-420: A surrender demand and then opened fire on a small German rearguard contingent. This took the Germans by surprise as the Finns had previously agreed to warn them should they be forced to take hostile action against them. After the incident, partial contact was re-established. The Germans told the Finns they had no interest in fighting them, but would not surrender. The next incident took place on 29 September at

1166-493: A total of 180,000 t (200,000 short tons) in rations, ammunition and fuel to last for six months. The army was positioned as follows: The III Corps ( Finnish : III armeijakunta , III AK ), led by Lieutenant General Hjalmar Siilasvuo , gradually shifted from the defence of the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive to the latitude of Oulu and was fully repositioned by 28 September. The III Corps consisted of

SECTION 10

#1732765367553

1272-399: A unique example of a correct and cordial relationship [...] I deem it my duty to lead my people out of the war. I cannot and I will not turn the arms which you have so liberally supplied us against Germans. I harbour the hope that you, even if you disapprove of my attitude, will wish and endeavour like myself and all other Finns to terminate our former relations without increasing the gravity of

1378-540: A volunteer in the Winter War; and an unknown individual. When Finnish media reported the news, it caused a national scandal, and ministers resigned in protest. After protests by Lutheran ministers, an Archbishop, and the Social Democratic Party, no more foreign Jewish refugees were deported from Finland. In 2000, Finnish Prime Minister Paavo Lipponen issued an official apology for the extradition of

1484-446: A week until 8 October, when the Germans withdrew from Tornio. Meanwhile, Finnish troops were advancing overland from Oulu towards Kemi, with the 15th Brigade making only slow progress against meager German resistance. Their advance was hampered by the destruction of roads and bridges by withdrawing Germans as well as a lack of spirit in both the Finnish troops and their leaders. The Finns attacked Kemi on 7 October, attempting to encircle

1590-466: Is based in the city. Tampere previously had an organized Jewish community, but it stopped functioning in 1981. The other two cities continue to run their community organizations. There are also some Reform Jewish movements in Finland today. Historically, antisemitic hate crimes have been rare, and the Jewish community has been relatively safe. However, there have been some antisemitic crimes reported in

1696-822: The 26th Army had followed the withdrawing XVIII Mountain Corps around 50 km (31 mi) over the Finnish border in southern Lapland to Kuusamo and Suomussalmi , but left the area in November. The Soviet troops in Ivalo did not leave until September 1945. For most practical purposes, the war in Lapland concluded in early November 1944. After holding Tankavaara, the Germans swiftly withdrew from north-eastern Lapland at Karigasniemi on 25 November 1944. The Finnish Jaeger Brigade pursuing them had by then been mostly demobilised. In north-western Lapland, only four battalions of Finnish troops were left on 4 November and by February 1945,

1802-536: The 3rd , 6th , and 11th Divisions as well as the Armoured Division . Additionally, four battalions formerly under German command were converted into separate detachments. Two regiments, Infantry Regiment 15 and Border Jaeger Regiment, reinforced the III Corps. In total, Finnish ground forces in the Lapland theatre were 75,000 strong. The number of Finnish troops dropped sharply as the Germans withdrew and

1908-672: The Allied Control Commission monitoring adherence to the Moscow Armistice and the USSR threatened to occupy Finland if the terms of expelling or disarming the Germans were not met. Thus, Lieutenant General Siilasvuo ordered the III Corps to engage. The first hostilities between the Finnish Army and the 20th Mountain Army in Lapland took place 20 km (12 mi) southwest of Pudasjärvi , at around 08:00 on 28 September 1944, when Finnish advance units first issued

2014-548: The Crimean War , when conscription was annual. The first 1827 draft involved some 1,800 Jewish conscripts; by the qahal's decision half of them were children. In 1843 the conscription system was extended to the Kingdom of Poland that was previously exempt from it. The 'decree of August 26, 1827' made Jews liable for military service, and allowed their conscription between the ages of twelve and twenty-five. Every four years,

2120-587: The European Jewish Congress prepared a report titled “Experiences and Views of Antisemitism in Finland – A Report on Discrimination and Hate Crime Targeting Jews" to investigate the rising levels of antisemitism in Finland. The survey respondents consisted of persons over the age of 16 who live in Finland and identify as Jewish. The report was prepared by researchers at the Polin Institute in collaboration with Åbo Akademi University and

2226-577: The Finnish Ministry of Justice . According to the report, over 80% of respondents believed that antisemitism has increased in the past 5 years, while over 70% of respondents stated that Finnish people blame Jewish people for the actions of the Israeli government. Cantonists Cantonist schools were established by the 1721 decree of Tsar Peter the Great that stipulated that every regiment

SECTION 20

#1732765367553

2332-522: The Finnish minelayer  Louhi was sunk with the loss of its ten sailors in the Gulf of Bothnia by the German submarine  U-370 using an acoustic G7es torpedo . Some German positions defending Lyngen extended over to Kilpisjärvi on the Finnish side of the border, but no major activity occurred. The Wehrmacht completely withdrew from Finland by 27 April 1945 and a Finnish battle patrol raised

