The League of the Balkans was a quadruple alliance formed by a series of bilateral treaties concluded in 1912 between the Eastern Orthodox kingdoms of Greece , Bulgaria , Serbia and Montenegro , and directed against the Ottoman Empire , which still controlled much of Southeastern Europe .
156-618: Balkan League victory Total: 156,139 killed, wounded, or died of disease Serbian and Montenegrin front Greek front The First Balkan War lasted from October 1912 to May 1913 and involved actions of the Balkan League (the Kingdoms of Bulgaria , Serbia , Greece and Montenegro ) against the Ottoman Empire . The Balkan states' combined armies overcame the initially numerically inferior (significantly superior by
312-662: A cold welcome. He discovered that Prince Milan of Serbia was plotting to assassinate him fearing that Peter would attempt to wrest back the throne from the Obrenović dynasty. This revelation, combined with a string of battlefield defeats, compelled Peter and his followers to leave Bosnia and withdraw to Austria-Hungary. They were subsequently detained by the Austro-Hungarian Army in the village of Bojna , near Glina . Peter escaped, returned to Bosnia and organized another band of rebels. Once again, his involvement in
468-546: A conflict between the pro-Karađorđević and pro-Obrenović camps within the country. By the autumn of 1901, the conspirators resolved to kill the King and Queen, thereby averting a possible civil war. Some officers proposed placing an English or German prince on the throne. Another suggested Prince Mirko , the second son of Nicholas of Montenegro, and others advocated forming a republic . Political conditions in Europe were such that
624-783: A coordinated attack by the Balkan states. The Ottoman leadership decided to secure all of their territory. As a result, the available forces, which could not be effortlessly reinforced from Asia because of Greek control of the sea and the inadequacy of the Ottoman railway system, were dispersed too thinly across the region. They failed to stand up to the rapidly-mobilized Balkan armies. The Ottomans had three in Europe (the Macedonian, Vardar and Thracian Armies), with 1,203 pieces of mobile and 1,115 fixed artillery in fortified areas. The Ottoman High Command repeated its error of previous wars by ignoring
780-684: A declaration, 'To the Serbian People,' which appeared to support Albanians as well as Serbs: The Turkish governments showed no interest in their duties towards their citizens and turned a deaf ear to all complaints and suggestions. Things got so far out of hand that no one was satisfied with the situation in Turkey in Europe. It also became unbearable for the Serbs, the Greeks, and the Albanians. By
936-501: A full third of the fleet (the six new destroyers and the submarine Delfin ) reached Greece only after hostilities had started, forcing the navy to reshuffle crews, who consequently suffered from lacking familiarity and training. Coal stockpiles and other war stores were also in short supply, and the Georgios Averof had arrived with barely any ammunition and remained so until late November. Fotakis 2005 , p. 46 Montenegro
1092-543: A hero both of democracy and of national independence in the troublesome Balkans. The reign of Peter I, from 1903 to 1914, is remembered as the "Golden Age of Serbia", due to the unrestricted political freedoms, free press , and cultural ascendancy among South Slavs who finally saw in democratic Serbia a Piedmont of South Slavs. King Peter I was supportive to the movement of Yugoslav unification, hosting in Belgrade various cultural gatherings. The Grand School of Belgrade
1248-687: A large army and was identified as the " Prussia of the Balkans." However, Bulgaria could not win a war alone against the Ottomans. In Greece, Hellenic Army officers had rebelled in the Goudi coup of August 1909 and secured the appointment of a progressive government under Eleftherios Venizelos , which they hoped would resolve the Crete question in Greece's favour. They also wanted to reverse their defeat in
1404-624: A large extent. Between 1908 and 1911, the office of the Navy Minister changed hands nine times. Interdepartmental infighting and the entrenched interests of the bloated and averaged officer corps, many of whom occupied their positions as quasi- sinecure , further obstructed drastic reform. In addition, the Ottoman ministers met the British attempts to control the navy's construction programme with suspicion. Consequently, funds for Gamble's ambitious plans for new ships were unavailable. To counter
1560-462: A large number of war correspondents. An estimated 200 to 300 journalists from around the world covered the war in the Balkans in November 1912. Due to poor organization, transportation problems and the protracted war with Italy , the Ottoman order of battle only had 12,024 officers, 324,718 other ranks, 47,960 animals, 2,318 artillery pieces and 388 machine guns ready by early October instead of
1716-622: A parade following the coronation. This is the oldest surviving film recorded in Belgrade. According to film historian Paul Smith, it is also likely the first newsreel in history. During the reign of Peter I the Kingdom of Serbia expanded to the south, incorporating much of Sandžak and Kosovo and Metohija in 1912 in the First Balkan War . Serbia temporarily controlled northern parts of Albania, but had to give away those parts to Albania in 1912-1913. In November 1918, shortly before
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#17327651060671872-550: A population of 2,912,000, with about 228 heavy guns, grouped in ten infantry divisions, two independent brigades and a cavalry division, under the effective command of the former war minister, Radomir Putnik . The Serbian High Command, in its prewar war games, had concluded that the most likely site for the decisive battle against the Ottoman Vardar Army would be on the Ovče Pole Plateau, ahead of Skopje. Thus,
2028-604: A rifle and shooting at enemy soldiers. Following the invasion of Serbia by the joint forces of Germany, Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria in October 1915, King Peter I led the army and tens of thousands of civilian refugees through the high mountains of Albania to the Adriatic sea on a "Calvary known to few peoples". After the dramatic retreat in a harsh winter through the hostile environment of the Albanian highlands from Prizren to
2184-527: A search for allies, Serbia was ready to negotiate a treaty with Bulgaria. The agreement provided that in the event of victory against the Ottomans, Bulgaria would receive all of Macedonia south of the Kriva Palanka – Ohrid line. Bulgaria accepted Serbia's expansion as being to the north of the Shar Mountains ( Kosovo ). The intervening area was agreed to be "disputed" and would be arbitrated by
2340-419: A secret chapter to it essentially redirected the alliance against the Ottoman Empire . Serbia then signed a mutual alliance with Montenegro , and Bulgaria did the same with Greece . The League was victorious in the First Balkan War which broke out in October 1912, where it successfully seized control of almost all European Ottoman territories. After the victory, however, unresolved prior differences between
2496-596: A shift in the Greek foreign policy from clearly pro-Entente to neutrality, since the new king, Constantine I , unlike his father and his popular prime minister, Eleftherios Venizelos , was pro-German and tried to keep the country neutral in the upcoming world war. With the outbreak of war and the Entente's intervention in Macedonia, the conflict between king and the prime minister steadily deteriorated. That eventually led to
2652-661: A war, building a large army for that purpose, and started to see itself as the " Prussia of the Balkans". However, even so, it was clear that Bulgaria could not win a war against the Ottomans alone, and an alliance was necessary. By signing the military appendix to the original agreement Bulgaria aimed to use the Serbian army to seize most of Macedonia while concentrating her own army for the operations against Thrace with its major cities of Adrianople and Constantinople . In Greece, army officers had revolted in August 1909 and secured
2808-504: A widowed lady-in-waiting twelve years his senior with a reputation for promiscuity . Mašin was also believed to be infertile, raising questions as to the viability of the Obrenović line. The marriage sparked outrage among the officer corps and led to a plot to remove Alexander from the throne. The officers, led by Dragutin Dimitrijević ("Apis"), initially sought to expel Alexander and Draga but realized that doing so would precipitate
2964-662: Is sometimes dubbed a "golden" or "Periclean age". Peter was the supreme commander of the Royal Serbian Army in the Balkan Wars . On 24 June 1914, the aging king proclaimed his son and heir Alexander as regent. In World War I , the King and his army retreated across the Principality of Albania . Peter died in 1921 aged 77. Peter was born in Belgrade on 11 July [ O.S. 29 June] 1844. He
