114-597: The First Apology was an early work of Christian apologetics addressed by Justin Martyr to the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius . In addition to arguing against the persecution of individuals solely for being Christian, Justin also provides the Emperor with a defense of the philosophy of Christianity and a detailed explanation of contemporary Christian practices and rituals. This work, along with
228-666: A monstrance . Rites involving the exposure of the Blessed Sacrament include Benediction and eucharistic adoration . According to Catholic theology , the host, after the Rite of Consecration, is no longer bread, but is the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ. Catholics believe that Jesus is the sacrificial Lamb of God prefigured in the Old Testament Passover . The flesh of that Passover sacrificial lamb
342-614: A biblical basis for Christian apologetics is God's entreaty in the Book of Isaiah : "Come now, let us reason together." Other scriptural passages which have been taken as a basis for Christian apologetics include Psalm 19 , which begins "The heavens declare the glory of God; the skies proclaim the work of his hands," and Romans 1 , which reads "For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature—have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that men are without excuse." There are
456-422: A case for the historicity of the resurrection of Christ per current legal standards of evidence or undermining the pagan myth hypothesis for the origin of Christianity. Regarding evidence for the historicity of the Book of Acts , A. N. Sherwin-White states that: For Acts, the confirmation of historicity is overwhelming. Acts is, in simple terms and judged externally, no less of a propaganda narrative than
570-663: A central issue in the discussions and deliberations of the ecumenical movement." The New Testament was originally written in the Greek language and the Greek noun εὐχαριστία ( eucharistia ), meaning "thanksgiving", appears a few times in it, while the related Greek verb εὐχαριστήσας is found several times in New Testament accounts of the Last Supper, including the earliest such account: For I received from
684-497: A change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood. This change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation ." The church holds that the body and blood of Jesus can no longer be truly separated. Where one is, the other must be. Therefore, although the priest (or extraordinary minister of Holy Communion ) says "The Body of Christ" when administering
798-509: A grave reason for receiving Communion and there is no possibility of going to confession." Since the Eucharist is the body and blood of Christ, "the worship due to the sacrament of the Eucharist, whether during the celebration of the Mass or outside it, is the worship of latria , that is, the adoration given to God alone."" The Blessed Sacrament can be exposed (displayed) on an altar in
912-442: A span to allow the mythical tendency to prevail over the hard historic core. Moral apologetics states that real moral obligation is a fact. Catholic apologist Peter Kreeft said, "We are really, truly, objectively obligated to do good and avoid evil." In moral apologetics, the arguments for man's sinfulness and man's need for redemption are stressed. Examples of this type of apologetic would be Jonathan Edwards ' sermon " Sinners in
1026-419: A standard Roman administrative genre that seeks to change a legal precedent (in this case, asking Christians to be charged based on evil deeds rather than for being Christian in and of itself). But by including the descriptions of Christian practice and belief, Parvis argues that “[w]hat Justin did was to hijack this normal Roman administrative procedure and turn it into a vehicle for articulating and disseminating
1140-533: A variety of Christian apologetic styles and schools of thought. The major types of Christian apologetics include historical and legal evidentialist apologetics, presuppositional apologetics, philosophical apologetics, prophetic apologetics, doctrinal apologetics, biblical apologetics, moral apologetics, and scientific apologetics. Biblical apologetics include issues concerned with the authorship and date of biblical books, biblical canon , and biblical inerrancy . Christian apologists defend and comment on various books of
1254-630: Is 13.8 billion-years-old and Earth is 4.54 billion-years-old. Old Earth creationists, such as astrophysicist Hugh Ross , see each of the six days of creation as being a long, but finite period of time, based on the multiple meanings of the Hebrew word yom (day light hours/24 hours/age of time) and other Biblical creation passages. Eucharist The Eucharist ( / ˈ juː k ər ɪ s t / YOO -kər-ist ; from Koinē Greek : εὐχαριστία , romanized: evcharistía , lit. ' thanksgiving ' ), also called Holy Communion ,
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#17327657793761368-499: Is a branch of Christian theology that defends Christianity . Christian apologetics have taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle in the early church and Patristic writers such as Origen , Augustine of Hippo , Justin Martyr and Tertullian , then continuing with writers such as Thomas Aquinas , Duns Scotus , William of Ockham and Anselm of Canterbury during Scholasticism . Blaise Pascal
1482-580: Is a word that sometimes means Easter, sometimes Passover.) In the Eucharist the same sacrifice that Jesus made only once on the cross is believed to be made present at every Mass. According to Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church , "The Eucharist is the very sacrifice of the Body and Blood of the Lord Jesus which he instituted to perpetuate the sacrifice of the cross throughout
1596-516: Is any real change in the elements used, recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite. However, Christians differ about exactly how, where and how long Christ is present in it. Catholicism , Eastern Orthodoxy , Oriental Orthodoxy , and the Church of the East teach that the reality (the "substance") of the elements of bread and wine is wholly changed into the body and blood of Jesus Christ, while