2438-643: The Fundamental Rights Agency published its annual overview of data on antisemitism available in the European Union, including information from a report by the Police College of Finland . The semi-frequent report covers religiously motivated hate crimes, including antisemitic crimes. The most recently-documented data is from 2013, when most of the incidents (six out of eleven) concerned verbal threats or harassments. In May 2024,

2544-675: The Kingdom of Sweden , which only allowed Jews to reside in three towns – all of which fell outside the boundaries of modern-day Finland. In 1809, Finland became part of the Russian Empire as an autonomous Grand Duchy , but the Swedish Judereglementet laws remained in effect, meaning Jews were still unable to settle in Finnish territory. Despite these legal difficulties, during the period of Finnish autonomy from 1809 to 1917, Russian Jews established themselves in

2650-602: The Lapland War ( Finnish : Lapin sota ; Swedish : Lapplandskriget ; German : Lapplandkrieg ) saw fighting between Finland and Nazi Germany – effectively from September to November 1944 – in Finland's northernmost region, Lapland . Though the Finns and the Germans had been fighting together against the Soviet Union since 1941 during the Continuation War (1941–1944), peace negotiations between

2756-663: The Patriotic War of 1812 their number increased dramatically, when many orphaned children of military personnel killed in the war enrolled in cantonist schools voluntarily. During this period the curriculum of cantonist schools was equivalent to that of gymnasia , and military subjects were not taught. In 1824 all cantonist schools were made answerable to the Director of Military Settlements Count Aleksey Arakcheyev , and in 1826 they were organized into cantonist battalions. The standards of curriculum dropped significantly, and it

2862-399: The Russian Empire with the territories acquired as the result of the last partitions of Poland of the 1790s; their civil rights were severely restricted (see Pale of Settlement ). Most lacked knowledge of the official Russian language . Before 1827, Jews were doubly taxed en lieu of being obligated to serve in the army and their inclusion was supposed to alleviate this burden. However,

2968-581: The Winter War (30 November 1939 – 13 March 1940), the Soviet Union 's invasion of Finland. Finnish Jews evacuated Finnish Karelia alongside other locals. The Vyborg Synagogue was destroyed by air bombings within the first few days of the war. Finland resumed fighting the Soviet Union in the Continuation War (1941 – 1944), whose onset was timed to coincide with Germany's launch of Operation Barbarossa . This resulted in Finland fighting alongside Nazi Germany. 327 Finnish Jews fought for Finland during

3074-470: The "Statute on Conscription Duty" signed by Tsar Nicholas I of Russia on August 26 (September 7 new style ), 1827, Jews were made liable to personal military service and were subject to the same conscription quota as all other tax-paying estates ("sosloviya") in the Russian Empire. The total number of conscripts was uniform for all populations (four conscripts per each thousand subjects); however,

3180-618: The Finnish 11th Division from gaining the upper hand despite initially fairly successful flanking operations by Infantry Regiments 8 and 50. The Finns planned to isolate the SS Mountain Division, marching from the direction of Kittilä in the south-east, before Muonio and thereby entrap it within a motti . The delaying action by Kampfgruppe Esch and the destroyed road network thwarted the Finnish strategy. The Soviet Karelian Front, led by General Kirill Meretskov , initiated its Petsamo–Kirkenes Offensive and started to push

3286-472: The Finnish Army was demobilised; by December 1944 only 12,000 were left. Due to this, the Finnish soldiers were mostly conscripts, as veterans were transferred away from the front. The latter part of the war was therefore dubbed the "Children's Crusade" ( Finnish : lasten ristiretki ) in Finland. The announcement on 2 September 1944 of the ceasefire and the Moscow Armistice between Finland and

History of the Jews in Finland - Misplaced Pages Continue

3392-744: The Finnish Jaeger Brigade attempted, unsuccessfully, on 26 October to dislodge the twelve-battalion-strong German 169th Infantry Division , entrenched in prepared fortifications. Finnish forces gained ground only on 1 November, when the Germans withdrew northward. Likewise, on 26 October at Muonio , 200 km (120 mi) south-east of defensive positions in Norway, the German 6th SS Mountain Division Nord reinforced by Kampfgruppe Esch again had numerical and material superiority with artillery and armoured support. This prevented

3498-588: The Finnish army. About 2,000 of the POWs handed over by Finland joined the Wehrmacht . Among the rest, there were about 500 people (mainly Soviet political officers) who were considered politically dangerous in Finland. This latter group most likely perished in concentration camps or were executed following guidelines set by the Commissar Order . 47 Jews appear on the list of those extradited, although religion

