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184-692: The economic damage eventually led to the Treaty of Westminster in 1654 where the Dutch were forced to make minor concessions to the Commonwealth. Both sides agreed to the exclusion of the House of Orange from the office of Stadtholder , but failed to resolve underlying commercial issues. In 1665, Dutch objections to the Navigation Acts and English concerns over their rival's trading practices led to

368-664: A Dutch convoy returning from Portugal, capturing seven merchantmen and destroying three. Tromp gathered a fleet of 96 ships to attack Ayscue, but southerly winds kept him in the North Sea. Turning north to pursue Blake, Tromp caught up with the English fleet off the Shetland Islands , but a storm scattered his ships and there was no battle. On 26 August 1652, an outward-bound Dutch convoy with an escort of director's ships from Zeeland commanded by Michiel de Ruyter , who held

552-638: A bigger issue in Royalist areas like Cornwall and Hertfordshire . The deaths of John Pym and John Hampden in 1643 removed a unifying force within Parliament, and deepened divisions. Supported by the Scots, the 'Peace Party' were concerned by political radicals like the Levellers , and wanted an immediate, negotiated settlement. The 'War Party' fundamentally mistrusted Charles, and saw military victory as

736-491: A change in that the then-four-year-old Prince of Orange should be excluded from future government appointments, like the stadtholderate, or the captaincy-general of the States Army . This was at first rejected, but the Dutch eventually accepted, and Peace was declared on 15 April 1654 with the signing of the Treaty of Westminster and ratified by all parties by 22 April. The Dutch were saved from harsh peace. In part to

920-576: A delegation, consisting of the commissioners Beverningh , Nieupoort (for the States of Holland ), Van de Perre (for the States of Zeeland ), and Jongestal (for the States of Friesland). Their English counterparts were Lawrence , Lambert , Montagu , and Lisle . The negotiations started where they had left off in 1652: the Dutch reiterated their 36 articles and demanded access to the American colonies;

1104-566: A few weeks' absence (only the representatives of Holland being aware of the secret clause) and completed the negotiations, tying up a number of loose ends, especially the important provisions in art. 30 of the treaty, laying down the principles of arbitration of mutual claims by a commission of equal representation convening in London, backed up by a provision charging the Protestant Swiss Cantons with binding arbitration, in case

1288-555: A form of constitutional monarchy . When it came to choosing sides, however, individual choices were heavily influenced by religious belief or personal loyalty. Horrified at the devastation inflicted on Europe by the Thirty Years War , many tried to remain neutral, or took up arms with great reluctance. When fighting began in August 1642, both sides believed it would be settled by a single battle, but it soon became clear this

1472-495: A letter from the States of Holland indicating their sincere desire to reach a peace agreement. However, these discussions, which were only supported by a bare majority of members of the Rump parliament, dragged on without much progress for almost a year. Though the politicians were close to ending the conflict, the naval war continued and, over the winter of 1652–53, the English fleet repaired its ships and considered its tactics. All of

1656-895: A month earlier, ending plans for taking the war into Scotland. The loss of Carmarthen and Chepstow in South Wales cut connections with Royalist supporters in Ireland (see Map) and Charles made his way back to Oxford, where he spent the winter besieged by the New Model. Following the fall of Hereford in December 1645, the Royalists held only Devon, Cornwall, North Wales, and isolated garrisons in Exeter, Oxford, Newark, and Scarborough Castle . Chester surrendered in February, after which

1840-515: A mountain of iron." The Dutch Orangists were jubilant however; they expected that either victory or defeat would bring them to power. The first months of the war saw English attacks against the Dutch convoys. Blake was sent with 60 ships to disrupt Dutch fishing in the North Sea and Dutch trade with the Baltic, leaving Ayscue with a small force to guard the Channel. On 12 July 1652, Ayscue intercepted

2024-598: A naval incident about saluting the English flag in the "English Seas" the First Anglo-Dutch War started and the negotiations were suspended. The war was lost militarily by the Dutch, who after a number of lost naval battles were blockaded in their own country by the Commonwealth Navy . This caused great economic hardship. On the other hand, the English in their turn were victimized by a wider Dutch "encirclement" that blocked English shipping from

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2208-648: A political crisis in the Dutch Republic. Eventually, De Witt was able to remain in power, and the furore subsided. The Act of Seclusion remained in effect, playing a part in Dutch internal politics, until the very end of the De Witt regime, even after the Restoration seemingly obviated its existence. The British historian Jonathan Israel writes that otherwise, taking into account that the Republic lost

2392-473: A relatively trifling sum to the descendants of the victims of the affair. Furthermore, the Dutch promised in art. 13 of the treaty to go on saluting the flag of English warships in the "English Seas" (i.e. mainly the English Channel ) "as in the times of Queen Elizabeth ." This did not, however, imply an admission of sovereignty of England over those "English Seas." Thirdly, the treaty contained

2576-530: A republican reaction. Shortly before his death, William attempted to gain control of Amsterdam by imprisoning six leading members of the States of Holland from the city, but they were released when he died. These six led the province of Holland to assume the leadership of the republican movement, which would recognize the Netherlands as a free republic without a Stadholder. The resulting First Stadtholderless period began when William II died in 1650, although it

2760-664: A senior Covenanter who was deeply suspicious of Cromwell and the Independents, but these discussions ultimately went nowhere. Prince Rupert was sent to supervise the defence of Bristol and the West, while Charles made his way to Raglan Castle , then headed for the Scottish border. He reached as far north as Doncaster in Yorkshire, before retreating to Oxford in the face of superior Parliamentarian forces. In July, Fairfax lifted

2944-427: A separate Church of England, as well as religious Independents who opposed any state religion. The Solemn League created a Committee of Both Kingdoms to co-ordinate strategy in all three war zones, England, Scotland and Ireland, although Pym's death in December 1643 deprived Parliament of their most important leader. The Scots under Leven were ordered to take Newcastle, securing coal supplies for London, and closing

3128-819: A single battle and quick victory; for the Royalists, this meant capturing London, for Parliament, 'rescuing' the king from his 'evil counsellors'. After failing to capture Hull in July, Charles left York for Nottingham , chosen for its proximity to Royalist areas in the Midlands and Northern Wales . Particularly in the early stages of the conflict, locally raised troops were reluctant to serve outside their own county, and most of those recruited in Yorkshire refused to accompany him. On 22 August, Charles formally declared war on Parliamentarian 'rebels', but by early September his army still numbered less than 2,500, with much of England hoping to remain neutral. In contrast, financing from

3312-827: A state of war. In response to the Portuguese failure to expel Rupert, Blake continued to seize merchant ships entering the River Tagus from Brazil. On 24 September 1650 Blake attacked a fleet of 23 merchant vessels from Brazil and their naval escort, sinking the Portuguese Admiral and capturing the Vice-Admiral and ten of the larger merchant ships. The Portuguese court were compelled to insist that Rupert leave Lisbon harbour in September 1650, but after finding Blake waiting for him, Rupert placed his ships under

3496-437: Is estimated that the Dutch lost between 1,000 and 1,700 vessels (the most reliable estimate is from Amsterdam Burgomasters who claimed the Dutch lost 1,200) of all sizes to privateers in this war. This accounted for 8% of the total Dutch mercantile fleet, amounted to double the value of England's entire ocean-going merchant fleet. These losses were three to four times as many as the English lost (440 ships in total), and more than

3680-454: Is that "Roundhead" was interchangeable with " Puritan ". In reality, this term applied to anyone who wanted to "purify" the Church of England of "Papist" practices, and covered a wide range of views. Although the majority supported Parliament, some prominent Puritans like Sir William Savile backed Charles out of personal loyalty. Conversely, many Royalists objected to Laudianism , and opposed

3864-530: The Aemilia , of 600 tons and fitted with 57 guns. Admiral Tromp was forced to shift his flag to the 600-ton Brederode , of 54 guns. By 1652, the Dutch Admiralties had only 79 ships at their disposal. Many of these ships were in bad repair, with fewer than 50 being seaworthy . All these ships were inferior in firepower to the largest English first and second rate ships. The numerical deficiency in

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4048-551: The Sovereign and others from Charles I's navy. However, the Naseby , Richard , Dunbar , and several others were built during the Commonwealth. These were part of a naval expansion financed by an Act of Parliament on 10 November 1650 which imposed a 15% tax on merchant shipping. Between 1649 and 1651 the English fleet included 18 ships that were each superior in firepower to Dutch Admiral Tromp's new flagship Brederode ,