1710-467: Is digested, physically destroyed, or decays by some natural process (at which point, theologian Thomas Aquinas argued, the substance of the bread and wine cannot return). The Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215 spoke of the bread and wine as "transubstantiated" into the body and blood of Christ: "His body and blood are truly contained in the sacrament of the altar under the forms of bread and wine,
1824-644: Is found in the First Epistle to the Corinthians , which suggests how early Christians celebrated what Paul the Apostle called the Lord's Supper. Although the Gospel of John does not reference the Last Supper explicitly, some argue that it contains theological allusions to the early Christian celebration of the Eucharist, especially in the chapter 6 Bread of Life Discourse but also in other passages. In
1938-403: Is it not the communion of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not the communion of the body of Christ? The phrase κλάσις τοῦ ἄρτου ( klasis tou artou , 'breaking of the bread'; in later liturgical Greek also ἀρτοκλασία artoklasia ) appears in various related forms five times in the New Testament in contexts which, according to some, may refer to the celebration of
2052-540: Is my body, which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.'" The Greek word used in the passage for 'remembrance' is ἀνάμνησιν ( anamnesis ), which itself has a much richer theological history than the English word "remember". The expression "The Lord's Supper", derived from Paul 's usage in 1 Corinthians 11:17–34, may have originally referred to the Agape feast (or love feast), the shared communal meal with which
2166-412: Is not only a meaningful philosophy, but it also completes and corrects prior thought to achieve the highest level of knowledge and reason. The First Apology provides one of the most detailed accounts of contemporary Christian practice. Those that are baptized are “brought by us where there is water,” where they are “born again in the same manner of rebirth by which we ourselves were born again.” After
2280-447: Is official as they prefer to leave it a mystery. Lutherans believe Christ to be "truly and substantially present" with the bread and wine that are seen in the Eucharist, in a manner referred to as the sacramental union . They attribute the real presence of Jesus' living body to his word spoken in the Eucharist, and not to the faith of those receiving it. They also believe that "forgiveness of sins, life, and salvation" are given through
2394-496: Is one bishop, along with the presbytery and deacons, my fellow-servants: that so, whatsoever you do, you may do it according to [the will of] God. Justin Martyr (born c. 100 , died c. 165 ) mentions in this regard: And this food is called among us Εὐχαριστία [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with
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#17327657793762508-606: Is perhaps the best known modern, English speaking Eastern Orthodox apologist. Among the Evangelicals there is the Anglican C. S. Lewis (who popularized the argument now known as Lewis's trilemma ). Among Protestant apologists of the 19th century there was William Paley who popularized the Watchmaker analogy . In the first half of the 20th century, many Christian fundamentalists became well known apologists. Some of
2622-616: Is popular in Calvinist circles. Others include William Lane Craig , Douglas Groothuis , Josh McDowell , Hugo Anthony Meynell , Timothy J. Keller , Francis Collins , Vishal Mangalwadi , Richard Bauckham , Craig Evans , Darrell Bock , Frank Turek , John F. MacArthur , R.C. Sproul , Michael R. Licona , Ravi Zacharias , Allister McGrath and John Lennox . The original Greek apologia ( ἀπολογία , from Ancient Greek : ἀπολογέομαι , romanized : apologeomai , lit. 'speak in return, defend oneself')
2736-567: Is received by the faithful only in a heavenly and spiritual manner, a doctrine also taught in the Methodist Articles of Religion . Christians adhering to the theology of Memorialism , such as the Anabaptist Churches , do not believe in the concept of the real presence, believing that the Eucharist is only a ceremonial remembrance or memorial of the death of Christ. The Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry document of
2850-484: Is salvific. The concept of the Jews both destroying and partaking in some perverted version of the Eucharist has been a vessel to promote anti-Judaism and anti-Jewish ideology and violence. In medieval times, Jews were often depicted stabbing or in some other way physically harming communion wafers. These characterizations drew parallels to the idea that the Jews killed Christ; murdering this transubstantiation or "host"
2964-456: Is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh. Paschasius Radbertus (785–865) was a Carolingian theologian, and the abbot of Corbie , whose best-known and influential work is an exposition on the nature of the Eucharist written around 831, entitled De Corpore et Sanguine Domini . In it, Paschasius agrees with St Ambrose in affirming that the Eucharist contains the true, historical body of Jesus Christ. According to Paschasius, God
3078-637: Is the name still used by Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox , Catholics , Anglicans , Presbyterians , and Lutherans . Other Protestant denominations rarely use this term, preferring "Communion", "the Lord's Supper", "Remembrance", or "the Breaking of Bread". Latter-day Saints call it " the Sacrament ". In the First Epistle to the Corinthians Paul uses the term "Lord's Supper", in Greek Κυριακὸν δεῖπνον ( Kyriakon deipnon ), in
3192-576: Is the same Christ, really present under the species of bread and wine, who is the offering of the Eucharistic sacrifice." According to the Catholic Church Jesus Christ is present in the Eucharist in a true, real and substantial way, with his body, blood, soul and divinity. By the consecration , the substances of the bread and wine actually become the substances of the body and blood of Christ ( transubstantiation ) while