3604-567: The Finnish brigade from trapping the defending Germans before it received permission to withdraw on 9 October after causing substantial losses to the Finns. On 13 October, the tables were turned at Kivitaipale, some 20 km (12 mi) south of Rovaniemi, and only a fortuitous withdrawal by the Mountain Regiment 218 saved the Finnish Infantry Regiment 33 from being severely mauled. The German withdrawal allowed

3710-535: The Finnish government and the Allies of World War II had been conducted intermittently during 1943–1944, but no agreement had been reached. The Moscow Armistice , signed on 19 September 1944, demanded that Finland break diplomatic ties with Germany and expel or disarm any German soldiers remaining in Finland. The Wehrmacht had anticipated this turn of events and planned an organised withdrawal to Nazi-occupied Norway , as part of Operation Birke (Birch). Despite

3816-478: The Finns allowed the net-layers to pass. In response to the German operations, Finland immediately removed its shipping from the joint evacuation operation, but the evacuation from Lapland to Norway progressed according to the secret agreement. The last German convoy departed from Kemi in northern Finland on 21 September 1944 and was escorted by submarines and, starting from south of Åland , by German cruisers. The lack of Finnish aggression did not go unnoticed by

3922-479: The Finns to safely disembark heavy equipment to support the battle and around 12,500 soldiers in total arrived during the landings. The German forces were reinforced by the 2nd Company of Panzer Abteilung 211 , two infantry battalions and the MG-Ski-Brigade Finnland . The Finnish Infantry Regiment 11 was reinforced with Infantry Regiments 50 and 53. The Finns beat back German counterattacks for

4028-555: The Finns to surround one of the delaying battalions, but Mountain Regiment 218 returned and managed to rescue the stranded battalion. The Germans initially concentrated on destroying governmental buildings in Rovaniemi, but the fire spread and destroyed housing beyond that. German attempts to fight the fire failed and a train loaded with ammunition caught fire at the railroad station on 14 October, resulting in an explosion which spread

4134-506: The German high command Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( OKW ) began to plan for the eventuality that Finland might negotiate a separate peace agreement with the Soviet Union. The Germans planned to withdraw their forces northward in order to shield the nickel mines near Petsamo ( Russian : Pechenga ). During the winter of 1943–1944, the Germans improved the roads from northern Norway to northern Finland by extensive use of prisoner-of-war labour in certain areas. Casualties among

4240-496: The Germans into a motti with a frontal attack by the 15th Brigade and an attack from the rear by Detachment Pennanen. Strong German resistance, civilians in the area, and looted alcohol prevented the Finns from fully trapping all the Germans. Though Finnish forces took several hundred prisoners, they failed to prevent the Germans from demolishing the bridges over the Kemi River once they began to withdraw on 8 October. From

4346-440: The Germans wished to avoid hostilities, both sides strove for the evacuation to be performed as smoothly as possible. By 15 September, a secret agreement had been reached by which the Germans would inform the Finns of their withdrawal timetable, who would then allow the Germans to use Finnish transport for evacuation as well as to destroy roads, railroads and bridges behind their withdrawal. In practice, friction soon arose both from

History of the Jews in Finland - Misplaced Pages Continue

4452-535: The Germans withdrew towards the town of Rovaniemi , a road junction point in Lapland, and Norway, movement was mostly limited to the immediate vicinity of Lapland's three main roads, which constricted military activities considerably. In general, the withdrawal followed a pattern in which advancing Finnish units would encounter German rear guards and attempt to flank them on foot, but the destroyed road network prevented them from bringing up artillery and other heavy weapons. As Finnish infantry slowly picked their way through

4558-502: The Gulf of Finland. Although Heinrich Himmler visited Finland twice to try to persuade the authorities to hand over the Jewish population, he was unsuccessful. In 1942, an exchange of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs) took place between Finland and Germany. Approximately 2,600–2,800 Soviet POWs of various nationalities then held by Finland were exchanged for 2,100 Soviet POWs of Baltic Finn nationalities (Finnish, Karelian, Ingrian, or Estonian) held by Germany, who might have volunteered in

4664-647: The Hebrew). The agony of Polish children incorporated into the Imperial Russian Army was presented in Juliusz Słowacki 's narrative poem Anhelli . The cantonist policy was abolished by Tsar Alexander II 's decree on 26 August 1856, in the aftermath of the Russian defeat in the Crimean War , which made evident the dire necessity for the modernisation of the Russian military forces. Nonetheless,

4770-540: The Infantry Regiment 11 ( Finnish : Jalkaväkirykmentti 11 ) of the 3rd Division, which, together with a Civil Guard -led uprising at Tornio, managed to secure both the port and most of the town as well as the bridges over the Tornio River . The Finnish attack soon bogged down due to disorganisation caused in part by alcohol looted from German supply depots as well as stiffening German resistance. During

4876-492: The Jewish community had to supply four recruits per thousand of the population. Strict quotas were imposed on all communities and the qahals were given the unpleasant task of implementing conscription within the Jewish communities. Since the merchant- guild members, agricultural colonists, factory mechanics, clergy, and all Jews with secondary education were exempt, and the wealthy bribed their way out of having their children conscripted, fewer potential conscripts were available;

