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105-625: In mid-19th century France, artists depended on public exhibitions to connect them with patrons willing to buy their artworks. The most prestigious exhibition was the Salon in Paris. From the earliest Salons in the 17th century until the French Revolution in 1789, only members of the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture were permitted to exhibit artworks. Following the revolution and

210-505: A capucine flower as their logo. In the end, the members of group settled on the name Société anonyme des artistes peintres, sculpteurs, graveurs, etc. The Première exposition of the Société anonyme opened on April 15, 1874. They chose to open the exhibition two weeks before the Salon of 1874 in hopes of emphasizing to the public that it was not another Salon des Refusés . The exhibition

315-503: A French public which wanted territory and a French army which wanted revenge. The situation did not suit either France, which unexpectedly found itself next to the militarily powerful Prussian-led North German Confederation, or Prussia, whose foremost objective was to complete the process of uniting the German states under its control. Thus, war between the two powers since 1866 was only a matter of time. In Prussia, some officials considered

420-463: A bad situation much worse was the conduct of General Auguste-Alexandre Ducrot , commander of the 1st Division. He told General Abel Douay , commander of the 2nd Division, on 1 August that "The information I have received makes me suppose that the enemy has no considerable forces very near his advance posts, and has no desire to take the offensive" . Two days later, he told MacMahon that he had not found "a single enemy post ... it looks to me as if

525-596: A broad deployment which made envelopment highly likely but the effectiveness of French Chassepot-rifle fire inflicted costly repulses on infantry attacks, until the French infantry had been extensively bombarded by the Prussian artillery. The Battle of Spicheren on 5 August was the second of three critical French defeats. Moltke had originally planned to keep Bazaine's army on the Saar River until he could attack it with

630-551: A column or line formation , Prussian infantry moved in small groups that were harder to target by artillery or French defensive fire. The sheer number of soldiers available made encirclement en masse and destruction of French formations relatively easy. The army was equipped with the Dreyse needle gun renowned for its use at the Battle of Königgrätz , which was by this time showing the age of its 25-year-old design. The rifle had

735-692: A contact-detonated shell, the Krupp gun had a longer range and a higher rate of fire than the French bronze muzzle loading cannon, which relied on time fuses. The Prussian army was controlled by the General Staff , under General Helmuth von Moltke . The Prussian army was unique in Europe for having the only such organisation in existence, whose purpose in peacetime was to prepare the overall war strategy, and in wartime to direct operational movement and organise logistics and communications. The officers of

840-482: A distant plateau south of the town of Spicheren, and took this as a sign of Frossard's retreat. Ignoring Moltke's plan again, both German armies attacked Frossard's French 2nd Corps, fortified between Spicheren and Forbach. The French were unaware of German numerical superiority at the beginning of the battle as the German 2nd Army did not attack all at once. Treating the oncoming attacks as merely skirmishes, Frossard did not request additional support from other units. By

945-526: A fierce opponent of Prussia who, as French Ambassador to Austria in 1866, had advocated an Austro-French military alliance against Prussia. Napoleon III's worsening health problems made him less and less capable of reining in Empress Eugénie, Gramont and the other members of the war party, known collectively as the "mameluks". For Bismarck, the nomination of Gramont was seen as "a highly bellicose symptom". The Ems telegram of 13 July 1870 had exactly

1050-454: A greater number of participating artists would result in a lower cost to each artist. The rest then agreed to Degas's plan. Some of the members of the group opposed Cézanne's participation in the exhibition, however they agreed after Monet supported his participation. Manet would ultimately not participate in the exhibition. He once told the others that it was because he would never participate in an exhibition with Cézanne, however, his main reason

1155-516: A major obstacle in terms of logistics. Only one railway there led to the German hinterland but could be easily defended by a single force, and the only river systems in the region ran along the border instead of inland. While the French hailed the invasion as the first step towards the Rhineland and later Berlin, General Edmond Le Bœuf and Napoleon III were receiving alarming reports from foreign news sources of Prussian and Bavarian armies massing to

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1260-520: A massacre, the French army disengaged and retreated in a westerly direction towards Bitche and Saverne, hoping to join French forces on the other side of the Vosges mountains . The German 3rd army did not pursue the French but remained in Alsace and moved slowly south, attacking and destroying the French garrisons in the vicinity. About 160,000 French soldiers were besieged in the fortress of Metz following