3306-581: Is true. To remedy this, we must begin by showing that religion is not contrary to reason; that it is venerable, to inspire respect for it; then we must make it lovable, to make good men hope it is true; finally, we must prove it is true." Christian apologetics continues in modern times in a wide variety of forms. Among Catholics there are Bishop Robert Barron , G. K. Chesterton , Ronald Knox , Taylor Marshall , Arnold Lunn , Karl Keating , Michael Voris , Peter Kreeft , Frank Sheed , Dr. Scott Hahn , and Patrick Madrid . The Russian Orthodox Seraphim Rose
3420-458: Is truth itself, and therefore, his words and actions must be true. Christ's proclamation at the Last Supper that the bread and wine were his body and blood must be taken literally, since God is truth. He thus believes that the transubstantiation of the bread and wine offered in the Eucharist really occurs. Only if the Eucharist is the actual body and blood of Christ can a Christian know it
3534-588: The Blessed Sacrament or the Lord's Supper , is a Christian rite , considered a sacrament in most churches and an ordinance in others. Christians believe that the rite was instituted by Jesus at the Last Supper , the night before his crucifixion , giving his disciples bread and wine. Passages in the New Testament state that he commanded them to "do this in memory of me" while referring to
First Apology of Justin Martyr - Misplaced Pages Continue
3648-805: The Eastern Orthodox Church or among the Eastern Catholic Churches . These also speak of "the Divine Mysteries", especially in reference to the consecrated elements, which they also call "the Holy Gifts". The term Divine Service ( German : Gottesdienst ) has often been used to refer to Christian worship more generally and is still used in Lutheran churches , in addition to the terms "Eucharist", "Mass" and "Holy Communion". Historically this refers (like
3762-561: The Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist . According to the Catholic Church doctrine receiving the Eucharist in a state of mortal sin is a sacrilege and only those who are in a state of grace, that is, without any mortal sin, can receive it. Based on 1 Corinthians 11:27–29, it affirms the following: "Anyone who is aware of having committed a mortal sin must not receive Holy Communion, even if he experiences deep contrition, without having first received sacramental absolution , unless he has
3876-749: The Second Apology , has been cited as one of the earliest examples of Christian apology , and many scholars attribute this work to creating a new genre of apology out of what was a typical Roman administrative procedure. Justin Martyr was born in Flavia Neapolis (modern Nablus ), a Greek-speaking town in Judea within the Roman Empire. In the Dialogue with Trypho , Justin explains how he came to Christianity after previously passing through
3990-674: The World Council of Churches , attempting to present the common understanding of the Eucharist on the part of the generality of Christians, describes it as "essentially the sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit", "Thanksgiving to the Father", "Anamnesis or Memorial of Christ", "the sacrament of the unique sacrifice of Christ, who ever lives to make intercession for us", "the sacrament of
4104-681: The transcendental argument for the existence of God . Clark held that the Scriptures constituted the axioms of Christian thought, which could not be questioned, though their consistency could be discussed. A consequence of this position is that God's existence can never be demonstrated, either by empirical means or by philosophical argument. In The Justification of Knowledge , the Calvinist theologian Robert L. Reymond argues that believers should not even attempt such proofs. In his book Science Speaks , Peter Stoner argues that only God knows
4218-550: The Apology heavily focused on punishment by fire; a reference to Polycarp’s burning at the stake. It is also generally believed that the Second Apology was originally part of the larger First Apology , although there is uncertainty among scholars about this point. In the early chapters of the First Apology , Justin discusses the principal criticisms of contemporary Christians; namely, atheism, immorality, and disloyalty to
4332-665: The Bible. Some scholars who have engaged in the defense of biblical inerrancy include Robert Dick Wilson , Gleason Archer , Norman Geisler and R. C. Sproul . There are several resources that Christians offer defending inerrancy in regard to specific verses. Authors defending the reliability of the Gospels include Craig Blomberg in The Historical Reliability of the Gospels , Mark D. Roberts in Can We Trust
4446-544: The Catholic Church the Eucharist is considered as a sacrament , according to the church the Eucharist is "the source and summit of the Christian life". "The other sacraments, and indeed all ecclesiastical ministries and works of the apostolate, are bound up with the Eucharist and are oriented toward it. For in the blessed Eucharist is contained the whole spiritual good of the Church, namely Christ himself, our Pasch." ("Pasch"
4560-494: The Catholic Church, do not formally use this term for the rite, but instead mean by it the act of partaking of the consecrated elements; they speak of receiving Holy Communion at Mass or outside of it, they also use the term First Communion when one receives the Eucharist for the first time. The term Communion is derived from Latin communio ("sharing in common"), translated from the Greek κοινωνία ( koinōnía ) in 1 Corinthians 10:16: The cup of blessing which we bless,
4674-544: The Catholic Church. Creationist apologetics aims to defend views of origins such as Young Earth creationism and Old Earth creationism that run counter to mainstream science. Young Earth creationists believe the Bible teaches that the Earth is approximately 6,000 years old, and reject the scientific consensus for the age of the Earth . They apply a literal interpretation to the primordial history in Genesis 1–11 – such as
First Apology of Justin Martyr - Misplaced Pages Continue
4788-677: The Contemplative Life and more explicitly in Josephus ' Against Apion . Christian apologetics first appear in the New Testament (e. g. Paul's preaching on Mars Hill in Acts 17:22–31). During the subapostolic age Christianity was already competing with Judaism as well as with various other religions and sects in the Greco-Roman world. Christian apologetics can be first seen in the ''Preaching of Peter'' ( Gospel of Peter ), but