4982-626: The Moscow Armistice, but it remained formally at war with the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom until ratification of the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty . Germany and Finland had been at war with the Soviet Union (USSR) since Operation Barbarossa began in June 1941, co-operating closely in the Continuation War and Operation Silver Fox with the German 20th Mountain Army ( German : 20. Gebirgsarmee ) stationed in Lapland . As early as mid-1943,

5088-568: The Russian War Ministry. Only in the eleven years listed below – the total of 29,115 children were conscripted. Basing on these data, it was estimated that between 1827 and 1856, there were over 50,000 of them. Lapland War Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups Finland Iceland Norway RAF , RN , Fleet Air Arm Svalbard (1941–1945) Lapland War Associated articles During World War II ,

5194-615: The SS Bore IX and the SS Maininki alongside the pier. The fifth wave on 5 October suffered only light shrapnel damage despite being both shelled from shore and bombed from the sky. The Finnish Navy 's gunboats Hämeenmaa , Uusimaa and VMV-class patrol boats 15 and 16 arrived with the sixth wave just in time to witness German Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor bombers attacking the shipping at Tornio with Henschel Hs 293 glide bombs without results. Arrival of naval assets allowed

5300-417: The USSR triggered frantic efforts by the 20th Mountain Army, which immediately started Operation Birke. Large amounts of materiel were evacuated from southern Finland and harsh punishments were set for any hindering of the withdrawal. The Germans began to seize Finnish shipping. Finland responded by preventing ships sailing from Finland to Germany and nearly doomed the materiel evacuations of Operation Birke. So

5406-481: The USSR. The ceasefire agreement required the Finns to break diplomatic ties with Germany and publicly demand the withdrawal of all German troops from Finland by 15 September 1944. Any troops remaining after the deadline were to be expelled or disarmed and handed over to the USSR. Even with the German withdrawal operation, the Finns estimated it would take three months for the Wehrmacht to fully evacuate. The task

SECTION 50

#1732765367553

5512-456: The USSR. According to American historian Earl F. Ziemke , "it had no parallel" as an evacuation across the Arctic in winter. The casualties of the conflict were relatively limited: 774 killed, 262 missing and around 2,904 wounded Finns. Germany experienced around 1,000 deaths and 2,000 wounded. 1,300 German soldiers became prisoners of war and were handed over to the USSR according to the terms of

5618-646: The Wehrmacht troops had reached Norway or the border area and took fortified positions. The last Wehrmacht soldiers left Finland on 27 April 1945, shortly before the end of World War II in Europe . The Finns considered the war a separate conflict because hostilities with other nations had ceased after the Continuation War. From the German perspective, it was a part of the two campaigns to evacuate from northern Finland and northern Norway. Soviet involvement in

5724-552: The XIX Mountain Corps towards Norway from Soviet territory along the Arctic coast on 7 October. By 25 October, the front captured the Norwegian port of Kirkenes . The 14th Army pursued German troops withdrawing southwest from Petsamo and Kirkenes approximately 50 km (31 mi) into Finnish territory along Lake Inari . By 5 November, Soviet reconnaissance troops met with the Finnish Army at Ivalo . Likewise,

5830-534: The actual recruitment was implemented by the local qahals and so a disproportionate number of Jewish conscripts were underage. In the aftermath of the Polish uprising of 1831, children of political prisoners and boys on the streets of captured cities often were abducted , and placed in cantonist schools, with the intent of their Russification, see Incorporation of Polish children into the Imperial Russian Army (1831–1832) for more. The vast majority of Jews entered

5936-558: The adopted policy deeply sharpened internal Jewish social tensions. Seeking to protect the socio-economic and religious integrity of Jewish society, the qahals did their best to include “non-useful Jews” in the draft lists so that the heads of tax-paying middle-class families were predominantly exempt from conscription, whereas single Jews, as well as "heretics" ( Haskalah -influenced individuals), paupers, outcasts, and orphaned children were drafted. They used their power to suppress protests and intimidate potential informers who sought to expose

6042-404: The aftermath of the Polish uprising of 1831, children of political prisoners and boys on the streets of captured cities were often abducted , and placed in cantonist schools for Russification : see Incorporation of Polish children into the Imperial Russian Army (1831–1832) for more. For all cantonists, their 25-year term of service began after they reached the age of 18 and were recruited into

6148-466: The age of 7), middle (ages 8–12), and senior, with the latter group assigned to the military school of the settlement. Minors stayed with the parents, while minor orphans were transferred to military settlers, with an award of 10 roubles . All male newborns automatically became cantonists. Later it turned out that instead of 11 years, 8 years of military training were enough. Correspondingly, the age groups were changed: under 10, under 14, and under 18. In