3120-557: Is to run away." However, Greece was the only Balkan country to possess a meaningful navy, which was vital to the League to prevent Ottoman reinforcements from being rapidly transferred by ship from Asia to Europe. The Serbs and the Bulgarians readily appreciated it as the chief factor in initiating the process of Greece's inclusion in the League. As the Greek ambassador to Sofia put it during the negotiations that led to Greece's entry into
3276-644: The Albanian revolt of 1912 . Some Albanian government troops switched sides. In May 1912, Albanian rebels seeking national autonomy and the re-installment of Sultan Abdul Hamid II to power drove the Young Turkish forces out of Skopje and pressed south towards Manastir (now Bitola ), forcing the Young Turks to grant effective autonomy over large regions in June 1912. Serbia, which had been helping to arm
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#17327651060673432-624: The Balkan League ( Bulgaria , Serbia , Greece and Montenegro ) against the Ottoman Empire . The combined armies of the Balkan states overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies and achieved rapid success. As a result of the war, the allies captured and partitioned almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman Empire. In May 1912 the Albanian Hamidian revolutionaries, who wanted to re-install Sultan Abdul Hamit II to power, drove
3588-649: The Battle of Villersexel on 9 January 1871. He was awarded the Legion of Honour for his conduct during the two battles, but was captured by the Prussians shortly thereafter. He managed to escape captivity and returned to the front. Peter was involved in the Paris Commune in the spring of 1871, together with close friend and relative Vladimir Ljotić, though the exact nature of his involvement remains unknown. With
3744-994: The Black Hand represented a core of military opposition to the National Assembly. Acting from within the government and the military, members of the Black Hand forced Peter to disband the government of Nikola Pašić, even though the Radical Party held most of the seats in the National Assembly. Only after Russian intervention and with the help of the French capital, was the crisis solved in Pašić's favor. King Peter had to withdraw, allegedly because of his failing health, and, on 24 June 1914, he passed his royal powers and duties to his heir-apparent, Alexander . The Western -educated King Peter attempted to liberalize Serbia with
3900-522: The Dodecanese islands, a campaign which had dominated Ottoman military efforts. Though the Ottoman Empire and Italy made peace on 15 October 1912, only days after the outbreak of hostilities in the Balkans, the protracted war had prevented the Ottomans from reinforcing their position in the Balkans as their relations with the Balkan states deteriorated. The Ottomans' military capabilities were hampered by several factors, such as domestic strife caused by
4056-657: The Dodecanese Islands in the Aegean Sea . The Italians' decisive military victories over the Ottoman Empire and the successful 1912 Albanian revolt encouraged the Balkan states to imagine that they might win a war against the Ottomans. By the spring and summer of 1912, the various Christian Balkan nations had created a network of military alliances, becoming known as the Balkan League. The Great Powers, most notably France and Austria-Hungary , reacted to
4212-557: The First World War , although occasionally, when the military situation became critical, he visited trenches on the front-line to check up on morale of his troops. His visit to the firing line prior to the Battle of Kolubara in late 1914 boosted the morale of the retreating Serbian forces and announced a counter-offensive, sparking victory against numerically superior Austro-Hungarian forces (December 1914). Another memorable visit in 1915 involved King Peter, by then 71, picking up
4368-508: The Greco-Turkish War (1897) by the Ottomans. An emergency military reorganization, led by a French military mission, had been started for that purpose, but its work was interrupted by the outbreak of war in the Balkans. In the discussions that led to Greece joining the Balkan League , Bulgaria refused to commit to any agreement on distributing territorial gains, unlike its deal with Serbia over Macedonia. Bulgaria's diplomatic policy
4524-509: The Karađorđević dynasty . After King Alexander I Obrenović was murdered during the May Coup of 1903, Peter Karađorđević became the new king of Serbia. As king, he advocated a constitutional setup for the country and was famous for his liberal politics. Peter's rule was marked with the great exercise of political liberties, freedom of the press, national, economical and cultural rise, and it
4680-810: The National Schism , which greatly contributed to the loss of the next war against Kemalist Turkey in Asia Minor , and dominated Greek politics for over a half of a century. The outcome of the Balkan Wars caused a permanent break-up of the Russo-Bulgarian alliance and left Serbia and Montenegro as the only allies of Russia in the critical region. Peter I of Serbia Peter I ( Serbian Cyrillic : Петар I Карађорђевић , romanized : Petar I Кarađorđević ; 11 July [ O.S. 29 June] 1844 – 16 August 1921)
4836-505: The Porte on October 13, declared war on Turkey on October 17. In the resulting war, the combined Balkan armies effectively destroyed Ottoman power in Europe in a series of victories. However, the League's triumph was short-lived. The antagonisms between the Balkan states still persisted, and after the successful conclusion of the First Balkan War , they resurfaced, especially over the partition of Macedonia . Mounting tensions effectively tore
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4992-682: The Royal Serbian Army 's rout in the Serbo-Bulgarian War of 1885, Peter and Nicholas devised a plan to invade Serbia and overthrow the Obrenović dynasty. At the last minute, Nicholas abandoned the idea. Peter felt betrayed by the Prince's decision to back out, leading to long lasting animosity. Nevertheless, he remained in Cetinje until 1894, devoting himself to his surviving children, who finished their primary education there. In 1894, Peter moved to Geneva with his three children, where he
5148-543: The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-8 , under the directions of a German engineer in Ottoman service, von Bluhm Pasha, but it had been considered obsolete by 1912. An epidemic of cholera spread among the Bulgarian soldiers after the Battle of Luleburgas - Bunarhisar . Balkan League The Balkans had been in a state of turmoil since the early 1900s, with years of guerrilla warfare in Macedonia followed by
5304-568: The Sanjak and city of Shkodër , both in northern Albania. Another fact that helped the formation of the League was the evident inefficiency of the Ottoman Army. The Ottomans were at war with Italy for a year (29 September 1911 to 18 October 1912) over Libya after Italy had launched an invasion of Tripolitania . Although the Italians made little progress and Ottoman resistance, aided by
5460-643: The Sea of Marmara . In terms of forces engaged, it was the largest battle fought in Europe between the end of the Franco-Prussian War and the beginning of the First World War. As a result, the Ottoman forces were pushed to their final defensive position across the Çatalca Line, protecting the peninsula and Constantinople . There, they managed to stabilize the front with the help of fresh reinforcements from Asia. The line had been constructed during
5616-675: The Struma Corps (14th Infantry and Serez Redif divisions, plus the Nevrekop Detachment ), were deployed. Against Montenegro, four-plus divisions were deployed: According to the organizational plan, though the men of the Western Group were to total 598,000, slow mobilization and the inefficiency of the rail system drastically reduced the number of men available. According to the Western Army Staff, when
5772-841: The Struma Corps were to protect the right flank of the Vardar Army and prevent Bulgarian encroachment along the Struma . The Yanya Corps (22,000 men) was to defend Epirus and Albania from the Greek Army of Epirus , while the VIII Corps (29,000 men) was deployed to guard the Thessalian mountain passes leading to Thessaloniki. Additional 25,000 men of the Işkodra Corps were stationed in Shkodër to protect Northern Albania. Thus,
5928-527: The Tsar of Russia in the event of a successful war against the Ottoman Empire. During the war, it became apparent that the Albanians did not consider Serbia as a liberator, as had been suggested by King Peter I, and the Serbian forces failed to observe his declaration of amity toward Albanians. After the successful coup d'état for unification with Eastern Rumelia, Bulgaria began to dream that its national unification would be realized. For that purpose, it developed