4902-503: The Empire. He first argues that “the name” of Christianity by itself is not reason enough to punish or persecute, and he urges the Empire instead to only punish evil actions, writing, “For from a name neither approval nor punishment could fairly come, unless something excellent or evil in action can be shown about it.” He then goes on to address the charges more directly, in which he argues that they are “atheists” toward Roman gods, but not to
5016-475: The Eucharist are considered as one single sacrifice: "The victim is one and the same: the same now offers through the ministry of priests, who then offered himself on the cross; only the manner of offering is different." In the holy sacrifice of the Mass, "it is Christ himself, the eternal high priest of the New Covenant who, acting through the ministry of the priests, offers the Eucharistic sacrifice. And it
5130-515: The Eucharist was originally associated. The Agape feast is mentioned in Jude 12 but "The Lord's Supper" is now commonly used in reference to a celebration involving no food other than the sacramental bread and wine. The Didache (Greek: Διδαχή , "teaching") is an Early Church treatise that includes instructions for baptism and the Eucharist. Most scholars date it to the late 1st century, and distinguish in it two separate Eucharistic traditions,
5244-556: The Eucharist, in either closer or symbolically more distant reference to the Last Supper. This term is used by the Plymouth Brethren . The " Blessed Sacrament ", the "Sacrament of the Altar", and other variations, are common terms used by Catholics, Lutherans and some Anglicans ( Anglo-Catholics ) for the consecrated elements, particularly when reserved in a tabernacle . In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
5358-426: The Gospels, liable to similar distortions. But any attempt to reject its basic historicity, even in matters of detail, must now appear absurd. Roman historians have long taken it for granted.... The agnostic type of form-criticism would be much more credible if the compilation of the Gospels were much later in time.... Herodotus enables us to test the tempo of myth-making, [showing that] even two generations are too short
5472-413: The Gospels? Richard Bauckham , Craig Evans and Darrell Bock . Experiential apologetics is a reference to an appeal "primarily, if not exclusively, to experience as evidence for Christian faith." Also, "they spurn rational arguments or factual evidence in favor of what they believe to be a self-verifying experience." This view stresses experience that other apologists have not made as explicit, and in
5586-502: The Greek rationalist tradition. In the 2nd century, apologetics was a defense or explanation of Christianity, addressed to those standing in opposition and those yet to form an opinion, such as emperors and other authority figures, or potential converts. The earliest martyr narrative has the spokesman for the persecuted present a defense in the apologetic mode: Christianity was a rational religion that worshiped only God, and although Christians were law-abiding citizens willing to honor
5700-601: The Hands of an Angry God ." The Four Spiritual Laws religious tract (Campus Crusade for Christ) would be another example. C. S. Lewis, Norman Geisler, William Lane Craig and Christians who engage in jurisprudence Christian apologetics have argued that miracles are reasonable and plausible wherever an all-powerful Creator is postulated. In other words, it is postulated that if God exists, miracles cannot be postulated as impossible or inherently improbable. Philosophical apologetics concerns itself primarily with arguments for
5814-472: The Host and "The Blood of Christ" when presenting the chalice, the communicant who receives either one receives Christ, whole and entire. "Christ is present whole and entire in each of the species and whole and entire in each of their parts, in such a way that the breaking of the bread does not divide Christ." The Catholic Church sees as the main basis for this belief the words of Jesus himself at his Last Supper:
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#17327657793765928-603: The Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks ( εὐχαριστήσας ), he broke it, and said, "This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me". The term eucharistia (thanksgiving) is that by which the rite is referred to in the Didache (a late 1st or early 2nd century document), by Ignatius of Antioch (who died between 98 and 117) and by Justin Martyr ( First Apology written between 155 and 157). Today, "the Eucharist"
6042-455: The Saviour was on earth, but also after his death, they were alive for quite a while, so that some of them lived even to our day. ( Church History iv. 3. 2) One of the first comprehensive attacks on Christianity came from the Greek philosopher Celsus , who wrote The True Word ( c. 175 CE ), a polemic criticizing Christians as being unprofitable members of society. In response,
6156-408: The ages until his return in glory." "When the Church celebrates the Eucharist, she commemorates Christ's Passover, and it is made present the sacrifice Christ offered once for all on the cross remains ever present. [...] The Eucharist is thus a sacrifice because it re-presents (makes present) the same and only sacrifice offered once for all on the cross" The sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of
6270-576: The alleged disloyalty to the Empire, discussing how Christians do seek to be members of another kingdom, but this kingdom is “of that with God” rather than a “human one.” Justin goes to great lengths in the First Apology to defend Christianity as a rational philosophy. He remarks at how Christianity can provide moral teaching for its followers, and how many of the Christian teachings parallel similar stories in pagan mythology, making it irrational for contemporary pagans to persecute Christians. One of Justin’s most important themes involves his description of