6254-621: The arbitrariness of the qahal to the Russian government. In some cases, communal elders had the most threatening informers murdered (such as the Ushitsa case , 1836), see mesirah . The zoning rule was suspended during the Crimean war , when conscription became annual. During this period the qahals leaders would employ informers and kidnappers ( Russian : ловчики , romanized :  lovchiki , khappers ), as many potential conscripts preferred to run away rather than voluntarily submit. In

6360-431: The area. By 1973, over 800,000 cartridges, 70,000 mines and 400,000 other explosives had been demined in Lapland, a total of 1,142,000 units. The 2011 novel The Midwife by Katja Kettu is based on the war, on the basis of which Antti Jokinen made the film Wildeye in 2015. The Cuckoo is a 2002 Russian historical comedy drama film directed by Aleksandr Rogozhkin . The film takes place in Lapland during

6466-485: The armistice. The German delaying operations left Lapland devastated. In addition to 3,100 buildings demolished elsewhere in Finland, estimates of destroyed infrastructure in Lapland are as follows: The reconstruction of Lapland lasted until the early 1950s, although the railway network was not functional until 1957. In addition to the demolished infrastructure, the Wehrmacht extensively laid mines and explosives in

SECTION 60

#1732765367553

6572-594: The army. Discriminatory regulations ensured that unconverted Jews were held back in their army promotions. According to Benjamin Nathans, ... the formal incorporation of Jews into Nicolas I's army was quickly compromised by laws distinguishing Jewish from non-Jewish soldiers. Less than two years after the 1827 decree on conscription, Jews were barred from certain elite units, and beginning in 1832 they were subject to separate, more stringent criteria for promotion, which required that they "distinguish themselves in combat with

6678-518: The case of unfulfilled quotas, younger boys of eight and even younger were frequently taken. All cantonists were institutionally underfed, and encouraged to steal food from the local population, in emulation of the Spartan character building. On one occasion in 1856, a Jewish cantonist, Khodulevich, managed to steal the Tsar's own watch during military games at Uman . Not only was he not punished, but he

6784-450: The civilians were later released on 12 October. A second wave of four Finnish ships arrived on 2 October and a third wave—three ships strong and with Brewster F2A fighter escorts—landed its troops with only a single ship being lightly damaged by German Stuka dive bombers. On 4 October, bad weather prevented Finnish air cover from reaching Tornio, leaving the fourth landing wave vulnerable. Stuka bombers scored several hits and sank

6890-644: The community. The Jews, like Finland's other traditional minorities as well as immigrant groups, are represented on the Advisory Board for Ethnic Relations . There are two synagogues still standing in Finland: one in Helsinki and one in Turku . Helsinki also has a Jewish day school , which serves about 110 students (many of whom are the children of Israelis working in Finland); and a Chabad Lubavitch rabbi

6996-525: The country as tradesmen and craftsmen. The Jews who inhabited Finland were mostly former soldiers from the Imperial Russian army. These cantonists were forced into the Russian army in childhood and were required to serve at least 25 years. After their term expired, however, they gained the right to remain in Finland regardless of Finnish bans on Jewish settlement. It was only after Finland declared independence in 1917 that Jews were granted full rights as Finnish citizens . Rabbi Naftali Zvi Amsterdam , one of

7102-793: The demolition order was extended to include all governmental buildings with the exception of hospitals. On 13 October, "all covers, installations and objects that can be used by an enemy" were ordered to be destroyed in northern Finland in a scorched-earth strategy. Though it was logical for the Germans to deny pursuing forces any shelter, it had a very limited effect on the Finns, who always carried tents for shelter. When Allied advances continued, German high command OKW and 20th Mountain Army leadership asserted that it would be perilous to maintain positions in Lapland and east of Lyngen Municipality in northern Norway. Likewise, Minister of Armaments and War Production Albert Speer had determined that German nickel stores were sufficient and holding Petsamo

7208-451: The dense woods and marshland, the motorised German units would simply drive away and take up positions further down the road. On 7 October, the Finnish Jaeger Brigade forced the German Mountain Regiment 218 to fight a delaying action off of their pre-set timetable at Ylimaa, some 65 km (40 mi) south of Rovaniemi. The opposing forces were roughly even numerically and the lack of heavy weapons and exhaustion from long marches prevented

7314-410: The destruction caused by the Germans and from the pressure exerted on the Finns by the Soviets. On 15 September 1944, the Kriegsmarine tried to land and seize the island of Suursaari in Operation Tanne Ost to secure shipping routes in the Gulf of Finland . The USSR sent aircraft to support the Finnish defenders and the Kriegsmarine failed to capture Suursaari. After the landing attempt,

7420-414: The discretion of the Jewish qahal to choose conscripts from whatever age they decided. Thus in practice, Jewish children were often conscripted as young as eight or nine years old. This system created a disproportionate number of Jewish cantonists, and betrayed the utilitarian agenda of the statute: to draft those more likely to be susceptible to external influence, and thus to assimilation. After 1827,