4232-589: The American Revolution in 1776. A simple division of the opposing parties into Royalist Cavaliers and Parliamentarian Roundheads is a perspective that is now accepted as outdated, but which still informs modern perceptions. These are also influenced by the complex historical reputation of Oliver Cromwell , particularly in Ireland . The installation of his statue outside the Houses of Parliament

4416-676: The Battle of Dungeness in December, while it failed to save the English Mediterranean fleet, largely destroyed at the Battle of Leghorn in March 1653. The Dutch had effective control of the Channel, the North Sea, and the Mediterranean, with English ships blockaded in port. As a result, Cromwell convinced Parliament to begin secret peace negotiations with the Dutch. In February 1653, Adriaan Pauw responded favourably, sending

4600-502: The Battle of Lowestoft in 1665, and they also retained numbers of slow and badly armed hired merchant ships in their fleet as late as that battle, when the English fleet was already questioning their use. In mid-March 1653, the States of Holland sent a detailed peace proposal to the English Rump Parliament , where it generated a fierce debate and a slim majority for a response to be made. The response made first to

4784-574: The Bishops' Wars , but in return Parliament demanded a greater share in government than he was willing to concede. In its early stages, the vast majority on both sides supported the institution of monarchy, but disagreed on who held ultimate authority. Royalists generally argued both Parliament and the Church of England were subordinate to the king, while most of their Parliamentarian opponents claimed his supremacy did not extend to religion, and wanted

4968-631: The Covenanter government now broke off negotiations with the Royalists. Shortly thereafter, they signed the Solemn League and Covenant with Parliament, which provided Scottish military support in return for subsidies. Parliament also agreed to create the Westminster Assembly , whose purpose was to set up a single, Presbyterian church for England and Scotland. This in turn caused divisions with those Parliamentarians who preferred

5152-708: The Dutch East India Company , which could act as warships or cargo carriers and the last were hired merchant vessels, whose owners had little interest in risking their property. Although captains of the East India Company were generally competent, they were unused to naval discipline, as were the more variable in quality commanders of director's ships and hired merchant ships. After 1648 the Admiralties sold off many of their larger ships, including Dutch Admiral Maarten Tromp 's own flagship,

5336-913: The East Indies and Brazil , giving them control over the enormously profitable trade in spices . They were even gaining significant influence over England's trade with her as yet small North American colonies . The economic disparity between England and the United Provinces increased in part because unlike the English, the Dutch system was based on free trade , making their products more competitive. For example, an English wool trader, who dealt largely with ports in English-speaking America, complained in 1651 that although his English ships would take wool cloth to America to be sold, they could expect to leave American ports with 4,000 to 5,000 bags of wool cloth unsold. Dutch ships, on

5520-643: The English Council of State , aware that the Netherlands States General was about to recognise the Commonwealth as the legitimate English government, which it did on 28 January, prepared an embassy to the republic headed by Oliver St John, with two envoys extraordinary. When it arrived in The Hague on 7 March 1651, the English delegation made it clear that their aim was to "enter into a more strict and intimate alliance and union' with

5704-565: The Grand Pensionary Adriaan Pauw , to London in a last desperate attempt to prevent war, but in vain: English demands had become so extreme that no self-respecting state could meet them. War was declared by the English Parliament on 10 July 1652. The Dutch diplomats realised what was at stake: one of the departing ambassadors said, "The English are about to attack a mountain of gold; we are about to attack

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5888-604: The Grand Remonstrance was submitted in late 1641, moderates like Edward Hyde created a Royalist political faction, arguing Parliament was trying to alter the balance too much the other way. Both sides claimed they were seeking to restore the "ancient constitution". For many supporters of Parliament, Stuart concepts of the divine right of kings and absolutism brought in by James VI and I in 1603 were "innovations" that had undermined "traditional" English freedoms and rights. However, there were different views on

6072-890: The Irish Catholic Confederation , the Papacy and France. Published by Parliament in a pamphlet entitled The King's Cabinet Opened , it seriously damaged his reputation. After Naseby, Royalist strategy was to preserve their positions in Western England and Wales, while their cavalry went north to link up with Montrose in Scotland. Charles also hoped the Irish Catholic Confederation would supply him with an army of 10,000, that would land in Bristol and combine with Lord Goring to smash

6256-581: The Irish Rebellion of 1641 meant many were more concerned by reports of a planned Catholic invasion. Both sides supported raising troops to suppress the rising, but alleged Royalist conspiracies to use them against Parliament meant neither trusted the other with their control. When Charles left London after failing to arrest the Five Members in January 1642, he handed Parliament control of

6440-714: The Mediterranean , the East Indies and later to the Caribbean. The financially exhausted Dutch Admiralties allowed their squadrons, and particularly their major warships, to deteriorate. In the period up to the First Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch Republic had four sources of warships. The first was the ships of five autonomous Admiralties ("colleges"), three in the province of Holland, which were supported by local taxes on commerce and contributions from

6624-644: The New Model Army . Later in the war, conflicting religious and political aims resulted in the emergence within Parliament of a middle party of "Independent Royalists". These were generally religious radicals but social conservatives, led by William Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele , his son Nathaniel Fiennes , and Nathaniel Rich . They were distinguished from Royalists in believing Charles had to be defeated militarily, and from moderate Presbyterians by their fervent opposition to state-mandated religion. After Parliament's victory in 1646, this group supported

6808-542: The Persian Gulf to the South China Sea . The English agent at Livorno, Charles Longland , reported to London, that the Dutch had been heavily defeated in home waters but added yet our losses here have been so visible to all Europe, Asia and Africa that they wil not believe but that our condition is as bad at home. After Scheveningen, the Dutch also turned to using smaller warships and commerce raiding with

6992-494: The Princess Royal . Her presence attracted exiled English noblemen not fighting with her brother Charles to The Hague, which had for many years been an Orangist stronghold. The delegation appointed by the Commonwealth, could only leave their lodgings under armed escort, for fear of being assaulted by Royalists or large Orangist mobs in their pay. When the English delegates left in the last week of June, they reported that

7176-629: The Royal Irish Army to England. Fighting continued during the winter in Yorkshire, where the Royalist Duke of Newcastle tried to secure a landing place for an arms shipment from the Dutch Republic . With insufficient troops to hold the entire area, his task was further complicated by Parliamentarian forces under Lord Fairfax and his son Thomas , which retained key towns like Hull and Leeds . Along with Henrietta Maria,

7360-730: The Sailing and Fighting Instructions , a major overhaul of English naval tactics , containing the first formal description of the line of battle . The success of this new formation was evident in the Battle of the Gabbard in June 1653, when the English fleet not only defeated the Dutch in a long-range artillery duel but suffered so little damage that it could maintain a blockade rather than sending many ships to port for repairs. The Dutch, in contrast, relied less on linear tactics, preferring to close with English ships to board and capture then as late as

7544-475: The Second Anglo-Dutch War . In the 16th century, England had supported the Dutch Republic in the Eighty Years' War against Spain . The separate peace in 1604 between England and Spain strained this relationship, although an Anglo-Dutch treaty of 1625, due to remain in force until 1640 was the basis of officially cordial relations between the two countries, and also formed the basis of Charles I of England 's Dutch policy. The weakening of Spanish power at

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7728-462: The Self-denying Ordinance , requiring any military officers who also sat in Parliament to resign one office or the other. Manchester and Essex were automatically removed, since they could not resign their titles, although they could be re-appointed, 'if Parliament approved.' It also led to the creation of the New Model Army , a centralised, professional force, able and willing to operate wherever needed. Many of its recruits had served with Cromwell in

7912-413: The Spanish Netherlands and previously the most important port in Northern Europe , would not recover until the late 19th century. This translated into cheaper prices for Dutch products due to a steep and sustained drop in freight charges and insurance rates. Following the outbreak of the First English Civil War in August 1642, Parliamentarians and Royalists placed an embargo on Dutch ships trading with

8096-413: The Spanish Netherlands . They sometimes brought ships into Dutch ports for more thorough examination and, very rarely, confiscated ships and cargoes as contraband . The Execution of Charles I in January 1649 resulted in the formation of the Commonwealth of England , which continued to fight Royalists at home and in some of their colonies , leading to an expansion in the English Navy. At the same time,

8280-515: The Texel , and the English had to abandon their blockade, so the Dutch achieved their aim. The death of Tromp was a blow to Dutch morale, which increased the Dutch desire to end the war: similar feelings arose in England. Although many had been enriched by the war trade as a whole had suffered. However, in September, the Dutch fleet, under Witte de With , was able to resume its operations. It successfully disembarked 400 merchant ships and returned with an equivalent number, all carrying valuable goods from