6084-539: The Young Turk Revolution , the protracted Bosnian Crisis , and several Albanian Uprisings. The outbreak of the Italo-Turkish War in 1911 had further weakened the Ottomans and emboldened the Balkan states. Under Russian influence, Serbia and Bulgaria settled their differences and signed an alliance, which was originally directed against Austria-Hungary , on 13 March 1912, but by adding
6240-453: The Young Turkish forces out of Skopje and pressed south towards Manastir (present day Bitola ), forcing the Young Turks to grant effective autonomy over large regions in June 1912. Serbia, which had helped arm the Albanian Catholic and Hamidian rebels and had sent secret agents to some of the prominent leaders, took the revolt as a pretext for war. Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria had all been in talks about possible offensives against
6396-415: The territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, which led to a stern warning to the Balkan states, each of them unofficially took a different diplomatic approach because of their conflicting interests in the area. As a result, any possible preventative effect of the common official warning was canceled by the mixed unofficial signals, and failed to prevent the outbreak of hostilities: For the Balkan League,
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6552-451: The "Macedonian People" and declared its anti- chauvinism . In fact, it was a Bulgarian-backed organization created with the secret agenda of facilitating the incorporation of Thrace (Eastern and Western) and Macedonia (Aegean and the Vardar) into a new autonomous state, as an intermediate step before unification with Bulgaria could take place in the same way as with Eastern Rumelia. After initial success, Serbia and especially Greece realized
6708-421: The 11th Infantry Division from the Eastern Army's IV Corps was moved there to replace it. Thus, one complete army corps was removed from the Eastern Army's order of battle. As a consequence of the insufficient intelligence of the invading forces, the Ottoman offensive plan failed in the face of Bulgarian superiority. That forced Kölemen Abdullah Pasha to abandon Kirk Kilisse , which was taken without resistance by
6864-408: The Albanian littoral, a march that took more than 100,000 lives, the King and his army, exhausted by cold and famine, were eventually transported by the Allies to the Greek isle of Corfu in early 1916. For the rest of World War I King Peter I, already in very poor health, remained on Corfu, which became the seat of the Serbian government-in-exile until December 1918. On 1 December 1918 King Peter I
7020-460: The Albanians did not consider Serbia as a liberator, as suggested by King Peter I, nor did the Serbian forces observe his declaration of amity toward Albanians. Peter I led the Serbian army alongside marshals like Radomir Putnik , Stepa Stepanović , Božidar Janković and Petar Bojović . Serbia sent 230,000 soldiers (out of the population of just 2,912,000 people) with about 228 guns, grouped in 10 infantry divisions. Dissatisfied with its share of
7176-406: The Austrians at the Bosnian Crisis , Russia sought to gain the upper hand by creating a Russophile "Slavic block" in the Balkans directed against Austria-Hungary and the Ottomans. Consequently, Russian diplomacy began pressuring the two countries, Serbia and Bulgaria, to reach a compromise and to form an alliance. Apart from the Russian pressure upon Bulgaria and Serbia, another issue that triggered
7332-730: The Balkans for decades. When his father died in the spring of 1885, Peter became the head of the House of Karađorđević. Serbia, previously a principality , was declared a kingdom in 1882, and henceforth, the Serbian monarch used the title King of Serbia . Ljubica died during childbirth in March 1890. The couple had five children, three of whom reached adulthood: Helen (Jelena), Milena, George (Đorđe), Alexander (Aleksandar), and Andrew (Andrej). Milena died in infancy and Andrew died along with his mother during childbirth. Following his father's death, Peter's financial situation deteriorated and he became dependent on his father-in-law, as well as Russia and his brother George, for support. Following
7488-413: The Balkans. The Ottoman General Staff, assisted by the German military mission, developed twelve war plans designed to counter various combinations of opponents. Work on Plan No. 5, which was against Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro, was very advanced and had been sent to the army staff for them to develop local plans. The Ottoman fleet had performed abysmally in the 1897 Greco-Turkish War, forcing
7644-475: The Bulgarian High Command decided to wait a few days, but that allowed the Ottoman forces to occupy a new defensive position on the Lüleburgaz - Karaağaç - Pınarhisar line. However, the Bulgarian attack by the First and Third Armies, which together accounted for 107,386 riflemen, 3,115 cavalries, 116 machine guns and 360 artillery pieces, defeated the reinforced Ottoman Army, with 126,000 riflemen, 3,500 cavalries, 96 machine guns, and 342 artillery pieces and reached
7800-491: The Bulgarian Third Army. The fortress of Adrianople, with some 61,250 men, was isolated and besieged by the Bulgarian Second Army, but for the time being, no assault was possible because of the lack of siege equipment in the Bulgarian inventory. Another consequence of Greek naval supremacy in the Aegean was that the Ottoman forces did not receive the reinforcements that had been in the war plans, which would have been further corps transferred by sea from Syria and Palestine. Thus,
7956-401: The Danube. Years of military investment financed by French loans had borne fruit. Central Vardar and the eastern half of the Sanjak of Novi Pazar were acquired. Its territory grew in extent from 18,650 to 33,891 square miles and its population grew by more than one and a half million. Because of his constant and intense efforts in the Balkan Wars, Peter's health worsened. At the same time,
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#17327651060678112-439: The Edirne-Kırklareli defensive line, where the Bulgarian First and Third Armies (a combined 174,254 men) defeated the Ottoman East Army (of 96,273 combatants), near Gechkenli, Seliolu and Petra. The Ottoman XV Corps urgently left the area to defend the Gallipoli Peninsula against an expected Greek amphibious assault, which never materialized. The absence of the corps created an immediate vacuum between Adrianople and Demotika , and
8268-427: The First Army and to be covered by the cavalry division that hid it from the Ottomans' sight. The Third Army had three infantry divisions and was assigned to cross Mount Stranja and to take the fortress of Kirk Kilisse ( Kırklareli ). The 2nd (49,180) and 7th (48,523 men) Divisions were assigned independent roles, operating in Western Thrace and Eastern Macedonia, respectively. Three hundred Armenians from throughout
8424-416: The First Balkan War by declaring war against the Ottomans on 8 October [ O.S. 25 September] 1912. The western part of the Balkans, including Albania, Kosovo, and Macedonia, was less vital to the resolution of the war and the survival of the Ottoman Empire than the Thracian theatre, where the Bulgarians fought significant battles against the Ottomans. Although geography dictated Thrace would be
8580-440: The Greek acquisition of the Georgios Averof , the Ottomans initially tried to buy the new German armoured cruiser SMS Blücher or the battlecruiser SMS Moltke . Not able to afford the ships' high cost, the Ottomans acquired two old Brandenburg -class pre-dreadnought battleships , which became Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis . Along with the cruisers Hamidiye and Mecidiye , both ships were to form
8736-406: The Greek navy played an indirect but crucial role in the Thracian campaign by neutralizing three corps, a significant portion of the Ottoman army, in the all-important opening round of the war. Another more direct role was the emergency transportation of the Bulgarian 7th Rila Division from the Macedonian Front to the Thracian Front after the end of operations there. After the Battle of Kirk Kilisse,
8892-460: The Hamidian and Catholic Albanians rebelling in the Mirditë region; sent secret agents to some of the prominent leaders, taking the revolt as a pretext for war. Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria had all been in talks about possible offensives against the Ottoman Empire before the 1912 Albanian revolt had broken out, and a formal agreement between Serbia and Montenegro had been signed on 7 March. On 18 October 1912, King Peter I of Serbia issued