7526-411: The drafting of children lasted through 1859. All unconverted cantonists and recruits under the age of 20 were returned to their families. The underage converted cantonists were given to their godparents. However the implementation of the abolition took nearly 3 years. It is estimated that between 30,000 and 70,000 Jewish boys served as cantonists, their numbers were disproportionately high in relation to

7632-629: The eight Jewish refugees. Approximately 500 Jewish refugees arrived in Finland during World War II, although about 350 moved on to other countries, including about 160 who were transferred to neutral Sweden for safety reasons on the direct orders of Finnish Army commander Marshal Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim . About 40 of the remaining Jewish refugees were forced into compulsory labor service in Salla in Lapland in March 1942. The refugees were moved to Kemijärvi in June and eventually to Suursaari Island in

7738-570: The enemy." Jews who refused to convert were barred from ascending above the rank of "унтер-офицер" i.e. NCO ; only eight exceptions were recorded during the 19th century. These restrictions were not lifted until the February Revolution in 1917. Some baptized cantonists eventually reached high ranks in the Imperial Army and Navy; among them were generals Arnoldi, Zeil; admirals Kaufman, Sapsay, Kefali. The cantonists' fate

7844-554: The ensuing battle, the German Divisionsgruppe Kräutler , a reinforced regiment, conducted several counterattacks to retake the town as it formed an important transportation link between the two roads running parallel to the Kemi and Tornio Rivers. As ordered by Generaloberst Rendulic, the Germans took 262 Finnish civilian hostages in an attempt to trade them for captured soldiers. The Finns refused and

7950-494: The escalation of missionary activities in the cantonist schools in 1844, about one third of all Jewish cantonists would have undergone conversion. In the era of Arakcheev 's military settlements (1809–1831), indigenous peasants who fell within the territory of a military settlement were subject to incorporation into the military in various ways. In particular, indigenous children (under the age of 18) were considered military cantonists and divided into three age groups: minor (under

8056-461: The final phases of Continuation War directly leading to the Lapland War, taking the perspective of opposing Soviet and Finnish soldiers stranded at a Sámi woman's farmhouse. "Kukushka" was the nickname given by Soviet soldiers to Finnish cuckoo snipers , who ambushed their targets from a purpose-built tree-branch-nest. The 2022 Finnish action film Sisu , directed by Jalmari Helander ,

8162-632: The fire throughout the primarily wooden buildings of the town. The first Finnish units to reach the vicinity of Rovaniemi on 14 October were components of the Jaeger Brigade advancing from Ranua . The Germans repelled Finnish attempts to capture the last intact bridge over the Kemi river and then left the mostly scorched town to the Finns on 16 October 1944. Finnish demobilisation and difficult supply routes took their toll. At Tankavaara , 60 km (37 mi) south of Ivalo, barely four battalions of

8268-570: The flag on the three-country cairn between Norway, Sweden and Finland to celebrate the end of the wars. There was never an official peace agreement signed between Finland and Germany. It was not until 1954 that the government of Finland officially noted that "the hostilities have ceased and interaction between Finland and Germany since then developed peacefully" and thus "the war has ended". The 20th Mountain Army successfully withdrew most of its over 200,000 men as well as supplies and equipment from Lapland to continue defending occupied Finnmark from

8374-605: The foremost disciples of Rabbi Yisrael Salanter and the Mussar Movement, served as chief rabbi of Helsinki under Rabbi Yisrael's instruction from 1867 to 1875. Jewish youths in Helsinki founded the sports association IK Stjärnan (later Makkabi Helsinki ) in 1906, making it the oldest still-operating Jewish sports club in the world with an uninterrupted history. Finland's involvement in World War II began during

8480-681: The forests and managed to cut the road leading north. By then, the bulk of the German force at Pudasjärvi had already left, leaving behind only a small detachment which, after warning the Finns, blew up a munitions dump. The risky landings for the Battle of Tornio , on the border with Sweden next to the Gulf of Bothnia , began on 30 September 1944 when three Finnish transport ships (SS Norma , SS Fritz S and SS Hesperus ) departed from Oulu towards Tornio without any air or naval escorts. They arrived on 1 October and disembarked their troops without any interference. The landing had originally been planned as

8586-445: The labouring prisoners were high, in part because many of them had been captured in southern Europe and were still in summer uniform. The Germans also surveyed defensive positions and planned to evacuate as much materiel as possible from the region, and meticulously prepared for withdrawal. On 9 April 1944, the German withdrawal plan was designated as Operation Birke. In June 1944, the Germans started to construct fortifications against

8692-451: The last decade; the most common types include defamation , verbal threats , and damage to property . In 2011, Ben Zyskowicz , the first Finnish Jewish parliamentarian, was assaulted by a man shouting antisemitic slurs. Four years later, a few campaign advertisements containing Zyskowicz's picture were sprayed with swastikas in Helsinki. In 2023, Zyskowicz was attacked by a man who shouted insults about NATO , Jews and immigrants. In 2015