8464-463: The Treaty of Newport , and a "balanced" political solution that would leave Charles on the throne. Its members avoided participation in his trial and execution , although they did not speak against it. While Puritans were the most visible in opposing Laudian reforms and demanding the removal of bishops from the Church of England, their objections were shared by many Royalists, such as George Morley and Sir Edmund Verney . One reason

8648-417: The Treaty of Paris of 1784, ending the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War ). On the other hand, the Dutch realized few of the objectives in their 36 articles. Matters like the freedom of the seas (as regards Dutch shipping), the principle of "free ship, free goods" (the inviolability of neutral shipping in time of war), and the restriction of the concept of contraband, had to wait till the Treaty of Breda (1667) and

8832-415: The Treaty of Westminster (1674) . The matter of the fraught phrase respecting the laws and ordinances of both states by each other's merchants in each other's dominions went by default when the Dutch commissioner Van de Perre died during the negotiations (He had been the champion of the Dutch West India Company which was especially hurt by the Navigation Act, and had therefore been the driving force behind

9016-437: The V.O.C. ). Remarkably, the English offered at this time to acquiesce in this exclusion from the East Indies, but insisted on retaining the restrictions in the Navigation Act. At the same time, they declined to talk about the delineation of the Dutch and English possessions in North America ( New Netherland and the New Haven Colony , respectively) about which a preliminary local agreement had been concluded, but not finalized by

9200-432: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms , others include the 1639 and 1640 Bishops' Wars , 1641 to 1653 Irish Confederate Wars , 1648 Second English Civil War , 1649 to 1653 Cromwellian conquest of Ireland , and 1650 to 1652 Anglo-Scottish War , previously known as the Third English Civil War. The First and Second English Civil Wars are sometimes grouped together as the 1642 to 1648 English Civil War . The underlying cause of

9384-468: The siege of Taunton ; a few days later at Langport , he destroyed Lord Goring 's Western Army, the last significant Royalist field force. At the end of August, Charles left Oxford to relieve Hereford , which was besieged by the Covenanter army ; as he approached, Leven was ordered to return to Scotland, following Montrose's victory at Kilsyth . The king moved onto Chester, where he learned Prince Rupert had surrendered Bristol on 10 September. Shocked by

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9568-425: The 1648 Peace of Münster which confirmed their independence from Spain and ended the Eighty Years' War , although the Imperial Diet did not formally accept that the Dutch Republic was no longer part of the Holy Roman Empire until 1728. The peace agreement's provisions included a monopoly over trade conducted through the Scheldt estuary, confirming the commercial ascendancy of Amsterdam ; Antwerp , capital of

9752-416: The Act (or rather its 1660 successor). Meanwhile, Dutch merchants honored the Act in the breach. However, in art. 12 of the treaty the parties accorded each other what would later become known as " most favored nation " status. Of lasting importance was art. 30, which set up a commission to arbitrate all claims of both sides to which the treaty did not extend immunity (under e.g. articles 3 and 16). New here

9936-540: The Act. In addition they proposed to regulate commerce outside Europe. This was followed by further exchanges of proposals that were unacceptable to one side or the other. Finally it was agreed to keep silent about regulation of trade outside Europe, and to recognize the right of both parties to reciprocal indemnification for injuries suffered (except those suffered in the course of the hostilities, for which reciprocal immunities were granted). The treaty appeared ready for signing when suddenly two new obstacles were raised. In

10120-544: The Baltic by Denmark, a Dutch ally, aided by a strong Dutch naval detachment cruising near the Sound , and from South-East Asia by the V.O.C. English trade with the Mediterranean was also greatly hampered by Dutch privateering and naval activity, especially after the Battle of Leghorn . Both countries after a while were so economically exhausted that they hankered after peace. Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell and Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt agreed to open peace negotiations in London in June 1653. The Dutch government sent

10304-401: The Battle Force, although these smaller ships could also be used in mêlée battles, where boarding rather than gunfire might decide the result. Following their victory over the Spanish fleet at the Battle of the Downs on October 21, 1639, and after peace was made with Spain in 1648, the need for major warships lessened, although smaller ones were still required for convoy service, particularly to

10488-455: The Channel to dip their flag in salute, reviving an ancient right the English had long insisted on. Tromp himself was fully aware of the need to give this mark of courtesy, but partly through a misunderstanding and partly out of resentment among the seamen, it was not given promptly, and Blake opened fire, starting the brief Battle of Dover . Tromp lost two ships but escorted his convoy to safety. The States of Holland sent their highest official,

10672-438: The Commonwealth Parliament enacted the first of the Navigation Acts , which was perceived as aimed at the ruination of Dutch commerce, possibly on the instigation of St. John, who was aggrieved by his cool treatment in The Hague. This motivated the Dutch government to send a delegation of three commissioners: Cats , Van de Perre , and Schaep to London to reopen the negotiations about the 36 articles, and to gain suspension of

10856-459: The Commonwealth period was in better condition and was still improving. The Commonwealth had won the English Civil War in 1652 with a strong and effective navy that had supported and supplied Cromwell's army in the wars in Scotland and Ireland ; blockaded the Royalist fleet of Prince Rupert in Lisbon ; and organised a system of convoys to protect the commerce of the Commonwealth against the numerous privateers based in European ports. Compared to

11040-486: The Crown; their ousting from Parliament by the Clergy Act 1640 was a major step on the road to war, since it meant Charles could no longer prevent passage of legislation that he opposed. Their removal temporarily ended censorship, and especially in London led to an explosion in the printing of pamphlets, books and sermons, many advocating radical religious and political ideas. Even before 1642, such radicalism concerned conservative Parliamentarians like Denzil Holles . As

11224-399: The Dutch Republic, as it was planning war with Spain. Cromwell then proposed a military alliance against Spain, promising to repeal the Navigation Act in return for Dutch assistance in the conquest of Spanish America : this too was rejected. Cromwell then fell back on a proposal of 27 articles, two of which were unacceptable to the Dutch: that all Royalists had to be expelled, and that Denmark,

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11408-444: The Dutch attacked the English fleet near the mouth of the River Thames , but were beaten back with many casualties. The English Parliament, believing the Dutch to be near defeat, sent away twenty ships to strengthen the position in the Mediterranean . This division of forces left Blake with only 42 men of war by November, while the Dutch were making every effort to reinforce their fleet. This division led to an English defeat by Tromp in

11592-430: The Dutch attempts to get the Act repealed, or at least amended). This clause therefore remained in the treaty, but the Dutch did not agree to interpret this as a recognition of the Navigation Act. Instead, the Dutch peace delegation remained behind to try and negotiate a repeal of the Act, but this effort was unsuccessful. This matter would have to wait also to the Breda treaty, in which the Dutch won concessions mitigating

11776-423: The Dutch coast, which led to a crippling of the Dutch economy. The Dutch were unable to feed their dense urban population without a regular supply of Baltic wheat and rye ; prices of these commodities soared and the poor were soon unable to buy food, and starvation ensued. The final battle of the war was the hard-fought and bloody Battle of Scheveningen in August, fought because the Dutch were desperate to break

11960-403: The Dutch fleet, the English fleet had larger ships of the first and second rates, but proportionately fewer frigates , as the English fleet was principally designed to fight in major actions, whilst providing convoy escorts or fighting privateers was a secondary task. The first and second rate ships included the ageing Resolution and Victory which dated from James I's reign, along with

12144-414: The Dutch in the three-day Battle of Portland , which began in 28 February. They captured at least 20 Dutch merchant ships, captured or destroyed at least eight and possibly twelve warships and drove the Dutch from the Channel. Like the battles of 1652, this was chaotic, but the most notable tactical events happened in the first day, when Tromp led the whole Dutch fleet against about two dozen English ships at

12328-416: The Dutch navy was to be made up by arming merchantmen. The strongest restraint on the number of sailing warships was the large crews required, so fleets were limited by the number of seaman that could be induced or compelled to serve. England had a greater population and employed impressment to make up crew numbers, so could generally maintain more fully crewed ships than the Dutch could. The English navy of

12512-425: The Dutch to implement a merchant fleet on similar lines to the Dutch, particularly the effort to build more flyboats. The Dutch too had started on a major shipbuilding programme to remedy the lack of ships of the line evident at the battles of the Kentish Knock, the Gabbard, and Scheveningen . The admiralties were now forbidden by law to sell off these sixty new ships. When in 1665 the Second Anglo-Dutch War started