9048-442: The Karađorđević family home in Bokszeg . In 1878, he was allowed to leave Bokszeg. He first went to Budapest and then to Paris. During this period, he was closely monitored by Austro-Hungarian spies, who took note of all his movements. In January 1879, court proceedings were initiated against Peter and his closest companions in Smederevo . The plaintiff, Prince Milan, alleged that Peter and his followers had attempted to overthrow
9204-434: The League apart, and the Second Balkan War broke out when Bulgaria, confident of a quick victory, attacked its former allies Serbia and Greece. The Serbian and Greek armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counterattacked, penetrating into Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Romania took advantage of the situation and invaded Bulgaria too. The subsequent peace left Bulgaria with gains in territory but led to
9360-418: The League, "Greece can provide 600,000 men for the war effort. 200,000 men in the field, and the fleet will be able to stop 400,000 men being landed by Turkey between Salonika and Gallipoli ." Montenegro, a relatively small country but a close ally of Serbia, was considered a second-class participant. It took the invitation to the insistence of Serbia more as a favour since it had limited local aspirations over
9516-459: The League, "Greece can provide 600,000 men for the war effort. With 200,000 men on the battlefield, the fleet will be able to prevent 400,000 men from being landed by Turkey between Salonica and Gallipoli ." The Greek army was still undergoing reorganization by a French military mission , which arrived in early 1911. Under French supervision, the Greeks had adopted the triangular infantry division as their primary formation though more importantly,
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#17327651060679672-404: The Libyans, proved stiffer than expected, the war exhausted the Ottoman state. In addition, the Italian occupation of the Greek-inhabited Dodecanese Islands served as a warning for Greece of the consequences of staying out of a future war against the Ottomans. These developments did not go unnoticed by the Great Powers, but although there was an official consensus between the European Powers over
9828-492: The Navy Ministry and dramatically improved the number and the quality of exercises in gunnery and fleet maneuvers. In 1912, the core unit of the fleet was the fast armoured cruiser Georgios Averof , which had been completed in 1910 and then was the fastest and the most modern warship in the combatant navies. It was complemented by three rather-antiquated battleships of the Hydra class . There were also eight destroyers, built in 1906–1907, and six new destroyers, hastily bought in
9984-416: The Obrenović dynasty and place a Karađorđević on the throne. Peter and his companions were charged with high treason, for which the mandatory penalty was death. As he was living in Paris at the time of the proceedings, Peter was convicted in absentia and sentenced to death by hanging . During his exile, Peter proposed himself as a suitor to Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen , niece of Wilhelm II , who
10140-414: The Ottoman Empire before the Albanian revolt of 1912 broke out; a formal agreement between Serbia and Montenegro had been signed on 7 March. On 18 October 1912, Peter I of Serbia issued a declaration, "To the Serbian People", which appeared to support Albanians as well as Serbs: In a search for allies, Serbia negotiated a contract with Bulgaria. The agreement provided that, in the event of victory against
10296-519: The Ottoman Empire in order to safeguard their Albanian territories. Without a centralized national structure, Albanians were compelled to depend on Ottoman establishments, its military, and its administration to shield them from partition. However, all three proved inadequate against the onslaught of four invading Balkan armies. Even following the signing of the armistice in December 1912, Ottoman regular troops, along with Albanian irregular forces, persisted in central and southern Albania. Montenegro started
10452-454: The Ottoman Empire, Europe, and Russia, a small yet significant number, volunteered to fight on the side of the Balkan League's soldiers of more than 850,000. Under the leadership of Andranik Ozanian and Garegin Nzhdeh , the Armenian detachment was commissioned to fight the Ottomans first at Momchilgrad and Komotini and its environs, and then later İpsala , Keşan , and Malkara , and Tekirdağ . Serbia called upon about 255,000 men, out of
10608-418: The Ottoman First Army, with 105,000 men in eastern Thrace and the Kircaali detachment, of 24,000 men, in western Thrace. The Bulgarian forces were divided into the First, Second and Third Bulgarian Armies of 297,002 men in the eastern part and 49,180 (33,180 regulars and 16,000 irregulars) under the 2nd Bulgarian Division (General Stilian Kovachev) in the western part. The first large-scale battle occurred against
10764-438: The Ottoman army were quite incapable of evacuating the civilians in the war zone. This situation left many civilians in the occupied areas defenseless against the invading armies of the Balkan League. Although there are discussions about the exact amount of civilian casualties, when the war ended great changes occurred in the demographic makeup of the Balkan region. Tensions among the Balkan states over their rival aspirations to
10920-435: The Ottoman government to begin a drastic overhaul. Older ships were retired, and newer ones were acquired, chiefly from France and Germany. In addition, in 1908, the Ottomans called in a British naval mission to update their training and doctrine. The British mission, headed by Admiral Sir Douglas Gamble , would find its task almost impossible. The political upheaval in the aftermath of the Young Turk Revolution prevented it to
11076-519: The Ottoman military personnel stationed in Macedonia, Kosovo, Albania and Epirus numbered almost 200,000 men, who were pitted against 234,000 Serbs, 48,000 Bulgarians and 115,000 Greeks. Bulgaria was militarily the most powerful of the four Balkan states, with a large, well-trained, well-equipped army. Bulgaria mobilized a total of 599,878 men out of a population of 4.3 million. The Bulgarian field army counted for nine infantry divisions , one cavalry division and 1,116 artillery units. The commander-in-chief
11232-472: The Ottoman' hands in 1876, Russia forced the Ottomans to accept a full independence and expanded Serbia two years later. However, although both states acknowledged Russian patronage and protection, their conflicted national aspirations soon led to a series of hostile actions before and after the short war between them . With the antagonism of the European powers mounting, and smarting from her humiliation by
11388-680: The Ottomans in 1804. Three cities in interwar Yugoslavia were named after King Peter I: Mrkonjić Grad in Bosnia-Herzegovina (former Varcar Vakuf), Petrovgrad in Vojvodina (Veliki Bečkerek, now Zrenjanin) and Petrovac na Moru (former Kaštel Lastva) in Montenegro. Dozens of monuments erected in his honor throughout Yugoslavia were destroyed after the communist takeover in 1945. Only one monument, in Zrenjanin (former Petrovgrad)
11544-519: The Ottomans, Bulgaria would receive all of Macedonia south of the Kriva Palanka - Ohrid line. Bulgaria accepted Serbian expansion to the north of the Shar Mountains (i.e., Kosovo). The intervening area was agreed to be "disputed"; it would be arbitrated by the Emperor of Russia in the event of a successful war against the Ottoman Empire. During the course of the war, it became apparent that
11700-576: The Royal Serbian Government neglected to carry out this request, the British severed all diplomatic ties. Several other European nations followed in the United Kingdom's footsteps and severed ties as well. Peter lacked the power or authority to punish the conspirators. He also felt a deep sense of obligation towards them, acknowledging that he would not have been able to assume the throne were it not for their actions. Peter
11856-500: The Serbian people accepted King Peter. As it turned out, the only conflict he had with Peter during the 18-year reign concerned the king's salary. Peter I of Serbia saw Imperial Russia as Serbia's main ally. Russia opposed the previous politics of the Obrenović dynasty which heavily relied on Austria-Hungary, which the Serbian public detested. The First Balkan War began in October 1912 and ended in May 1913. It involved military actions of
12012-703: The Serbs and the Montenegrins in the theatre of Sandžak and the Bulgarians and the Serbs in the Macedonian and the Bulgarians alone in the Thracian theatre. The bulk of the Bulgarian forces (346,182 men) was to attack Thrace, fighting against the Thracian Ottoman Army of 96,273 men and about 26,000 garrison troops, or about 115,000 personnel in total, according to Hall's, Erickson's and the Turkish General Staff's 1993 studies. It