8798-583: The military. The most able were taught for additional 3 years, until the age of 18. All entered military service at the completion of their studies. The decree of 1758 required all male children of the military personnel to be taught in the cantonist schools. In 1798 a military "asylum-orphanage" was established in St Petersburg, and all regimental schools were renamed after it, the total enrollment reaching 16,400. The schools were reorganized in 1805 and all children were now referred to as cantonists . After

8904-502: The number of recruits reduced the number of young men that could go into the workforce, and this in combination with political restrictions led to widespread destitution. Russia was divided into northern, southern, eastern, and western "conscription zones" and the levy was announced annually for only one of them. The Pale of Jewish settlement was outside conscription in the fallow years, so the conscription in general and of cantonists in particular occurred once every four years, except during

9010-421: The order was rescinded and then the Finns, in turn, allowed Finnish tonnage to be used to hasten the German evacuations. The first German naval mines were laid in Finnish seaways on 14 September 1944, allegedly for use against Soviet shipping, though since Finland and Germany were not yet in open conflict, the Germans warned the Finns of their intent. As the Finns wanted to avoid devastation of their country, and

9116-707: The presence of Nazi troops. Jewish soldiers were granted leave on Saturdays and Jewish holidays. Finnish Jewish soldiers later participated in the Lapland War against Germany. In November 1942, eight Jewish Austrian refugees (along with 19 others) were deported to Nazi Germany after the head of the Finnish police agreed to turn them over. Seven of the Jews were murdered immediately. According to author Martin Gilbert , these eight were: Georg Kollman; Frans Olof Kollman; Frans Kollman's mother; Hans Eduard Szubilski; Henrich Huppert; Kurt Huppert; Hans Robert Martin Korn, who had been

9222-508: The representatives of foreign despotism but helpers and brothers-in-arms. But even in such cases foreigners are in difficult positions requiring such tact. I can assure you that during the past years nothing whatsoever happened that could have induced us to consider the German troops intruders or oppressors. I believe that the attitude of the German Army in northern Finland towards the local population and authorities will enter our history as

9328-410: The rise in Finland. The number of incidents are likely under-reported, as Finland does not have a systematic method for recording specific forms of hate speech that incite violence or hatred. The first Jew said to have settled on Finnish soil was Jacob Weikam (later Veikkanen), who in 1782 began living in the town of Hamina , then under Russian rule. During that time, most of Finland was controlled by

9434-676: The situation. The 20th Mountain Army had been fighting the Soviet Karelian Front since Operation Barbarossa along the 700 km (430 mi) stretch from the Oulu River to the Arctic Ocean . It now comprised 214,000 soldiers, a considerable amount of them under SS formations, led by Generaloberst Rendulic. The number of active troops decreased quickly as they withdrew to Norway. The army had 32,000 horses and mules and 17,500–26,000 motorised vehicles as well as

9540-472: The start of the war, the Germans had systematically destroyed and mined the roads and bridges as they withdrew in a delaying strategy. After the first hostilities took place, Generaloberst Rendulic issued several orders on destroying Finnish property in Lapland. On 6 October, a strict order was issued which classified only military sites or military necessities as targets. On 8 October, the Germans bombed and heavily damaged factory areas of Kemi. On 9 October,

9646-524: The term was applied to Jewish and Karaite boys, who were drafted to military service at the age of twelve and placed for their six-year military education in cantonist schools. Like all other conscripts , they were required to serve in the Imperial Russian army for 25 years after the completion of their studies (in 1834 the term was reduced to 20 years plus five years in reserve and in 1855 to 12 years plus three years of reserve). According to

9752-457: The total number of cantonists. Jewish boys comprised about 20% of cantonists at the schools in Riga and Vitebsk , and as much as 50% at Kazan and Kiev schools. A general estimate for the years 1840–1850 seems to have been about 15%. In general Jews comprised a disproportionate number of recruits (ten for every thousand of the male population as opposed to seven out of every thousand), the number

9858-500: The war amounted to monitoring Finnish operations, minor air support and entering northeastern Lapland during the Petsamo–Kirkenes Offensive . The military impact was relatively limited with each side sustaining around 4,000 in total casualties, although the Germans' delaying scorched earth and land mine strategies devastated Finnish Lapland. The Wehrmacht successfully withdrew, and Finland upheld its obligations under

9964-428: The war, including 242 rank-and-file soldiers, 52 non-commissioned officers , 18 officers, and 15 medical officers. 21 Jews served in the women's auxiliary Lotta Svärd . In total, 15 Finnish Jews were killed in action in the Winter War, and eight were killed in the Continuation War. As Finland's wartime operations were supported by substantial numbers of German forces, the Finnish front had a field synagogue operating in