12696-405: The Dutch was dropped; instead the main concession which he desired bore no role in the original reason for going to war. This was the sole condition that the Dutch had to agree that no Prince of Orange or other member of the House of Orange should hold the office of Stadtholder or any other public office in the Netherlands, a demand that was strongly opposed by Orangists, but not entirely against

12880-399: The Dutch were thus much better prepared. Treaty of Westminster (1654) The Treaty of Westminster , concluded between the Lord Protector of the English Commonwealth, Oliver Cromwell , and the States General of the United Netherlands , was signed on 5/15 April 1654 . The treaty ended the First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–1654). The treaty is otherwise notable because it is one of

13064-477: The Dutch were untrustworthy and that the United Provinces were under the control of the Orangist party and thus a threat to the security of the Commonwealth. Although the States of Holland and West Friesland were unwilling, if not unable, to suppress the activities of English Royalists, Orangists that deplored the execution of Charles I, and certain strict Calvinist ministers opposing Cromwell's religious innovations, it would have been more logical for him to ally with

13248-677: The Dutch wished to renew the 1625 treaty, their attempt to do so in 1639 was not responded to, so the treaty lapsed. By the middle of the 17th century the Dutch had built by far the largest mercantile fleet in Europe, with more ships than all the other states combined, and their economy, based substantially on maritime commerce, gave them a dominant position in European trade, especially in the North Sea and Baltic . Furthermore, they had conquered most of Portugal's territories and trading posts in

13432-505: The EIC in the East Indies and £3,615 which had to be paid to the heirs of the victims of the Amboyna massacre . The island of Run in the East Indies was to be ceded to the East India Company, although the Dutch never actually returned the island. Lastly, a symbolic gesture; saluting the flag of English warships in the Channel. Cromwell's original political aim of a union that would subordinate

13616-666: The East Indies, which demonstrated the reopening of the sea routes. Allied with Denmark and maintaining a formidable presence at the Danish Sound, the Dutch effectively put an end to English trade in the Baltic region. Throughout 1653, not a single English vessel passed through the Sound . In the Mediterranean, the Dutch had achieved similar success. Additionally, in the East Indies, the Dutch East India Company had swiftly established maritime dominance, spanning from

13800-607: The Eastern Association, or shared his views, and opponents viewed the New Model with suspicion from the outset. To offset this, they appointed the moderates Fairfax and Philip Skippon as Commander-in-Chief and head of the infantry respectively, as well as retaining some regional forces. These included the Northern and Western Associations, plus those serving in Cheshire and South Wales, all commanded by supporters of

13984-601: The English Civil War, the Dutch Stadtholder Frederick Henry had given significant financial support to Charles I of England , to whom he had close family ties. The States General had been generally neutral and refused to become involved with representatives of either king or parliament; it also attempted to mediate between the two sides, an attitude that offended both English Royalists and its parliament. Frederick Henry's influence

14168-572: The English at the time disputed. Furthermore, the Dutch asked that letters of reprisal (a common practical cause of friction between states) should not be granted in peacetime. Finally, they asked that Dutch merchants should have the same privileges as the English in English dominions in Europe and the Americas. The demands, collected in 36 draft-articles, were presented to the English ambassadors on 14/24 June 1651. They returned to England without an agreement having been reached. On 9/19 October 1651

14352-407: The English blockade. This was a tactical victory for the English fleet, which captured or destroyed at least a dozen and possibly 27 Dutch warships for the loss of two or three English ones, and captured or killed some 2,000 men including Tromp, who was killed early in the battle, for a loss of 500 English dead. However, despite their heavy losses of men and ships, the Dutch fleet was able to retreat to

14536-468: The English negotiators were most concerned to ensure Dutch action against English Royalists and restrictions on the Dutch carrying trade between third countries. The armed confrontation between Tromp and Blake off Dover took place before these issues were settled, and the English immediately halted negotiations and refused to reopen them when the Dutch offered concessions, preferring war. In England, after 1648 and more particularly after Charles' execution and

14720-594: The English replied with a restatement of their demand for reparations and their previously rejected proposal for a political union between the two countries. Cromwell proposed that "while the two countries should retain their municipal laws" the two countries should "be under one supreme power, consisting of representatives of both countries" and "natives of both countries should mutually enjoy their privileges, without any difference or distinction." After Jongestal and Nieupoort had returned to The Hague to receive instructions regarding this startling proposal in mid-August 1653,

14904-532: The English side toned down the proposal in favor of a less far-reaching proposal for an alliance between the Protestant Powers of Europe and France, against the Catholic Powers, in which the Commonwealth and the Republic would take the lead; a commission, consisting of an equal number of members from each country, to determine differences peacefully; a joint fleet to "secure the sea;" liberty of

15088-696: The Hague to raise money and purchase weapons; lack of a secure port delayed her return until February 1643, and even then, she narrowly escaped capture. On 1 June 1642, Parliament approved a list of proposals known as the Nineteen Propositions , which would give them control over ministerial appointments, the army and management of the Royal household, including the education and marriage of his children. These were presented to Charles at Newmarket , who angrily rejected them without further discussion. He

15272-543: The London mercantile community and weapons from the Tower enabled Parliament to recruit and equip an army of 20,000, commanded by the Presbyterian Earl of Essex , who left London on 3 September for Northampton . Charles relocated to Shrewsbury , further away from London but a key Royalist recruitment centre throughout the war. When Essex learned of this, he marched on Worcester , where the first major encounter of

15456-560: The Navigation Act till the negotiations would have been completed. The latter demand was immediately rejected by the English Council of State , and the English negotiators upped the ante by formulating additional demands: reparations for alleged injuries to English commerce in Greenland, Brazil and the East Indies, and free access for the English E.I.C. to the East Indies (which had effectively been blocked by its Dutch competitor,

15640-437: The Netherlands was outnumbered by those wanting either to cripple Dutch trade without going to war or to provoke a war with the Dutch republic for political reasons. The Dutch considered that the economic provisions of the 36 articles they had drafted could form the basis of a trade agreement without compromising the independence of the United Provinces or their becoming involved in a war with Spain, but it soon became apparent that

15824-583: The New Model. Such hopes were illusory, and the only result was to deepen divisions among the Royalist leadership, many of whom viewed the proposed use of Catholic Irish troops in England with as much horror as their Parliamentarian opponents. Concerned by the wider implications of Royalist defeat and urged on by Henrietta Maria, French chief minister Cardinal Mazarin looked for ways to restore Charles with minimal French intervention. Talks were held between his representative, Jean de Montereul , and Lord Lothian ,

16008-661: The Parliamentarian alliance in June 1646 and Charles in custody. However, his refusal to agree to concessions, combined with divisions among his opponents, led to the Second English Civil War in 1648, followed by his execution in January 1649. The 1642 to 1646 First English Civil War is one of a series of civil wars fought between 1639 and 1653 in England and Wales , along with the separate kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland . Known collectively as

16192-531: The Presbyterian faction in Parliament. Although he remained an MP, Cromwell was given command of the cavalry, under a 'temporary' three-month commission, constantly renewed. In January, representatives of both sides met at Uxbridge to discuss peace terms , but talks ended without agreement in February. Failure strengthened the pro-war parties, since it was clear Charles would never make concessions voluntarily, while divisions among their opponents encouraged

16376-405: The Republic in 1662, 1667 and 1674, after his Restoration, but then aimed at the regicides . The island Run in the East Indies, which had been claimed by the E.I.C. since at least 1623, but had always been denied to them by its rival, the militarily-stronger V.O.C., was formally ceded to the E.I.C. This cession, however, did not take practical effect till March 1665. The island was taken back by

16560-509: The Republic, but more importantly about a political union between the two states, on the ground that they were similar in respect of politics, religion, and commerce. The Dutch government replied with a number of counter-proposals in matters they held dear, like principles of (then-emerging) international law, such as freedom of the seas , limitation of the concept of contraband to "instruments of war", freedom from capture of neutral goods on neutral ships in time of war. These were all matters that

16744-404: The Royalist fleet under Prince Rupert from its bases in Ireland and pursued it to the port of Lisbon , where it was protected by the harbour's forts and the Portuguese king's refusal to let Blake enter the port. The Council of State decided to reinforce Blake and authorised him to seize ships from Brazil in reprisal, and to withdraw the English envoy to Portugal, whose departure in July 1650 created

16928-424: The Royalists had recovered from the disaster at Marston Moor; of greater concern was their ability to finance the war. Unlike Parliament, which could levy taxes on imports and exports through London and other commercial centres, the Royalists simply took supplies from the areas they controlled. This led to the creation of Clubmen , or local self-defence associations; they opposed confiscations by either party, but were