6384-413: The appearances (the "species") remain. Transubstantiation ("change of the substance") is the term used by Catholics to denote what is changed, not to explain how the change occurs, since the Catholic Church teaches that "the signs of bread and wine become, in a way surpassing understanding , the Body and Blood of Christ". The Orthodox use various terms such as transelementation, but no explanation
6498-408: The appearances or "species" of the bread and wine remain unaltered (e.g. colour, taste, feel, and smell). This change is brought about in the eucharistic prayer through the efficacy of the word of Christ and by the action of the Holy Spirit. The Eucharistic presence of Christ begins at the moment of the consecration and endures as long as the Eucharistic species subsist, that is, until the Eucharist
6612-544: The author of the Epistle to Diognetus . Augustine of Hippo was a significant apologist of the Patristic era. Some scholars regard apologetics as a distinct literary genre exhibiting commonalities of style and form, content, and strategies of argumentation . Others viewed it as a form of discourse characterized by its tone and purpose. R. C. Sproul, quoting the First Epistle of Peter , writes that "The defense of
6726-405: The best known are R. A. Torrey and John Gresham Machen . Evangelical Norman Geisler, Lutheran John Warwick Montgomery and Presbyterian Francis Schaeffer were among the most prolific Christian apologists in the latter half of the 20th century and into the 21st, while Gordon Clark and Cornelius Van Til started a new school of philosophical apologetics called presuppositionalism , which
6840-575: The biblical text, "Lord's Supper" came into use after the Protestant Reformation and remains the predominant term among Evangelicals , such as Baptists and Pentecostals . They also refer to the observance as an ordinance rather than a sacrament. Use of the term Communion (or Holy Communion ) to refer to the Eucharistic rite began by some groups originating in the Protestant Reformation . Others, such as
6954-587: The body and blood of Christ, the sacrament of his real presence ", "Invocation of the Spirit", "Communion of the Faithful", and "Meal of the Kingdom". Many Christian denominations classify the Eucharist as a sacrament . Some Protestants (though not all) prefer to instead call it an ordinance , viewing it not as a specific channel of divine grace but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ. In
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#17327657793767068-475: The bread and wine having been transubstantiated, by God's power, into his body and blood". In 1551, the Council of Trent definitively declared: "Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes place
7182-429: The bread as "my body" and the cup of wine as "the blood of my covenant, which is poured out for many". According to the synoptic Gospels this was at a Passover meal. The elements of the Eucharist, bread , either leavened or unleavened , and wine (non-alcoholic grape juice in some Protestant traditions), are consecrated on an altar or a communion table and consumed thereafter. The consecrated elements are
7296-712: The bread was broken. In the one prayer given to posterity by Jesus, the Lord's Prayer , the word epiousion —which is otherwise unknown in Classical Greek literature—was interpreted by some early Christian writers as meaning "super-substantial", and hence a possible reference to the Eucharist as the Bread of Life . In the Gospel of John, however, the account of the Last Supper does not mention Jesus taking bread and "the cup" and speaking of them as his body and blood; instead, it recounts other events: his humble act of washing
7410-416: The church father Origen published his apologetic treatise Contra Celsum , or Against Celsus , which systematically addressed Celsus's criticisms and helped bring Christianity a level of academic respectability. In the treatise, Origen writes from the perspective of a Platonic philosopher, drawing extensively on the teachings of Plato . Contra Celsum is widely regarded by modern scholars as one of
7524-447: The community as a whole. Robert Grant has noted that Justin did not provide much detail into the theological reasoning behind early Church practices. Instead, he argues that Justin aimed to provide this information to both “put forth the real nature of Christian life” and refute the slanderous claims of pagan critics. Christian apologetics Christian apologetics ( Ancient Greek : ἀπολογία , "verbal defense, speech in defense")
7638-492: The community explain their beliefs and justify positions. Origen 's apologetic Contra Celsum , for instance, provided a defense against the arguments of a critic dead for decades to provide answers to doubting Christians lacking immediate answers to the questions raised. Apologetic literature was an important medium for the formation of early Christian identity. In addition to Origen and Tertullian, early Christian apologists include Justin Martyr , Clement of Alexandria , and
7752-513: The congregation is sent out to serve Christ. At least in the Catholic Church, the Mass is a long rite in two parts: the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharist . The former consists of readings from the Bible and a homily , or sermon, given by a priest or deacon. The latter, which follows seamlessly, includes the " Offering " of the bread and wine at the altar, their consecration by
7866-567: The congregation, consisting of readings from the Jewish prophets and "the memoirs of the apostles", prayers, and a meal. There has been significant scholarly debate about the extent to which Justin’s Apologies differed from prior and future apologetic discourse. Paul Parvis , a prominent Justin scholar from the University of Edinburgh, has noted that the First Apology is unlike any apology that preceded it. It presents itself as legal petition,
7980-414: The disciples' feet, the prophecy of the betrayal, which set in motion the events that would lead to the cross, and his long discourse in response to some questions posed by his followers, in which he went on to speak of the importance of the unity of the disciples with him, with each other, and with God. Some would find in this unity and in the washing of the feet the deeper meaning of the Communion bread in