12168-526: The South Slavs living in Serbia, Montenegro, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. In Vienna, en route to Belgrade, he was welcomed by a crowd of euphoric Serb and Croat students, who hailed him as "the first Yugoslav king". The royal couple's murder upset and shocked most of Europe, but many Serbs reacted enthusiastically. Russia immediately recognized the National Assembly's decision declaring Peter
12324-497: The Young Turk Revolution and the counterrevolutionary coup several months later. That resulted in different groups competing for influence within the military. A German mission had tried reorganizing the army, but its recommendations had not been fully implemented. The Ottoman army was caught in the middle of reform and reorganization. Also, several of the army's best battalions had been transferred to Yemen to face
12480-624: The academy in 1864, and continued living in Paris for some time thereafter. During this period, he pursued interests such as photography and painting, and read works of political philosophy, learning about liberalism , parliamentarism and democracy . In 1866, he entered the Higher Military School in Metz , which he attended until the following year. Two years later, his Serbian -language translation of John Stuart Mill 's On Liberty
12636-586: The actions of Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece, there was enough time for Montenegro to prepare, which helped its successful military campaign. Known colloquially as "the sick man of Europe", by 1912, the Ottoman Empire was at the end stages of a centuries long decline. Upon the outbreak of war Turkish forces were extremely vulnerable. The Ottoman Empire itself possessed a far larger population than all of its adversaries combined, of around 26 million. However just over 6.1 million lived in what still remained of Ottoman Europe, of which only 2.3 million were Muslim. A majority of
12792-575: The age of six. Besides Belgrade, Peter spent much of his childhood in the town of Topola , from where the Karađorđević dynasty originated. He received his elementary education in Belgrade. In 1858, just as the fourteen-year-old Peter was preparing to depart for Geneva to attend high school, his father was forced to abdicate the throne. The Karađorđević dynasty's rivals, the Obrenović dynasty , were reinstated, and an Obrenović prince, Mihailo , claimed
12948-678: The allies re-emerged over the division of the spoils, particularly Macedonia , leading to the effective break-up of the League, and soon after, on 16 June 1913, Bulgaria attacked her erstwhile allies, beginning the Second Balkan War . After the Crimean War (1853–1856), Russia realised that the other Great Powers would spare no effort to prevent it from gaining access to the Mediterranean . In consequence, it started engineering an ambitious plan for indirect expansion through
13104-590: The analysis of the objectives of the Balkan Pact, it had deadly consequences for the Ottoman Army in Thrace, which was now required to defend the area from the bulk of the Bulgarian army against impossible odds. The misappraisal was also the reason for the catastrophic aggressive Ottoman strategy at the start of the campaign in Thrace. On the Thracian Front, the Bulgarian army had placed 346,182 men against
13260-536: The annexation, the Young Turks tried to induce the Muslim population of Bosnia to emigrate to the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman authorities resettled those who took up the offer in districts of northern Macedonia with few Muslims. The experiment proved to be a catastrophe since the immigrants readily united with the existing population of Albanian Muslims and participated in the series of 1911 Albanian uprisings and
13416-464: The appointment of a progressive government under Eleftherios Venizelos , which they hoped would resolve the Cretan issue in Greece's favour and reverse their defeat of 1897 at the hands of the Ottomans. In the discussions that led Greece to join the League, Bulgaria refused to commit to any agreement on the distribution of territorial gains unlike the deal with Serbia over Vardar Macedonia . The reason
13572-449: The bloodshed that had occurred, describing it as "neither gentlemanly, nor worthy of the 20th century". On 15 June [ O.S. 2 June] 1903, by decision of the National Assembly, Peter was summoned to assume the Serbian throne. He arrived in Belgrade on 26 June [ O.S. 13 June] 1903. Peter's ascent to the throne was met with great enthusiasm by South Slav nationalists, who believed he would succeed in uniting
13728-433: The condition that officers he trusted would take part in the plot and insisted that he would not take any part himself. He also told the officers that he would agree to take the throne only if his ascent was approved by the National Assembly. At the time of the coup, Peter was vacationing with his children and planning visits to Russia and Romania , suggesting that he was not aware of what was to occur. The officers raided
13884-550: The creation of an independent Albania , which dissatisfied the Serbs . Bulgaria, meanwhile, was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in Macedonia and attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece, on 16 June 1913, which provoked the start of the Second Balkan War . During the war, many civilians, overwhelmingly Muslim Turks , were either killed or forced to flee their homes. The highly politicized and disorganized units of
14040-543: The creation of friendly and closely allied states under Russian patronage in the Balkan Peninsula . Instrumental to the policy was the emerging Panslavic movement, which henceforth formed the basis of Russian foreign policy up until the end of the tsarist regime in 1917. Working in this direction, following the victorious Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 , Russia managed to establish an autonomous Bulgarian state . Similarly, after saving Serbia from annihilation at
14196-406: The end of the conflict) and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies, achieving rapid success. The war was a comprehensive and unmitigated disaster for the Ottomans, who lost 83% of their European territories and 69% of their European population. As a result of the war, the League captured and partitioned almost all of the Ottoman Empire's remaining territories in Europe. Ensuing events also led to
14352-637: The established command structure to create new superior commands, the Eastern Army and Western Army , reflecting the division of the operational theatre between the Thracian (against the Bulgarians) and Macedonian (against the Greeks, Serbs and Montenegrins) fronts. The Western Army fielded at least 200,000 men, and the Eastern Army fielded 115,000 men against the Bulgarians. The Eastern Army
14508-401: The fighting aroused suspicion in Belgrade, and by May 1876 his presence proved divisive. The rebels split into three separate camps: one that supported Peter, another that supported Milan and a third that advocated Austro-Hungarian arbitration. Not wishing to cause further divisions among the rebels, Peter agreed to leave Bosnia. Prior to his departure, he wrote a letter to Milan explaining why he
14664-473: The final agreement between the two countries stipulated that in the event of a victorious war against the Ottomans, Bulgaria would receive all of Macedonia south of the Kriva Palanka – Ohrid line. Serbia's expansion was to be to the north of this line, including Kosovo, and west to the Adriatic coast, a territory including the northern half of modern Albania, giving Serbia access to the sea. In essence, Serbia
14820-504: The formation of the League was the Albanian Uprising of 1911. The timetable of the negotiations between Serbia and Bulgaria indicates that progress paralleled the success of the Albanian revolt. In May 1912 the Albanians succeeded in taking Skopje and continued towards Monastir , forcing the Ottomans to recognise the autonomy of Albania in June 1912. That was considered catastrophic for Serbia; after its hopes of expansion to
14976-510: The formation of the alliances by trying unsuccessfully to dissuade the Balkan League from going to war. In late September, the League and the Ottoman Empire mobilized their armies. Montenegro was the first to declare war on 25 September ( O.S. )/8 October. After issuing an impossible ultimatum to the Ottoman Porte on 13 October, Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece declared war on the Ottomans on 17 October (1912). The declarations of war attracted
15132-566: The founding of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in December 1918, Serbia acquired some new territories like Srem , Banat , Bačka and Montenegro and which later became part of the new kingdom. The most prominent prime minister during the reign of Peter I was Nikola Pašić . At the beginning of Peter's reign Pašić opposed the new king, calling his accession to the throne unlawful. However, he quickly changed his mind after seeing that