17112-399: The Royalists to abandon Lyme Regis, then continued into Cornwall, ignoring orders to return to London. In September, his army was trapped at Lostwithiel ; 5,000 infantry were forced to surrender, although Essex and the cavalry escaped. At Second Newbury on 27 October, the Royalists lifted the siege of Donnington Castle , and Charles re-entered Oxford. In military terms, by the end of 1644

17296-513: The Royalists to continue fighting. In early 1645, the Royalists still controlled most of the West Country, Wales, and counties along the English border, despite losing their key supply base at Shrewsbury in February. Lord Goring 's Western Army made another attempt on Portsmouth and Farnham; although he was forced to retreat, it showed Parliament could not assume this area was secure, while Montrose's Highland Campaign opened another front in

17480-494: The States General decided on 3 March 1652 to expand the fleet by hiring and equipping 150 merchant ships as ships of war to allow effective convoying against hostile English actions. Although the States of Holland stressed that this measure was intended defensive and it carefully selected its captains and issued prudent instructions about saluting English warship, when news of this decision reached London on 12 March 1652, it

17664-545: The States General to send commissioners to London to negotiate peace terms and Cromwell was receptive, although he was insistent that the Dutch republic must ensure the House of Orange would not become dominant again, and declined to repeal the Navigation Act. Cromwell again put forward his plan for a political union between the two nations to the four Dutch envoys who had arrived in London in late June, but they emphatically rejected this. He also wished to avoid further conflict with

17848-726: The States of Holland and then to the States General in April was critical of the Dutch proposals, but at least allowed discussions to start. Little was achieved until both the Rump Parliament and its short-lived successor the Nominated Parliament had been dissolved, the latter in December 1653. The following month the States General asked for negotiations to be restarted and in May Cromwell agreed to receive Dutch envoys in London. In mid June, Johan de Witt persuaded

18032-640: The Stuart cause. French support for the English Royalists had led the Commonwealth to commence the issuing of letters of marque against French ships and against French goods in neutral ships in December 1649. Dozens of neutral Dutch ships were detained near French ports by English ships operating under letters of marque, and some of these were seized. Dutch concerns were further raised by an English embargo on Dutch trade with Scotland declared soon after. In 1649 and 1650, General-at-Sea Robert Blake drove

18216-537: The Treaty of Westminster of 1674. The Dutch were forced to make three minor humiliating concessions. They promised to punish those culpable in the Amboyna Massacre exemplarily (art. 27). However, no such people were still alive to be punished, as the Dutch probably well knew. The matter of reparation for the affair was handled under the arbitration agreement of art. 30 of the treaty. The commissioner's awarded

18400-661: The V.O.C.in November 1666 during the Second Anglo-Dutch War and formally ceded to the V.O.C. by the Treaty of Breda in 1667 in part-exchange for New Netherland. First English Civil War 1643 1644 1645 1646 The First English Civil War took place in England and Wales from 1642 to 1646, and forms part of the 1639 to 1653 Wars of the Three Kingdoms . An estimated 15% to 20% of adult males in England and Wales served in

18584-400: The act also allowed the seizure of ships violating the prohibition by both the English navy and merchant ships. The act was a temporary war measure hastily enacted and, while it was enacted in general terms to include all countries, it was aimed primarily at the Dutch, and was superseded the following year by a carefully prepared Navigation Act. Writing a century later, Adam Anderson relates of

18768-759: The advent of railways in the 19th century. Most of the Royal Navy declared for Parliament, allowing them to protect the trade routes vital to the London merchant community, block Royalist imports and resupply isolated Parliamentarian garrisons. It also made other countries wary of antagonising one of the strongest navies in Europe by providing support to their opponents. By September, forces loyal to Parliament held every major port in England apart from Newcastle , which prevented Royalist areas in Wales and South West and North East England from supporting each other. In February 1642, Charles sent his wife, Henrietta Maria , to

18952-655: The aims of the English parliamentarians and, while strongly against its regicide , supported a pragmatic policy of neutrality, in opposition to the Royalist-supporting Stadtholder. The impasse between the two sides ended with the death of William II in November 1650. However his attempts to involve the Netherlands in action against the English Commonwealth in support of the exiled Charles II, which could have led at least to limited hostilities and possibly outright war, and it did lead to

19136-399: The ally of the Republic, should be abandoned in its war against Sweden. In the end Cromwell accepted that the 25 agreed articles would form the basis for peace. Meanwhile, the English navy tried to gain control over the North Sea, and in the two-day Battle of the Gabbard in June drove the Dutch back to their home ports with the loss of 17 warships captured or destroyed, starting a blockade of

19320-455: The appointment of Catholics to senior positions, while attempts to integrate Irish Catholic troops in 1643 caused some regiments to mutiny. Parliamentarians were divided between Presbyterians like Pym who wanted to reform the Church of England, and religious Independents who rejected any form of established church and wanted it abolished. They included Congregationalists like Cromwell and Baptists , who were especially well represented in

19504-449: The arbiters in London could not reach agreement. The treaty was signed on 5/15 April 1654, and ratified by both states within a fortnight (ratification resolution of the States General 12/22 April 1654, Cromwell 19/29 April 1654). With hindsight, the most momentous provision in the treaty was the secret clause concerning the Act of Seclusion. When the secret eventually leaked, it caused

19688-534: The army disintegrated, allowing Charles to pursue Essex into the West Country. On the same day, Prince Rupert arrived at Knaresborough , 30 kilometres from York, to find himself facing a superior force. In the largest battle of the war on 2 July, the two armies met at Marston Moor , a decisive Royalist defeat that lost them the North. York surrendered on 16 July, and the Earl of Newcastle went into exile. Essex forced

19872-411: The church. Both issues were linked, because in the 17th century 'true religion' and 'good government' were seen as mutually dependent. In general, Royalists supported a Church of England governed by bishops , appointed by, and answerable to, the king, while most Parliamentarians believed he was answerable to the leaders of the church, appointed by their congregations. Another common misperception

20056-539: The devastation caused by the Thirty Years War in Europe meant many wanted to avoid conflict at any cost. Choice of sides was often driven by personal relationships or loyalties, and in the early stages there were numerous examples of armed neutrality, or local truces, designed to force the two sides to negotiate. Over the winter of 1641 to 1642, many towns strengthened their defences, and purchased weapons, although not necessarily due to fears of civil war. Lurid details of

20240-756: The end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 also meant that many colonial possessions of the Portuguese and some of the Spanish Empire and their mineral resources were effectively open to conquest by a stronger power. The ensuing rush for empire brought the former allies into conflict, and the Dutch, having made peace with Spain, quickly replaced the English as dominant traders with the Iberian Peninsula , adding to an English resentment about Dutch trade that had steadily grown since 1590. Although

20424-537: The establishment of a new States Party regime in the Dutch Republic cleared the way for a thaw in Anglo-Dutch diplomatic relations. The negotiations about better relations started in earnest in the Spring of 1651. Walter Strickland and Oliver St John went to The Hague to talk about the removal of the royalist exiles who had sought asylum in the Netherlands (among whom was the pretender Charles Stuart ) from

20608-595: The first place the Dutch asked for the King of Denmark (their ally in the war) to be included in the treaty. Secondly, Cromwell demanded that the then-four-year-old Prince of Orange should be excluded from future government appointments, like the stadtholderate, or the captaincy-general of the States Army . The first demand was accepted, but the second at first appeared unacceptable to the Dutch ambassadors, who returned home. Secret direct negotiations between Cromwell and De Witt (represented by Beverningh), led to agreement on

20792-553: The first treaties implementing international arbitration as a method of conflict resolution in early modern times. A secret clause, obliging the States of Holland to enact the Act of Seclusion , played an important part in Dutch internal politics during the First Stadtholderless Period . The negotiation of the treaty started long before the war. The Commonwealth of England had been established only in 1649, and

20976-462: The idea of rule solely by the States General, and was especially powerful in the large commercially oriented province of Holland. To obtain support against William II, it had sought the assistance of Oliver Cromwell. After William II's death, the States Party was in a much stronger position politically, and no longer valued or needed Cromwell's support against the stadholderate. In January 1651,

21160-577: The inhabitants of both countries to trade in Europe and overseas; the assignment of trade in East Asia solely to the Dutch in exchange for indemnification of the E.I.C.; the assignment of trade in the Americas (except Brazil, that was to be divided in influence spheres between the two countries) exclusively to the Commonwealth; and Dutch naval assistance to English attempts at conquest in Spanish America. (The two remaining Dutch ambassadors rejected