10070-579: Was a nursing assistant who helped tend to German wounded and came to be greatly admired by her patients. All three refused the award. The then-President of Finland , Marshal Mannerheim , attended the memorial service for fallen Finnish Jews at the Helsinki Synagogue on 6 December 1944. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , about 28 Finnish Jews, mostly Finnish Army veterans, fought for the State of Israel . After Israel's establishment, Finland had

10176-494: Was destroyed by Russian air bombings on 30 November 1939, the first day of the Winter War . Today, Finland is home to around 1,800 Jews, of which 1,400 live in the Greater Helsinki area and 200 in Turku . Finnish and Swedish are the most common mother tongues of Jews in Finland, and many also speak Yiddish , German, Russian or Hebrew . Since data collection began in 2008, incidents of antisemitism have been on

10282-402: Was forcible conscription of underage recruits from the populations of indigenous peoples, Old Believers , Romani people , and common vagabonds from 1805, Jews from 1827, and Poles from 1831 . There were some significant differences in treatment of Jews and non-Jews: all others were required to provide conscripts between 18 and 35, while for Jews the age limit was 12–25, and it was left to

10388-515: Was further complicated by the Soviet demand that the majority of the Finnish Defence Forces be demobilised while conducting a military campaign against the Germans. Before deciding to accept the Soviet demands, President Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim , former Finnish commander-in-chief, wrote a letter directly to Adolf Hitler : Our German brothers-in-arms will forever remain in our hearts. The Germans in Finland were certainly not

10494-659: Was given a reward of 25 roubles for his prowess. The boys in cantonist schools were given extensive training in Russian grammar (and sometimes literature), and mathematics, in particular geometry necessary in naval and artillery service. Those who showed aptitude for music were trained in singing and instrumental music, as the Imperial Army had a large demand for military wind bands and choirs. Some cavalry regiments maintained equestrian bands of torban players, and cantonist schools supplied these as well. Some cantonist schools also prepared firearms mechanics, veterinarians for cavalry, and administrators ("auditors"). The official policy

10600-585: Was limited to the subjects useful to the military. During the reign of Nicholas I of Russia the number of cantonists reached 36,000. Several cantonist battalions became specialized: they prepared auditors, artillerists, engineers, military surgeons, cartographers. More children were added to the category of cantonists. Eventually children of the discharged soldiers were also included, illegitimate children of soldiers' partners or widows, and even foundlings. There were several exemptions: There were considerable differences in cantonists' service obligations: There

10706-509: Was not a determining factor in extradition. Jews with Finnish citizenship were protected during the war. Late in the conflict, Germany's ambassador to Helsinki Wipert von Blücher concluded in a report to Hitler that Finns would not endanger their citizens of Jewish origin in any situation. Three Finnish Jews were offered the Iron Cross for their wartime service: Leo Skurnik , Salomon Klass , and Dina Poljakoff . Major Leo Skurnik,

10812-445: Was required to maintain a school for 50 boys. Their enrollment was increased in 1732, and the term was set from the age of 7 to 15. The curriculum included grammar and arithmetic, and those with a corresponding aptitude were taught artillery , fortification , music and singing, scrivenery , equine veterinary science , or mechanics. Those lacking such talents were taught carpentry , blacksmithing , shoemaking and other trades useful to

10918-627: Was sometimes described by Yiddish and Russian literature classics. Alexander Herzen in his My Past and Thoughts described his somber encounter with Jewish cantonists. While being convoyed to his exile in 1835 at Vyatka , Herzen met a unit of emaciated Jewish cantonists, some eight years old, who were marched to Kazan . Their (sympathetic) officer complained that a third had already died. Nikolai Leskov described underage Jewish cantonists in his 1863 story "The Musk-Ox" (Ovtsebyk). Judah Steinberg described underage Jewish cantonists in his novel "In Those Days" (English translation in 1915, from

11024-435: Was to encourage their conversion to the state religion of Orthodox Christianity and Jewish boys were coerced to baptism . As kosher food was unavailable, they were faced with the necessity of abandoning of Jewish dietary laws . Polish Catholic boys were subject to similar pressure to convert and assimilate as the Russian Empire was hostile to Catholicism and Polish nationalism. Initially conversions were few, but after

11130-609: Was tripled during the Crimean War (1853–1856). At the conclusion of the conscription term, former cantonists were allowed to live and own land anywhere in the Empire, outside the Pale of Settlement . The earliest Jewish communities in Finland were Jewish cantonists who had completed their service. The rate of conversion was generally high, at about one third, as was eventual intermarriage. Most never returned to their homes. Jewish cantonist recruits in 1843–1854, according to statistics of

11236-553: Was unnecessary. Preparations for further withdrawal began. Hitler accepted the proposal on 4 October 1944, and the plan was codenamed Operation Nordlicht on 6 October. Instead of a gradual withdrawal from southern Lapland into fortified positions further to the north while evacuating materiel, as in Operation Birke, Operation Nordlicht called for a rapid and strictly organised withdrawal directly behind Lyngen Fjord in Norway, while under pressure from harassing enemy forces. As

#552447