15288-508: The goal of creating a Western-style constitutional monarchy . Peter I became gradually very popular for his commitment to parliamentary democracy that, in spite of certain influence of military cliques in political life, functioned properly. The 1903 Constitution was a revised version of the 1888 Constitution, based on the Belgian Constitution of 1831 , considered one of the most liberal in Europe. The governments were chosen from
15444-510: The grace of God, I have therefore ordered my brave army to join in the Holy War to free our brethren and to wish for a better future. In Old Serbia, my army will meet not only upon Christian Serbs but also upon Muslim Serbs, who are equally dear to us, and in addition to them, upon Christian and Muslim Albanians with whom our people have shared joy and sorrow for thirteen centuries now. To all of them, we bring freedom, brotherhood and equality. In
15600-586: The hope of giving European statesmen time to come to terms with the palace coup . Nevertheless, only representatives of Montenegro and Bulgaria attended. New royal regalia , consisting of a crown , sceptre , orb and royal mantle , were commissioned specially for the occasion from the Parisian jewelers Falize Frères . Arnold Muir Wilson , the honorary Serbian consul in Sheffield , and his cameraman, Frank Mottershaw , filmed King Peter's procession and
15756-608: The initial mission was to pin down the Ottoman forces there until sufficient reinforcements could be sent from the Army of Thessaly after the successful conclusion of operations. The Greek navy was relatively modern, strengthened by the recent purchase of numerous new units and undergoing reforms under the supervision of a British mission . Invited by Greek Prime Minister Venizelos in 1910, the mission began its work upon its arrival in May 1911. Granted extraordinary powers and led by Vice Admiral Lionel Grant Tufnell , it thoroughly reorganized
15912-591: The loss of Eastern Thrace to the Ottomans and most of Macedonia to the Greeks. Defeat turned Bulgaria into its participation in the First World War on the side of the Central Powers since its Balkan enemies (Serbia, Greece, and Romania) were involved in the war on the side of the Entente . During the war, King George I of Greece was assassinated in Thessaloniki by Alexandros Schinas . That generated
16068-473: The main forces were formed as three armies for the advance towards Skopje, and a division and an independent brigade were to cooperate with the Montenegrins in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar . The First Army (132,000 men), the strongest, was commanded by Crown Prince Alexander , and the Chief of Staff was Colonel Petar Bojović . The First Army formed the centre of the drive towards Skopje. The Second Army (74,000 men)
16224-411: The main symbol of both political and cultural success. After the conflict between military and civilian representatives in the spring of 1914, King Peter chose to "retire" due to ill health, reassigning on 11/24 June 1914 his royal prerogatives to his second son heir apparent Crown Prince Alexander. The retired King, spending most of his time in various Serbian spas, remained relatively inactive during
16380-447: The most influential people in the Ottoman capital, had reported to Berlin on 21 October that the Ottoman forces believed that the bulk of the Bulgarian army would be deployed in Macedonia with the Serbs. Then, the Ottoman headquarters, under Abdullah Pasha , expected to meet only three Bulgarian infantry divisions, accompanied by cavalry, east of Adrianople. According to historian E. J. Erickson, though that assumption possibly resulted from
16536-479: The next King of Serbia and expressed satisfaction that the inter-dynastic intrigues which had plagued the country since the early-19th century had been brought to an end. Austria-Hungary declared its neutrality on the matter, but privately, policymakers in Vienna expressed hope that Peter's accession would have a placating effect. The United Kingdom demanded that the chief conspirators be severely punished, and when
16692-510: The north were thwarted by the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 1908, Serbia now found the last direction of possible expansion, the south, also closing by the creation of an Albanian Vilayet . The Serbs now wanted to stop the establishment of the Albanian state. On the other hand, Bulgaria used the Serbian anxiety to force Serbia to agree to significant concessions in regard to Vardar Macedonia . Thus,
16848-508: The ongoing rebellion. In the summer of 1912, the Ottoman High Command decided disastrously to dismiss some 70,000 mobilized troops. Though the regular army ( Nizam ) was well-equipped and had trained active divisions, the reserve units ( Redif ) that reinforced it was ill-equipped, especially in artillery, and badly-trained. The Ottomans' strategic situation was difficult, as their borders were almost impossible to defend against
17004-440: The opportunity was too good to be missed, as the Ottoman Empire was weak and riddled with internal strife. The allied governments intensified their military and diplomatic preparations. During the last days of September, the Balkan states and the Ottoman Empire mobilized their armies. The first state to declare war was Montenegro, on October 8, 1912, starting the First Balkan War . The other three states, after issuing an ultimatum to
17160-730: The outbreak of the Great Eastern Crisis of 1875–78, which erupted after Bosnian Serb rebels in Nevesinje staged a revolt against the Ottoman Empire , Peter returned to the Balkans and fought the Ottomans in northwestern Bosnia . He adopted the nom de guerre of Petar Mrkonjić, and upon reaching the regions of Banija and Kordun in Austria-Hungary , took control of a guerrilla unit of about 200 men. He arrived at Bosanska Dubica in August 1875, but received
17316-491: The overhaul of the mobilization system allowed the country to field and equip a far greater number of troops than had been the case in 1897. Foreign observers estimated Greece would mobilize approximately 50,000 men, but the Greek army fielded 125,000, with another 140,000 in the National Guard and reserves. Upon mobilization, as in 1897, the force was grouped in two field armies, reflecting the geographic division between
17472-806: The parliamentary majority, mostly from the People's Radical Party led by Nikola Pašić and from the Independent Radical Party led by Ljubomir Stojanović . King Peter himself favored the idea of a broader coalition government that would boost Serbian democracy and help pursue an independent course in foreign policy. In contrast to the Austrophile Obrenović dynasty, King Peter I relied on Russia and France, which provoked rising hostility from expansionist-minded Austria-Hungary. King Peter I paid two solemn visits to Saint-Petersburg and Paris in 1910 and 1911 respectively, to be greeted as
17628-425: The planned full complement of 750,000 officers and soldiers. A total of 920 officers and 42,607 men of them had been assigned to non-divisional units and services, the remaining 293,206 officers and men were assigned to four armies. Opposing them and continuing their secret prewar settlements for expansion, the three Slavic allies (Bulgarian, Serbs and Montenegrins) had extensive plans to co-ordinate their war efforts:
17784-411: The primary battlefield in a war with the Ottoman Empire, the position of the Ottoman Army there was jeopardized by erroneous intelligence estimates of the opponents' order of battle. Unaware of the secret prewar political and military settlement over Macedonia between Bulgaria and Serbia, the Ottoman leadership assigned the bulk of its forces there. The German ambassador, Hans Baron von Wangenheim , one of
17940-477: The proclamation of a republic would only have increased the ire of the Great Powers towards Serbia in case Alexander was overthrown, giving Austria-Hungary a pretext to invade. Preparations for the coup took place between 1901 and 1903. The conspirators decided to place Peter on the throne in November 1901, but Peter had little trust in them and their initial offers were rebuffed. He accepted their offers on
18096-495: The provinces of Ottoman-controlled Rumelia ( Eastern Rumelia , Thrace and Macedonia ) subsided somewhat after the mid-19th-century intervention by the Great Powers , which aimed to secure both more complete protection for the provinces' Christian majority as well as to maintain the status quo. By 1867, Serbia and Montenegro had both secured their independence, which was confirmed by the Treaty of Berlin (1878) . The question of