21344-562: The inland provinces. Each Admiralty was responsible for the design, construction, armament and manning of its own ships and the appointment of flag officers for its squadron. The second was the so-called "director's ships" ( directieschepen ), convoy escorts provided by the burgomasters and merchants of six cities including Amsterdam and Hoorn to protect their Baltic trades. The cities were responsible for providing what were in effect modified and armed merchant ships, appointing their captains and providing crews. The next group were hybrid ships of

21528-476: The interests of Johan de Witt's party . Although this was not part of the formal peace treaty, the two members of the negotiating team from the province of Holland agreed to a secret annexe providing that England would only ratify the treaty after the States of Holland had passed an Act of Seclusion , excluding the House of Orange from holding public office in that province: this legislation was passed in May 1654. There

21712-471: The king's death, after which the proposal was left in abeyance until more favourable times. The sudden death on 6 November 1650 of William II , the Stadholder of the United Provinces, whose popularity had declined since his election in 1647 in the face of growing discontent from the States Party in the United Provinces, changed matters. The States party was the political faction identified most closely with

21896-410: The largest Dutch ship. All the English ships intended to fight in the battle line were more heavily armed than their equivalents in other European navies, sacrificing freeboard and the ability to use their lower guns in adverse weather in exchange for more powerful ordnance . English ships could fire and hit the enemy at a greater range, and favoured the use of round shot over the chain shot which

22080-492: The largest city, port and commercial centre in England, its biggest weapons store in the Tower of London , and best equipped local militia, or trained bands . Founded in 1572, these were organised by county , controlled by lord-lieutenants appointed by the king, and constituted the only permanent military force in the country. The muster roll of February 1638 shows wide variations in size, equipment and training; Yorkshire had

22264-467: The largest, with 12,000 men, followed by London with 8,000, later increased to 20,000. 'Royalist' counties like Shropshire or Glamorgan had fewer than 500 men. In March 1642, Parliament approved the Militia Ordinance , claiming control of the trained bands; Charles responded with his own Commissions of Array . More important than the men were the local arsenals , with Parliament holding

22448-418: The last proposal out of hand, as it would jeopardize the good relations which the Dutch Republic had recently established with Spain). Jongestal and Nieuport returned in November 1653 with instructions to reject the proposed union, but to seek a close alliance commensurate with maintenance of Dutch independence. Later that month the English side presented a draft treaty of 27 articles. In two of those articles

22632-417: The leniency of Cromwell, but also because he feared a longer war, along with the massive economic damage to the English maritime economy. The Dutch nevertheless realized few of the objectives in their 36 articles, and had to make a few minor concessions - the acceptance of the Act of Navigation which excluded their merchants from all commerce between England and its colonies, an indemnity of £85,000 for losses of

22816-666: The loss, Charles dismissed his nephew. While one detachment from the New Model under Colonel Rainsborough secured Berkeley Castle , another under Cromwell captured Royalist strongholds at Basing House and Winchester. Having secured his rear, Fairfax began reducing remaining positions in the west; by now, Clubmen militia in Hampshire and Dorset were as big an issue as the Royalist army. When his remaining cavalry were scattered at Rowton Heath on 24 September, Charles abandoned attempts to reach Scotland and returned to Newark. On 13 October, he learned of Montrose's defeat at Philiphaugh

23000-626: The major import point for Royalist war supplies. He besieged the town in early February, but made little progress, observed by the Earl of Newcastle from his base in Durham . On 29 March, Waller ended the offensive in Southern England by defeating Hopton at Cheriton , then joined Essex to threaten Oxford. Two weeks later, the Earl of Manchester defeated a Royalist force at Selby , forcing Newcastle to leave Durham and garrison York. The city

23184-538: The matter of the exclusion of the Prince, however without the knowledge of the States General of the Netherlands . A secret clause, requiring the enactment of what became known as the Act of Seclusion by the States of Holland as a precondition for ratification of the treaty by the Commonwealth, would be added to the treaty that would only bind the States of Holland. The Dutch ambassadors returned to England after

23368-503: The metropolitan powers, in the Hartford Agreement of 19 September 1650. Meanwhile, relations between the two countries became tense, when, in answer to depredations of English privateers against neutral Dutch shipping in an undeclared maritime conflict between the Commonwealth and France, the Dutch started a program of naval expansion, by which the English (who had recently expanded their own fleet) felt threatened. After

23552-672: The military at some point between 1639 and 1653, while around 4% of the total population died from war-related causes. These figures illustrate the widespread impact of the conflict on society, and the bitterness it engendered as a result. Conflict over the role of Parliament and religious practice dated from the accession of James VI and I in 1603. These tensions culminated in the imposition of Personal Rule in 1629 by his son, Charles I , who recalled Parliament in April and November 1640. He hoped by doing so to obtain funding that would enable him to reverse his defeat by Scots Covenanters in

23736-650: The more committed republicans, particularly those in Holland. The execution of Charles outraged the Orangists, and the Dutch republicans that had attempted to save Charles' life, but the execution did not prevent the States General from continuing a policy of broad neutrality, dealing unofficially with the English parliament while allowing Royalist envoys into the country. The Commonwealth and the Dutch Republic had many things in common: they were both republican and Protestant and many members of States General sympathised with

23920-481: The more numerous Portuguese, dissatisfied by Dutch rule, from reconquest. In Holland itself the war took its toll – shipping businesses had ceased trading and work was hard to find. In Amsterdam fifteen hundred houses were untenanted, many observed a large number of roaming beggars and grass was growing in the streets. The condition of the country had left the Dutch no choice but to accept Cromwells terms. Peace negotiations continued until March 1654 when Cromwell demanded

24104-604: The most comprehensive Royalist victory of the war, it isolated Parliament's garrisons in the west and Prince Rupert stormed Bristol on 26 July. This gave the Royalists control of the second largest city in Britain and landing point for reinforcements from Ireland. By late August, the Parliamentarian cause was close to collapse but was saved by Pym's leadership and determination, which resulted in important reforms. Both sides struggled to properly supply troops fighting outside their home regions and Parliament agreed steps to mitigate

24288-456: The nature of these "rights". This caused divisions within Parliament as the war progressed, since not everyone agreed on what they were seeking to restore, or even if it were desirable. Most Parliamentarians went to war in 1642 not to depose the king but regulate his powers, while only a tiny minority sought to abolish the monarchy altogether. John Pym , Parliamentarian leader in the Commons ,

24472-486: The need to plan for a lengthy conflict. For the Royalists, this meant fortifying their new capital in Oxford, and connecting areas of support in England and Wales; Parliament focused on consolidating control of the areas they already held. Although peace talks were held, both parties continued to negotiate for Scottish and Irish support. Charles sought to end the war in Ireland , which would enable him to transfer troops from

24656-497: The new state was seeking international recognition. Older established states, like the Dutch Republic , looked somewhat askance at the "upstart" England, which was ruled by "king killers." The Dutch Republic had actively supported the royalist cause in the English Civil War because of the family ties between the stadtholder William II, Prince of Orange and the English royal family. The death of William II in 1650 and

24840-664: The only way to secure their objectives. Many were religious Independents who opposed any state church, and strongly objected to Scottish demands for a unified, Presbyterian church of England and Scotland; Oliver Cromwell claimed he would fight, rather than accept such an outcome. Failure to exploit Marston Moor, Essex' capitulation at Lostwithiel, and Manchester's alleged unwillingness to fight at Newbury led to claims some senior commanders were not committed to victory. Accusations against Manchester and Essex in particular were not confined to Cromwell, but shared by some Presbyterians, including Waller. In December, Sir Henry Vane introduced

25024-592: The opposing side. Since the vast majority of English ports were held by Parliament and the Royalist navy was weak, few Dutch ships were seized although the number steadily rose from 1644 to 1646, causing considerable tension. Despite these embargoes and their extension to Ireland and English colonies in Royalist hands, as late as 1649 the States General, and particularly the maritime provinces of Holland and Zeeland, wished to maintain their lucrative trade with England. Until 1648, Dutch naval vessels also inspected convoys of English ships which, as neutrals, were able to trade with

25208-522: The other hand, would leave American ports with barely 1,000 bags of wool cloth unsold. Because of this disparity, English trade with her traditional markets in the Baltic, Germany, Russia and Scandinavia withered. During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms , the States General was officially neutral, a policy that antagonised both Parliamentarians and Royalists but which the powerful province of Holland considered most advantageous. The Dutch also benefitted from