8094-403: The discussion of baptism, Justin describes the practice of the Eucharist , by his teachings of metabole , “we have been taught that the food over which thanks have been given by a word of prayer that is from Him, from which our blood and flesh are nourished by transformation, is the flesh and blood of Jesus who became incarnate.”. Finally, he provides information on the weekly Sunday meetings of
8208-474: The earlier tradition in chapter 10 and the later one preceding it in chapter 9. The Eucharist is mentioned again in chapter 14. Ignatius of Antioch (born c. 35 or 50 , died between 98 and 117), one of the Apostolic Fathers, mentions the Eucharist as "the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ": They abstain from the Eucharist and from prayer, because they confess not the Eucharist to be
8322-609: The early 50s of the 1st century: When you come together, it is not the Lord's Supper you eat, for as you eat, each of you goes ahead without waiting for anybody else. One remains hungry, another gets drunk. So Paul's use of the term "Lord's Supper" in reference to the Corinthian banquet is powerful and interesting; but to be an actual name for the Christian meal, rather than a meaningful phrase connected with an ephemeral rhetorical contrast, it would have to have some history, previous or subsequent. Nevertheless, given its existence in
8436-543: The emperor, their belief in a single divinity prevented them from taking the loyalty oaths that acknowledged the emperor's divinity . The apologetic historiography in the Acts of the Apostles presented Christianity as a religious movement at home within the Roman Empire and no threat to it and was a model for the first major historian of the Church , Eusebius. Apologetics might also be directed to Christians already within
8550-473: The end product of the Eucharistic Prayer . Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. The Catholic Church states that the Eucharist is the body and blood of Christ under the species of bread and wine. It maintains that by the consecration, the substances of the bread and wine actually become
8664-423: The end, the concept that the Holy Spirit convinces the heart of truth becomes the central theme of the apologetic argument. A variety of arguments has been forwarded by legal scholars such as Simon Greenleaf and John Warwick Montgomery , by expert forensic investigators such as cold case homicide detective J. Warner Wallace , and academic historical scholars, such as Edwin M. Yamauchi . These arguments present
8778-457: The existence of God , although they do not exclusively focus on this area. They do not argue for the veracity of Christianity over other religions but merely for the existence of a Creator deity . Omnipotence and omniscience are implied in these arguments to greater or lesser degrees: some argue for an interventionist god, some are equally relevant to a Deist conception of God. They do not support hard polytheism , but could be used to describe
8892-426: The existence of God, Christian apologists have also attempted to respond successfully to arguments against the existence of God. Two very popular arguments against the existence of God are the hiddenness argument and the argument from evil. The hiddenness argument tries to show that a perfectly loving God's existence is incompatible with the existence of nonresistant nonbelievers. The argument from evil tries to show that
9006-557: The existence of evil renders God's existence unlikely or impossible. Presuppositional apologetics is a Reformed Protestant methodology which claims that presuppositions are essential to any philosophical position and that there are no "neutral" assumptions from which a Christian can reason in common with a non-Christian. There are two main schools of presuppositional apologetics, that of Cornelius Van Til (and his students Greg Bahnsen and John Frame ) and that of Gordon Haddon Clark . Van Til drew upon but did not always agree with,
9120-458: The faith is not a luxury or intellectual vanity. It is a task appointed by God that you should be able to give a reason for the hope that is in you as you bear witness before the world." The verse quoted here reads in full: "but in your hearts honor Christ the Lord as holy, always being prepared to make a defense to anyone who asks you for a reason for the hope that is in you; yet do it with gentleness and respect." Another passage sometimes used as
9234-485: The first explicitly apologetic work comes from Quadratus of Athens ( c. 125 CE ) in which he writes a defense of the faith to emperor Hadrian . Only a fragment, quoted by Eusebius , has survived to our day: But the works of our Saviour were always present, for they were genuine:—those that were healed, and those that were raised from the dead, who were seen not only when they were healed and when they were raised, but were also always present; and not merely while
9348-408: The first god who created many other gods; however, the arguments are only relevant when applied to the first god (the first cause , pure act and unmoved mover ; it is a contradiction a priori to suppose a plurality of "pure acts" or "first causes" or "unmoved movers"). These arguments can be grouped into several categories: Other philosophical arguments include: In addition to arguments for
9462-420: The flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised up again. [...] Let that be deemed a proper Eucharist, which is [administered] either by the bishop, or by one to whom he has entrusted it. Take heed, then, to have but one Eucharist. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one cup to [show forth ] the unity of His blood; one altar; as there
9576-461: The forms of the bread and wine, known as the sacramental union . Reformed Christians believe in a real spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist. Anglican eucharistic theologies universally affirm the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist , though Evangelical Anglicans believe that this is a spiritual presence, while Anglo-Catholics hold to a corporeal presence. As a result of these different understandings, "the Eucharist has been