18252-421: The region and the important port city of Thessaloniki before the Greeks. The entry of Greece to the League, however, was essential for the allies since Greece, alone among the Balkan states in possessing a major fleet, could preclude the mass transfer of Ottoman reinforcements from Asia directly into Europe by sea. As the Greek ambassador to Sofia had put it during the negotiations that led to Greece's entry in
18408-513: The relatively modern core of the Ottoman battlefleet. By the summer of 1912, however, they were already in poor condition because of chronic neglect: the rangefinders and ammunition hoists had been removed, the telephones were not working, the pumps were corroded, and most of the watertight doors could no longer be closed. During the onset of the First Balkan War, most Albanians, including frequent rebels like Isa Boletin, united to defend
18564-545: The remainder were Orthodox Christians, considered unfit for conscription. The poor transport network of the Empire's Asian regions dictated that the only reliable way to mass transfer troops to the front was by sea where they'd be vulnerable to attacks from the Greek fleet based in the Aegean. In addition, in 1912 Ottomans were still at war with the Italians who in the year proceeding had overrun Ottoman Libya and by now were invading
18720-429: The royal palace late in the evening of 10 June [ O.S. 29 May] 1903 and shot the King and Queen, mutilating their corpses with sabres and tossing them from a third-floor balcony. The murders resulted in the extinction of the Obrenović line and resolved the century-long feud between the Karađorđević and Obrenović dynasties. Peter expressed satisfaction with the outcome of the plot, as well as regret for
18876-401: The situation to regain some territories lost as a result of the previous war. When Romanian troops approached the Bulgarian capital, Sofia, Bulgaria asked for an armistice, resulting in the 1913 Treaty of Bucharest , in which Bulgaria had to cede portions of its First Balkan War gains to Serbia, Greece and Romania. The Second Balkan War left Serbia as the most militarily powerful state south of
19032-632: The spectacular military victories over the Ottomans, followed by the liberation of " Old Serbia " ( Kosovo Vilayet ) and Macedonia ( Manastir Vilayet ). The territory of Serbia doubled and her prestige among South Slavs ( Croats and Slovenes in particular, and among the Serbs in Austria-Hungary, in Bosnia-Herzegovina , Vojvodina , the Military Frontier , Dalmatia , Slavonia , etc.) grew significantly, with Peter I as
19188-426: The spoils of the First Balkan War, Bulgaria attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece, and started the Second Balkan War on 16 ( O.S. )/29 June 1913. Serbian and Greek armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked, entering Bulgaria. With Bulgaria also having engaged in territorial disputes with Romania , this war provoked Romanian intervention against Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire took advantage of
19344-509: The successful coup d'état for the incorporation of Eastern Rumelia , Bulgaria had orchestrated a methodical scenario of indirect expansion through the creation, in the multi-ethnic Ottoman-held Macedonia (for many centuries an administrative rather than a nationalistic name), of a united, liberating and revolutionary organization, the IMRO , allegedly without national color. IMRO's rhetoric claimed to be speaking generally for liberation on behalf of
19500-530: The summer of 1883. The marriage upset the region's volatile geopolitical balance, causing great unease in the Austro-Hungarian, Russian and Serbian capitals. Belgrade perceived it as a sign of increasing closeness between the Petrović-Njegoš and Karađorđević dynasties. Relations between the two Serb states worsened, as did relations between Austria-Hungary and Russia, which had been vying for power in
19656-407: The summer of 1912 as the imminence of war became apparent. Nevertheless, at the outbreak of the war, the Greek fleet was far from ready. The Ottoman battlefleet retained a clear advantage in the number of ships, speed of the primary surface units and, most importantly, the number and calibre of the ships' guns. In addition, as the war caught the fleet in the middle of its expansion and reorganization,
19812-610: The throne. The two dynasties had been vying for power since 1817, when Karađorđe was assassinated on the orders of Miloš Obrenović , the founder of the Obrenović dynasty. Peter left Geneva for Paris in 1861 and enrolled in the Collège Sainte-Barbe , located in the heart of the city's Latin Quarter . The following year, Peter enrolled in the Saint-Cyr , France's most prestigious military academy. He graduated from
19968-496: The true purpose of IMRO and consequently, a vicious guerrilla war, the so-called Macedonian Struggle broke out between Bulgarian and Greek-backed armed groups within Ottoman Macedonia. The conflict ended only when the Young Turks movement came to power, promising reforms and equality of all Ottoman subjects regardless of religion or nationality. Bulgaria then turned to the more direct method of expansion through winning
20124-482: The two operational theatres that were open to the Greeks: Thessaly and Epirus. The Army of Thessaly (Στρατιά Θεσσαλίας) was placed under Crown Prince Constantine , with Lieutenant-General Panagiotis Danglis as his chief of staff. It fielded the bulk of the Greek forces: seven infantry divisions, a cavalry regiment, and four independent Evzones light mountain infantry battalions, roughly 100,000 men. It
20280-636: The viability of Ottoman rule was revived after the Young Turk Revolution in July 1908, which compelled the Ottoman Sultan to restore the suspended constitution of the empire. Serbia's aspirations to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina were thwarted by the Bosnian crisis , which led to the Austrian annexation of the province in October 1908. The Serbs then directed their war efforts to the south. After
20436-428: The war began, it had only 200,000 men available. Although more men would reach their units, war casualties prevented the Western Group from coming near its nominal strength. In wartime, the Ottomans had planned to bring more troops in from Syria, both Nizamiye and Redif . Greek naval supremacy prevented those reinforcements from arriving. Instead, those soldiers had to deploy via the land route, and most never made it to
20592-614: Was King of Serbia from 15 June 1903 to 1 December 1918. On 1 December 1918, he became King of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes , and he held that title until his death three years later. Since he was the king of Serbia during a period of great Serbian military success, he was remembered by Serbians as King Peter the Liberator and also as the Old King . Peter was the fifth child and third son of Alexander Karađorđević, Prince of Serbia , and his wife, Persida Nenadović . Prince Alexander
20748-471: Was Bulgaria's diplomatic policy of pushing Serbia into an agreement limiting its access to Macedonia and at the same time refusing any such agreement with Greece. Having low regard for the Greek Army's military effectiveness, the Bulgarian leadership estimated that according to the military plans, their limited forces that had been deployed to the Macedonian theatre would be able to occupy the larger part of
20904-443: Was Tsar Ferdinand , and the operating command was in the hands of his deputy, General Mihail Savov . The Bulgarians also had a small navy of six torpedo boats restricted to operations along the country's Black Sea coast. Bulgaria was focused on actions in Thrace and Macedonia. It deployed its main force in Thrace by forming three armies. The First Army (79,370 men), under General Vasil Kutinchev , had three infantry divisions and
21060-532: Was accused of treachery and collaboration with the Ottomans. In the summer of 1878, he illegally crossed the border between Serbia and Austria-Hungary at Golubac via the Danube . Peter and his guide became lost in the Homolje mountains and were forced to hide from the authorities in the wilderness. Peter returned to Austria-Hungary shortly thereafter, but was arrested by the Austro-Hungarian police and interned at
21216-791: Was commanded by Nazim Pasha and had seven corps of 11 regular infantry divisions, 13 Redif divisions and at least one cavalry division: The Western Army (Macedonian and Vardar Army) constituted ten corps with 32 infantry and two cavalry divisions. Against Serbia, the Ottomans deployed the Vardar Army (HQ in Skopje) under Halepli Zeki Pasha , with five corps of 18 infantry divisions, one cavalry division and two independent cavalry brigades under the: The Macedonian Army (headquarters in Thessaloniki under Ali Rıza Pasha ) had 14 divisions in five corps, deployed against Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro. Against Greece, at least seven divisions were deployed: Against Bulgaria, in southeastern Macedonia, two divisions,