25392-570: The peace but it was also a relief - Cromwell proclaimed 23 May 1654 to be a day of Thanksgiving . The English made some small gains out of the peace treaty, while not making any concessions to the Dutch, but the strong commercial position of the Dutch Republic remained largely intact and the rivalry between the two nations was not resolved. Especially in their emerging overseas colonies, hostilities continued between Dutch and English trading companies, which had warships and troops of their own. The English soon took advantage of their new ships seized from

25576-519: The period that "It had been observed with concern, that the merchants of England for several years past had usually freighted the Hollanders shipping for bringing home their own merchandize, because their freight was at a lower rate than that of English ships. The Dutch shipping were thereby made use of even for importing our own American products; whilst our shipping lay rotting in our harbours; our mariners also for want of employment at home, went into

25760-409: The phrase that subjects of both countries might trade in each other's dominions saving the laws and ordinances of either commonwealth appeared. This phrase, though innocuous at first sight, represented the English intention to maintain the provisions of the Navigation Act. The Dutch representatives countered with amendments to the proposed articles that would free their commerce from the restrictions of

25944-489: The problem. Seeing an opportunity to force Parliamentary moderates into a negotiated peace, in September the Royalists agreed a new three-part offensive. After taking Gloucester , Prince Rupert would advance on London, while Newcastle would tie down the Eastern Association army by advancing into East Anglia and Lincolnshire . Finally, Hopton would march into Hampshire and Sussex , threatening London from

26128-470: The proclamation of the Commonwealth, the army assumed a more prominent political role compared with parliament. The neutralisation of Rupert's fleet and its bases, the defeat of the Irish Royalists at Rathmines and Drogheda in 1649 and of the Scots at the Battle of Dunbar in 1650 made the Commonwealth more assertive in its relations with the Dutch, both on trade and on William II's support for

26312-747: The protection of Portuguese coastal forts, where he remained until December, when he escaped to the West Indies. The threat of the Royalist fleet had been neutralised by forcing it into retreat. Its strongholds in the Isles of Scilly , the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands were captured in 1651. This was followed in 1652 by the recovery of England's colonial possessions in the West Indies and North America by General George Ayscue . Infuriated by

26496-493: The provision that rebels designated by either of the two countries were to be banished. This first of all targeted the pretender Charles Stuart, who had since 1648 found asylum in the Republic at the court of his sister Mary and her husband stadtholder William II. He subsequently had to move to the Spanish Netherlands . Ironically, a similar clause was to be included in the treaties Charles II himself concluded with

26680-424: The rank of commandeur , broadly equivalent to commodore was sighted by Ayscue, with a more numerous squadron of warships and armed merchant ships. Ayscue attempted to attack the convoy with around nine of his strongest and fastest warships, but De Ruyter counter-attacked and, in the Battle of Plymouth , surrounded the English warships which were not supported by their armed merchant ships. The convoy escaped, Ayscue

26864-456: The rear of the fleet, hoping to overpower them before the bulk of the English fleet could come to their aid. However, the outnumbered English ships extemporised a line ahead formation and managed to keep the Dutch at bay through coordinated heavy gunfire. Whether as a direct result of the Battle of Portland or the accumulation of experience gained over some years, in March 1653, Robert Blake wrote

27048-407: The republic" to be effected by "a Confederation of the two Commonwealths". and based on proposal put in 1648 by a parliamentary envoy that the Dutch had declined to consider. Any Dutch expectation that recognising the Commonwealth would end dissent between the two countries was disabused and, based on the earlier proposal, the States General drew up a draft of 36 articles, the first eleven of which were

27232-402: The result that, by November Cromwell, despite military success in the North Sea, was anxious to make peace as the Dutch were capturing numerous English merchant ships. Despite this the Dutch Republic was also unable to sustain a prolonged naval war as English privateers inflicted serious damage on Dutch shipping. At the time the Dutch merchant fleet was three times larger than the English, and it

27416-428: The ruling republican regents to overcome the pro-Stuart Orangists than go to war, were economic issues not more pressing. Following the departure of St John, the States General sent a delegation to London to continue discussions. However, after the Battle of Worcester in September 1651, the radical element in the English parliament became stronger and the group including Cromwell that genuinely favoured an alliance with

27600-426: The sea battles fought in 1652 were chaotic, with boarding and capturing enemy ships a favoured tactic, particularly of the Dutch. Squadrons or even individual ships fought without regard to the rest of the fleet, although the English fleet instructions of 1650 emphasised the importance of supporting other ships of the same squadron, particularly the flagship. In the first major battle of 1653, the English fleet challenged

27784-556: The service of the Hollanders." The English accused the Dutch of profiting from the turmoil of the English Civil War. The Dutch fleet in the Eighty Years' War had three tasks: as a Battle Force against major Spanish fleets, to convoy Dutch merchant ships and protect its fishing fleet and to actively oppose privateers , particularly those of Dunkirk . In that war, the two latter tasks were more important than major fleet actions, and they required more numerous but smaller warships than

27968-531: The size of the army, which he commanded and using his supporters in six provinces to outvote Holland, the most prosperous province, in the States General. Following the end of the Eighty Years' War and the execution of his father-in-law, Charles I, William attempted to support the English Royalist cause to an extent that gave concern to even his own followers, and which involved him in disputes with

28152-539: The south, and closing the iron foundries that were Parliament's main source of armaments. However, Essex forced Prince Rupert to retreat from Gloucester, then checked his advance on London at Newbury on 20 September. Although Hopton reached Winchester , Waller prevented him making further progress; in October, Newcastle abandoned the second siege of Hull , while victory at Winceby secured eastern England for Parliament. Royalist failure ended any chance of concluding

28336-405: The subject of intensive discussion. By June the Dutch believed that agreement had been reached on those points, and the English delegation announced their imminent departure, leaving on 2 July. During their three-month stay, other events had convinced the English delegation of Dutch animosity. The Hague was the residence of the young widow of William II, Charles I's daughter Mary Henrietta Stuart ,

28520-488: The total Dutch losses for the other two Anglo-Dutch wars in the 17th century. This was the greatest single maritime disaster suffered by the Dutch world Entrepôt during its great age. In addition, as press-ganging was forbidden, enormous sums had to be paid to attract enough sailors to man the fleet. The Dutch were unable to defend all of their colonies and it had too few colonists or troops in Dutch Brazil to prevent

28704-410: The trade prohibition imposed by the Commonwealth. Over a hundred other Dutch ships were captured by English privateers between October 1651 and July 1652. Moreover, the death of Dutch Stadtholder William II, who had favoured an expansion of the army at the expense of the navy, had led to a change in Dutch defence policy towards protecting the great trading concerns of Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Accordingly,

28888-537: The treatment of the English delegation in The Hague and emboldened by their victory against Charles II and his forces at the Battle of Worcester on September 3, 1651, the English Parliament , as noted above, passed the first of the Navigation Acts in October 1651. It ordered that only English ships and ships from the originating country could import goods to England. This measure, as also noted above,

29072-629: The two armies fought a bloody, chaotic, and indecisive battle at Edgehill . Essex continued retreating towards London; after an inconclusive encounter on 16 November at Turnham Green , west of London, operations ended for the winter. The Royalists withdrew to Oxford , which became their capital for the rest of the war. Elsewhere, Sir William Waller secured the south-east for Parliament; in December, Lord Wilmot captured Marlborough , opening communications between Oxford, and Royalist forces based at Launceston, in Cornwall . The events of 1642 showed

29256-413: The two largest in London, and Hull . These belonged to the local community, who often resisted attempts to remove them, by either side. In Royalist Cheshire , the towns of Nantwich , Knutsford and Chester declared a state of armed neutrality, and excluded both parties. Ports were vital for access to internal and external waterways, the primary method of importing and transporting bulk supplies until

29440-426: The vast majority in all three kingdoms believed a 'well-ordered' monarchy was divinely mandated. His opponents argued that if Charles would not obey his own laws or keep his promises, this presented a threat to the state which required either forcing him to do so, or deposing him in favour of his eldest son. Where they disagreed was what 'well-ordered' meant, particularly in terms of the role of Parliament, and control of

29624-506: The war in England was a long-running struggle for political and religious control between the monarchy and Parliament that began when James VI and I became king in 1603. The issues arising re-surfaced after the 1660 Stuart Restoration , and were arguably only resolved by the 1688 Glorious Revolution . American historians like Kevin Phillips have identified many similarities between the principles at stake in 1642, and those which led to

29808-529: The war in the near future, leading both sides to step up the search for allies. In September, the Marquess of Ormond , Royalist Lord Lieutenant of Ireland , agreed a truce with the Catholic Confederation . The "Cessation" meant troops could be sent to England, but it cost Charles the support of many Irish Protestants , especially in Munster . At the same time, details emerged of the "Antrim scheme", an alleged plan to use 20,000 Irish troops to recapture southern Scotland for Charles. Although highly impractical,