9690-471: The future and that Biblical prophecies of a compelling nature have been fulfilled. Apologist Josh McDowell documents the Old Testament prophecies fulfilled by Christ, relating to his ancestral line, birthplace, virgin birth, miracles, death, and resurrection. Apologist Blaise Pascal believed that the prophecies are the strongest evidence for Christianity. He notes that Jesus not only foretold, but
9804-618: The greatness of the Creator." The theologian and mathematician Marin Mersenne used celestial mechanics as evidence in his apologetic work, while Matteo Ricci engaged in scientific apologetics in China. In modern times, the theory of the Big Bang has been used in support of Christian apologetics. Several Christian apologists have sought to reconcile Christianity and science concerning
9918-542: The importance of the Apologies in defending Christianity in philosophical terms. The First Apology is dated to between AD 155–157, based on the reference to Lucius Munatius Felix as a recent prefect of Egypt. The theologian Robert Grant has claimed that this Apology was made in response to the Martyrdom of Polycarp , which occurred around the same time as the Apology was written. This correlation would explain why
10032-536: The integration of educated Christians into the cultural life of the Roman Empire , particularly during the "little peace" of the 3rd century , and of their participation in the Greek intellectual movement broadly known as the Second Sophistic . The Christian apologists of the early Church did not reject Greek philosophy , but attempted to show the positive value of Christianity in dynamic relation to
10146-496: The logos, a philosophical concept of order of reason and knowledge. Throughout the First Apology , Justin argues that Jesus Christ is the incarnation of the Logos , which leads him to the proof that any individual who has spoken with reason, even those who lived before Christ, connected with the logos in the form of Christ, and is thus, in fact, a Christian. This theme is paramount to understanding Justin’s defense of Christianity, and
10260-513: The long life spans of people such as Methuselah , the Flood , and the Tower of Babel . Among the biggest young Earth creation apologetic organizations are Answers in Genesis , Institute for Creation Research , and Creation Ministries International . Old Earth creationists believe it is possible to harmonize the Bible's six-day account of creation with the scientific consensus that the universe
10374-452: The message of the Gospel.” Sara Parvis , also from Edinburgh, further argues that scholars should do away with the classic conception of Christian apology as a “vague group of writings offering some kind of defense of Christianity,” and instead think of the category as one that was actually invented by Justin Martyr and then refined by later authors like Tertullian. Scholars also note the importance of explaining Christian practice in defending
10488-432: The most important works of early Christian apologetics. Other apologists from this period are Aristides of Athens , the author of the Epistle to Diognetus , Aristo of Pella , Tatian , Justin Martyr , Melito of Sardis , Athenagoras of Athens , Theophilus of Antioch , Irenaeus , Origen , Hippolytus of Rome , Tertullian , Minucius Felix , Cyprian , and Victorinus of Pettau . Anselm of Canterbury propounded
10602-575: The ontological argument in his Proslogion . Thomas Aquinas presented five ways , or arguments for God's existence, in the Summa Theologica , while his Summa contra Gentiles was a major apologetic work. Aquinas also made significant criticisms of the ontological argument which resulted in its losing popularity until it was revived by René Descartes in his Meditations . Blaise Pascal outlined an approach to apologetics in his Pensées : "Men despise religion; they hate it and fear it
10716-401: The other three Gospels. In John 6:26–65, a long discourse is attributed to Jesus that deals with the subject of the living bread; John 6:51–59 also contains echoes of Eucharistic language. 1 Corinthians 11:23–25 gives the earliest recorded description of Jesus' Last Supper: "The Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it and said, 'This
10830-647: The priest through prayer, and their reception by the congregation in Holy Communion. Among the many other terms used in the Catholic Church are "Holy Mass", "the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord", the "Holy Sacrifice of the Mass", and the "Holy Mysteries". The term Divine Liturgy ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Θεία Λειτουργία ) is used in Byzantine Rite traditions, whether in
10944-555: The question of origins. Theistic evolution claims that classical religious teachings about God are compatible with the modern scientific understanding about biological evolution and that the Creator God uses the process of evolution. Denis Lamoureux , in Evolutionary Creation: A Christian Approach to Evolution , states that "This view of origins fully embraces both the religious beliefs of biblical Christianity and
11058-515: The schools of Stoicism, Peripateticism, and Pythagoreanism. After becoming interested in Platonism, Justin eventually converted to Christianity after an encounter with an old man, which Justin describes in the Dialogue as “a love of the prophets, and of those people who are friends of Christ [that] possessed me.” The equating of Christianity with philosophy is important for Justin, as it explains
11172-421: The scientific theories of cosmological, geological, and biological evolution. It contends that the Creator established and maintains the laws of nature, including the mechanisms of a teleological evolution ." One of the most influential examples of a Christian-evolutionary synthesis is the work of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin , which was intended as apologetics to the world of science, but was later condemned by
11286-421: The substances of the body and blood of Jesus Christ ( transubstantiation ) while the appearances of the bread and wine remain unaltered (e.g. colour, taste, feel, and smell). The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches agree that an objective change occurs of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. Lutherans believe the true body and blood of Christ are really present "in, with, and under"