21372-597: Was commanded by General Božidar Janković , and since it was on the right wing, had the task to invade Kosovo and then move south to join the other armies in the expected battle at Ovče Polje. There were two more concentrations in northwestern Serbia across the borders between Serbia and Austria-Hungary: the Ibar Army (25,000 men), under General Mihailo Živković , and the Javor Brigade (12,000 men), under Lieutenant-Colonel Milovoje Anđelković. Greece, whose population
21528-510: Was commanded by General Stepa Stepanović and had one Serbian and one Bulgarian (7th Rila) division. It formed the army's left wing and advanced towards Stracin . Though the inclusion of a Bulgarian division was according to a prewar arrangement between Serbian and Bulgarian armies, it ceased to obey the orders of Stepanović as soon as the war began, only following those of the Bulgarian High Command. The Third Army (76,000 men)
21684-528: Was crowned in St. Michael's Cathedral in Belgrade , on 21 September [ O.S. 8 September] 1904. The coronation ceremony, the first in Serbia's modern history, aimed to demonstrate that a new era had begun. The year-long interval between Peter's return to Serbia and his coronation deliberately made the ceremony coincide with the 100th anniversary of the First Serbian Uprising with
21840-603: Was deployed to the south of Yambol and assigned operations along the Tundzha River. The Second Army (122,748 men), under General Nikola Ivanov , with two infantry divisions and one infantry brigade, was deployed west of the First Army and was assigned to capture the strong fortress of Adrianople ( Edirne ). Plans had the Third Army (94,884 men), under General Radko Dimitriev , to be deployed east of and behind
21996-455: Was expected to overcome the fortified Ottoman border positions and advance towards southern and central Macedonia, aiming to take Thessaloniki and Bitola. The remaining 10,000 to 13,000 men in eight battalions were assigned to the Army of Epirus ( Στρατιά Ηπείρου ) under Lieutenant-General Konstantinos Sapountzakis . As it had no hope of capturing Ioannina, the heavily fortified capital of Epirus,
22152-780: Was forced to abdicate in 1858, and Peter lived with his family in exile. He fought with the French Foreign Legion in the Franco-Prussian War . He joined as a volunteer under the alias Peter Mrkonjić ( Serbian Cyrillic : Петар Мркоњић , romanized : Petar Mrkonjić ) in the Herzegovina uprising (1875–1877) against the Ottoman Empire . In 1883, Prince Peter married Princess Ljubica , daughter of King Nicholas I of Montenegro . Ljubica became known as Princess Zorka upon her marriage. Peter and Zorka had five children: Helen , Milena, George , Alexander , and Andrew. After his father died in 1885, Peter became head of
22308-419: Was forced to exchange Macedonia for Albania, an issue that would play a key role in the eventual dissolution of the League in the spring of 1913, when the Great Powers insisted upon the creation of the Albanian state and denied Serbia its territorial gains in that direction. Bulgaria, on its part, had held a long-term policy regarding the Ottomans since regaining independence during the Russo-Turkish War . After
22464-411: Was later married to Peter's first cousin Prince George Karađorđević (1827–1884). His birth was not met with much celebration because he was his parents' third son and his older brother Svetozar was the heir to the throne. His parents' oldest son, Aleksa, had died three years prior to Peter's birth, aged five, at which point Svetozar became heir. Peter did not become heir until Svetozar's death in 1847 at
22620-499: Was leaving the battlefield and offering to make peace with the Obrenović dynasty. Despite his attempts to make peace with Milan, accusations of treason continued to be levelled against Peter. He decided to travel to Kragujevac , the seat of the Royal Serbian Government, and address the National Assembly in an attempt to clear his name. In 1877, an anti-government uprising erupted in the Toplica region of southern Serbia, for which Milan blamed Peter and Karađorđević sympathizers. Peter
22776-400: Was proclaimed King of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes . King Peter stayed abroad until July 1919, then returned to Belgrade, where he died in 1921 at the age of 77. He was solemnly buried in his endowment in Oplenac , the Church of Saint George in the vicinity of Topola in Central Serbia, where his grandfather Karađorđe, the founder of the dynasty, had launched a large-scale insurrection against
22932-430: Was published. At the outbreak of the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War , Peter joined the French Foreign Legion under the pseudonym Petar Kara, together with relative Nikola Nikolajević. During his service, Peter held the rank of either lieutenant or second lieutenant , depending on the source, and fought with the 1st Foreign Regiment . He participated in the Second Battle of Orléans on 3–4 December 1870, as well as
23088-400: Was recently restored, as well as several smaller monuments in Belgrade and the rest of Serbia. The other monuments in honor to King Peter I were restored or erected in Republika Srpska , in Bosnia and Herzegovina where his cult status as a national hero is as strong as it is in Serbia. In Paris , an avenue off the Champs-Élysées is named after him, Avenue Pierre 1er de Serbie . There is
23244-414: Was the fifth of ten children born to Prince Alexander Karađorđević and his consort, Persida Nenadović . He was the grandson of Karađorđe , the leader of the First Serbian Uprising (1804–1813) and the founder of the Karađorđević dynasty . Peter was not born in the Royal Court, which was undergoing renovations at the time, but at the home of merchant Miša Anastasijević , whose daughter Sara (1836–1931)
23400-411: Was the smallest nation in the Balkan Peninsula, but in recent years before the war, it had improved its military skills with support from Russia . Also, it was the only Balkan country never to be fully conquered by the Ottoman Empire. As the smallest member of the League, Montenegro did not have much influence. However, it was advantageous for Montenegro, since when the Ottoman Empire was trying to counter
23556-406: Was then 2,666,000, was considered the weakest of the three main allies since it fielded the smallest army and had suffered a defeat against the Ottomans 16 years earlier, in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. A British consular dispatch from 1910 expressed the common perception of the Greek army's abilities: "If there is a war, we shall probably see that the only thing Greek officers can do besides talking
23712-529: Was thirty-six years his junior, though this was likely a bid to gain support of the Kaiser for succeeding to the Serbian throne . Her mother, Princess Charlotte of Prussia declared that "for such a throne Feodora is far too good". After this failed attempt, Peter moved to Cetinje in 1883, the capital of the second independent Serb state, Montenegro , with the intention of marrying the eldest daughter of Montenegro's ruler, Prince Nicholas I . Peter and Princess Ljubica of Montenegro were married in Cetinje in
23868-458: Was to be supported by the Kırcaali Detachment of 24,000 military personnel, deployed along the Arda river to prevent the Bulgarians from reaching the Aegean Sea and thus cutting Ottoman transportation and communication links with Macedonia. The Vardar Army of some 58,000 men was deployed near Kumanovo against the First and Second Serbian Armies of 90,000 Serbian and approx. 50,000 Serbian and Bulgarian men. Approx. 28,000 additional men from
24024-409: Was to push Serbia into one that limited its access to Macedonia while simultaneously refusing any such agreement with Greece. Bulgaria believed that its army could occupy the big part of Aegean Macedonia and the port city of Salonica ( Thessaloniki ) before the Greeks could do so. In 1911, Italy had launched an invasion of Tripolitania , now in Libya , which was quickly followed by the occupation of
24180-459: Was to remain until 1903. In 1899, Tsar Nicholas II invited Prince George and Prince Alexander, as well as Peter's nephew Paul , to attend the Corps des Pages military academy in Saint Petersburg free of charge. Due to his precarious financial situation, which prevented him from sending the boys to private schools in Switzerland, Peter accepted the Tsar's offer. In July 1900, King Alexander , Milan's 23-year-old son, married Draga Mašin ,
24336-446: Was upgraded into Belgrade University in 1905, with scholars of international renown such as Jovan Cvijić , Mihailo Petrović , Slobodan Jovanović , Jovan M. Žujović , Bogdan Popović , Jovan Skerlić , Sima Lozanić , Branislav Petronijević and several others. King Peter I gained enormous popularity following the Balkan Wars in 1912 and 1913, which, from a Serb and South Slav perspective, proved greatly successful, heralded by
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