29992-450: The war militarily, the treaty was remarkably lenient for the Dutch. He ascribes this to the diplomatic acumen of De Witt, who managed to avoid doing any major concession to England's maritime and colonial interests. Cromwell did not achieve his main objectives: the coveted political union came to naught and the E.I.C. remained in fact blocked from freedom of trade in the East Indies (this freedom for British commerce would be achieved only in

30176-439: The war played havoc with English trading and shipping. To broadly study their commercial condition, the first Commission of Trade to be established by an Act of Parliament was erected on 1 August 1650. In October 1650, as part of the act to subdue their Royalist colonies and prevent Royalists from fleeing England, Parliament prohibited foreign ships from visiting or trading with any English plantations in America, without license;

30360-443: The war progressed, both they and their Scottish Covenanter allies came to see the Independents and New Model Army as more dangerous than the Royalists and formed the "Peace Party", seeking a negotiated end to the fighting. An alliance between Royalists and these two groups led to the Second English Civil War in 1648. Lastly, in 1642 England and Wales were part of a highly structured, socially conservative and peaceful society, while

30544-538: The war took place at Powick Bridge on 23 September. A relatively minor Royalist victory, it established the reputation of Prince Rupert , whose cavalry gained a psychological edge over their Parliamentarian opponents. The Royalist army now numbered around 15,000, although much of the infantry were armed with clubs or scythes ; while better equipped, the forces of Parliament were half-trained, poorly disciplined, and their logistics inadequate. When Charles headed for London, Essex tried to block his route, and on 23 October,

30728-431: The war was the actions of the English navy and privateers against Dutch shipping. In 1651, 140 Dutch merchantmen were seized on the open seas. During January 1652 alone, another 30 Dutch ships were captured at sea and taken to English ports. Protests to England by the States General of the United Provinces were of no avail: the English Parliament showed no inclination toward curbing these seizures of Dutch shipping. During

30912-404: The war. On 31 May, Prince Rupert stormed Leicester ; in response, Fairfax and the New Model Army abandoned their blockade of Oxford, and on 14 June, won a decisive victory at Naseby . Defeat cost the Royalists their most formidable field army, along with their artillery train, stores, and Charles' personal baggage. This included his private correspondence, detailing efforts to gain support from

31096-439: The weapons convoy finally managed to land at Bridlington in late February; on 4 June she left York escorted by 5,000 cavalry, arriving in Oxford in mid-July. In the south-west, Royalist commander Sir Ralph Hopton secured Cornwall with victory at Braddock Down in January. In June, he advanced into Wiltshire , inflicting a serious defeat on Waller's 'Army of the Southern Association' at Roundway Down on 13 July. Arguably

31280-465: Was an adverse reaction from several of other Dutch provinces, but their provincial assemblies could neither overcome their own internal divisions nor coordinate opposition with other provinces. However, although they did not enact their own Exclusion legislation then, in practice they did not oppose it. Only after the Second Anglo-Dutch War did four other provinces besides Holland adopt the Perpetual Edict (1667) sanctioning Exclusion. England celebrated

31464-634: Was approved in 1856, but not carried out until 1895, with most of the funds supplied by Prime Minister Lord Rosebery . In 2004, a group of MPs unsuccessfully proposed a motion to have it melted down, and the debate continues. However, individual motives for choosing a side were complex, and there were wide areas of alignment between Royalists and Parliamentarians. Many tried to remain neutral, or participated with extreme reluctance, while others fought on both sides at different points. Historian Tim Harris suggests that by 1640, most agreed attempts by Charles to govern without Parliament had gone too far. After

31648-528: Was besieged by the Scots, Sir Thomas Fairfax, and Manchester's Army of the Eastern Association . In May, Prince Rupert left Shrewsbury , and marched north, capturing Liverpool and Bolton en route. To avoid being shut up in Oxford, a field army nominally commanded by Charles retreated to Worcester ; Essex ordered Waller to remain there, while he went west to relieve the siege of Lyme Regis . On 29 June, Waller clashed with Charles at Cropredy Bridge ; although losses were minimal, his men were demoralised, and

31832-400: Was later persuaded to issue a more conciliatory answer, whose objective was primarily to appeal to moderates by placing blame for what now seemed an inevitable military conflict on Pym and his followers. Drafted by Hyde, this response has been seen as the origin of "mixed" or constitutional monarchy , although whether Charles himself genuinely believed in it is debatable. Both sides expected

32016-403: Was lessening with the growth of strongly republican sentiment among the ruling class, and he could not involve the Netherlands in direct support for Charles I, particularly as his country was still at war with Spain. After the death of Frederick Henry in March 1647, his son, the Stadtholder William II of Orange , attempted to extend the power of the stadtholderate particularly through maintaining

32200-459: Was not the case. Royalist successes in 1643 led to an alliance between Parliament and the Scots, who won a series of battles in 1644, the most significant being the Battle of Marston Moor . Alleged failures to exploit these successes led Parliament in February 1645 to set up the New Model Army , the first centrally-funded and professional military force in England, whose success at Naseby in June 1645 proved decisive. The war ended with victory for

32384-453: Was not until January 1651 that the last of the seven provinces agreed to it. As early as 1643, Oliver St John had urged fellow Protestants in the Netherlands to sign the Solemn League and Covenant that the Scots had already signed, but had been rebuffed. After the execution of Charles I in 1649, parliament sent an envoy to the Hague to discuss an alliance with the United Provinces, but he was murdered shortly after his arrival in reprisal for

32568-657: Was one of the few who believed forcing Charles to abdicate might be the only option, since past experience showed he would not keep commitments he considered forced on him. Examples included his annulment of the 1628 Petition of Right , and the recent Bishops Wars , when he agreed peace terms with the Scots in 1639 only to provide time to plan another military campaign in 1640. These doubts were confirmed when he and his wife Henrietta Maria repeatedly told foreign ambassadors any concessions made to Parliament were temporary, and would be retrieved by force. Charles' credibility mattered because regardless of religion or political belief,

32752-438: Was particularly aimed at hampering the shipping of the highly trade-dependent Dutch and often used as a pretext simply to take their ships; as General Monck put it: "The Dutch have too much trade, and the English are resolved to take it from them." Agitation among the Dutch merchants was further increased by George Ayscue 's capture in early 1652 of 27 Dutch ships trading with the Royalist colony of Barbados in contravention of

32936-403: Was popular in other navies. The commercial tensions between England and the Netherlands were intensified when the English Parliament passed the Navigation Act 1651 . This limited Dutch trade with any of the English colonies in America unless the shipping was done in "English bottoms" i.e. English ships. Indeed, any cargo to English ports or the ports of English colonies from anywhere in the world

33120-406: Was relieved of his command and de Ruyter gained prestige in his first independent command. Tromp had also been suspended after the failure in Shetland, and Vice-Admiral Witte de With was given command. The Dutch convoys being at the time safe from English attack, De With saw an opportunity to concentrate his forces and gain control of the seas. At the Battle of the Kentish Knock on 8 October 1652

33304-426: Was required to be carried in English ships. Furthermore, the Navigation Act forbade all trade with those English colonies that retained connections and sympathy for the royalist cause of Charles I . To have accepted the terms of the Navigation Act was seen by the Dutch as agreeing to subordinate Dutch trade to the English trading system. This insulted Dutch pride and damaged their economy, but the more immediate cause of

33488-400: Was seen as a provocative move. The Commonwealth began to prepare for war, but as both nations were unready, war might have been delayed if not for an unfortunate encounter between the fleets of Dutch Lieutenant-Admiral Maarten Tromp and General at Sea Robert Blake in the English Channel near Dover on 29 May 1652. An ordinance of Cromwell required all foreign fleets in the North Sea or

33672-439: Was that bishops held a variety of non-religious roles which impacted all levels of society; they acted as state censors, who were able to ban sermons and writings, while ordinary people could be tried by church courts for crimes including blasphemy , heresy , fornication and other 'sins of the flesh', as well as matrimonial or inheritance disputes. As members of the House of Lords , bishops often blocked legislation opposed by

33856-423: Was that the principle of binding arbitration by a third party (the Protestant Swiss Cantons ) was first agreed on as a means of conflict resolution in an international treaty. The Dutch were also unsuccessful in obtaining ratification of the 1650 Hartford agreement concerning the border between New Netherland and Connecticut. This matter would be finally resolved by the transfer of New Netherland to England by

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