11400-408: The synoptic Gospels and Paul's recount that Jesus at the time of taking the bread and the cup said: "This is my body […] this is my blood." The Catholic understanding of these words, from the Patristic authors onward, has emphasized their roots in the covenantal history of the Old Testament. The interpretation of Christ's words against this Old Testament background coheres with and supports belief in
11514-494: The synoptic Gospels, Mark 14:22–25, Matthew 26:26–29 and Luke 22:13–20 depict Jesus as presiding over the Last Supper prior to his crucifixion. The versions in Matthew and Mark are almost identical, but the Gospel of Luke presents a textual difference, in that a few manuscripts omit the second half of verse 19 and all of verse 20 ("given for you […] poured out for you"), which are found in the vast majority of ancient witnesses to
11628-582: The term " The Sacrament " is used of the rite. The term " Mass " is used in the Catholic Church , the Lutheran churches (especially the Churches of Sweden , Norway and Finland ), and by some Anglicans. It derives from the Latin word missa , a dismissal: " Ite missa est ", or "go, it is sent", the very last phrase of the service. That Latin word has come to imply "mission" as well because
11742-904: The term "worship" itself) to service of God, although more recently it has been associated with the idea that God is serving the congregants in the liturgy. Some Eastern rites have yet more names for the Eucharist. Holy Qurbana is common in Syriac Christianity and Badarak in the Armenian Rite ; in the Alexandrian Rite , the term prosphora (from the Greek προσφορά ) is common in Coptic Christianity and Keddase in Ethiopian and Eritrean Christianity . The Last Supper appears in all three synoptic Gospels : Matthew , Mark , and Luke . It also
11856-470: The text. If the shorter text is the original one, then Luke's account is independent of both that of Paul and that of Matthew/Mark. If the majority longer text comes from the author of the third gospel, then this version is very similar to that of Paul in 1 Corinthians, being somewhat fuller in its description of the early part of the Supper, particularly in making specific mention of a cup being blessed before
11970-468: The washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished,
12084-490: The words of Christ in the Eucharist to those who believe his words ("given and shed for you"). Reformed Christians also believe Christ to be present in the Eucharist, but describe this presence as a spiritual presence , not a physical one. Anglicans adhere to a range of views depending on churchmanship although the teaching in the Anglican Thirty-Nine Articles holds that the body of Christ
12198-463: The work of Dutch Calvinist philosophers and theologians such as D. H. Th. Vollenhoven , Herman Dooyeweerd , Hendrik G. Stoker , Herman Bavinck , and Abraham Kuyper . Bahnsen describes Van Til's approach to Christian apologetics as pointing out the difference in ultimate principles between Christians and non-Christians and then showing that the non-Christian principles reduce to absurdity. In practice, this school utilizes what has come to be known as
12312-415: The “most true God.” He acknowledges that some Christians have performed immoral acts, but urges officials to punish these individuals as evildoers rather than Christians. With this claim, Justin demonstrates his desire to separate the Christian name from the evil acts performed by certain individuals, lamenting how criminals tarnish the name of Christianity and are not true “Christians.” Finally, he addresses
12426-429: Was a formal verbal defense, either in response to accusation or prosecution in a court of law. The defense of Socrates as presented by Plato and Xenophon was an apologia against charges of "corrupting the young, and ... not believing in the gods in whom the city believes, but in other daimonia that are novel". In later use 'apologia' sometimes took a literary form in early Christian discourse as an example of
12540-405: Was a groundbreaking statement in Christian apologetic writing. The use of the term “logos” indicates that Justin likely drew upon prior philosophical teachings, but Justin makes the argument that these teachings represent only partial truth because they possess and are connected with only part of the overall logos. For Justin, Christianity represents the full truth (logos), meaning that Christianity
12654-400: Was an active Christian apologist during the 17th century . In the modern period, Christianity was defended through the efforts of many authors such as John Henry Newman , G. K. Chesterton and C. S. Lewis , as well as G. E. M. Anscombe . According to Edgar J. Goodspeed in the first century CE Jewish apologetic elements could be seen in works such as The Wisdom of Solomon , Philo 's On
12768-540: Was foretold, unlike in other religions, and that these prophecies came from a succession of people over a span of four thousand years. Many Christians contend that science and the Bible do not contradict each other and that scientific fact supports Christian apologetics. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that "The question about the origins of the world and of man has been the object of many scientific studies which have splendidly enriched our knowledge... These discoveries invite us to even greater admiration for
12882-450: Was thought of as a repetition of the event. Jewish people's eagerness to destroy hosts were also a variation of blood libel charges, with Jews being accused of murdering bodies of Christ, whether they be communion wafers or Christian children. The blood libel charges and the concept of Eucharist are also related in the belief that blood is efficacious, meaning it has some sort of divine power. Most Christians, even those who deny that there
12996-643: Was to be consumed by the family members. Any left overs were to be burned before daybreak so that none of the Passover Lamb's flesh remained. Only by marking the doorposts and lintel of one's home with the Blood of the Lamb were the members of the household saved from death. The consumption of the Lamb was not to save them but rather to give them energy for the journey of escape (Exodus = escape from slavery in Egypt) as
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