1365-502: A meet where he announced that, after paying off all debts, the Société anonyme still owed over 3,700 francs in liabilities, but only had about 278 francs remaining. All of the members still owed about 185 francs each. The group was then liquidated, and members that had already paid their dues for the next year were refunded. Despite the commercial and critical failure of the First Impressionist Exhibition and

1470-436: A range of only 600 m (2,000 ft) and lacked the rubber breech seal that permitted aimed shots. The deficiencies of the needle gun were more than compensated for by the famous Krupp 6-pounder (6 kg despite the gun being called a 6-pounder, the rifling technology enabled guns to fire twice the weight of projectiles in the same calibre) steel breech-loading cannons being issued to Prussian artillery batteries. Firing

1575-583: A reserve and to guard against a Prussian advance through Belgium . A pre-war plan laid down by the late Marshal Niel called for a strong French offensive from Thionville towards Trier and into the Prussian Rhineland. This plan was discarded in favour of a defensive plan by Generals Charles Frossard and Bartélemy Lebrun , which called for the Army of the Rhine to remain in a defensive posture near

1680-667: A result of the Franco-Austrian War of 1859 . During the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Empress Eugénie , Foreign Minister Drouyn de Lhuys and War Minister Jacques Louis Randon were concerned that the power of Prussia might overtake that of France. They unsuccessfully urged Napoleon to mass troops at France's eastern borders while the bulk of the Prussian armies were still engaged in Bohemia as

1785-488: A return to the French borders of 1814, with the annexation of Luxembourg , most of Saarland , and the Bavarian Palatinate . Bismarck flatly refused what he disdainfully termed France's politique des pourboires ("tipping policy"). He then communicated Napoleon III's written territorial demands to Bavaria and the other southern German states of Württemberg , Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt , which hastened

1890-542: A revolutionary uprising which seized and held power for two months before its suppression; the event would influence the politics and policies of the Third Republic . The causes of the Franco-Prussian War are rooted in the events surrounding the lead up to the unification of the German states under Otto von Bismarck . France had gained the status of being the dominant power of continental Europe as

1995-471: A rubber ring seal and a smaller bullet, the Chassepot had a maximum effective range of some 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) with a short reloading time. French tactics emphasised the defensive use of the Chassepot rifle in trench-warfare style fighting—the so-called feu de bataillon . The artillery was equipped with rifled, muzzle-loaded La Hitte guns . The army also possessed a precursor to the machine-gun:

2100-402: A war against France both inevitable and necessary to arouse German nationalism in those states that would allow the unification of a great German empire. This aim was epitomized by Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's later statement: "I did not doubt that a Franco-German war must take place before the construction of a United Germany could be realised." Bismarck also knew that France should be

2205-557: A warning that no territorial changes could be effected in Germany without consulting France. As a result of Prussia's annexation of several German states which had sided with Austria during the war and the formation of the North German Confederation under Prussia's aegis, French public opinion stiffened and now demanded more firmness as well as territorial compensations. As a result, Napoleon demanded from Prussia

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2310-449: Is driven mad at its sight and begins to hallucinate that the paintings are talking to him. Leroy's article was intended to be just as much of a spoof of the reactions of conservative academic painters to the "Impressionists" as it was a mockery of Impressionists themselves. Louis Leroy's review was the first use of the term "Impressionists", a term that would come to refer to the artists who painted in style of Impressionism . Leroy's use of

2415-505: The Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Between 1748 and 1890 it was arguably the greatest annual or biennial art event in the Western world. At the 1761 Salon, thirty-three painters, nine sculptors, and eleven engravers contributed. From 1881 onward, it was managed by the Société des Artistes Français . In 1667, the royally sanctioned French institution of art patronage, the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture (a division of

2520-859: The Salon d'Automne . As the number of salons increased, American newspapers sometimes referred to the original salon as the Salon of the Champs Elysees . Other salons Franco-Prussian War German victory Before 18 January 1871 : [REDACTED]   North German Confederation [REDACTED]   Bavaria [REDACTED]   Württemberg [REDACTED]   Baden Total deployment : Initial strength : Peak field army strength : Total deployment : Initial strength : Peak field army strength : 756,285 144,642 The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War , often referred to in France as

2625-525: The Académie des beaux-arts ), held its first semi-public art exhibit at the Salon Carré . The Salon's original focus was the display of the work of recent graduates of the École des Beaux-Arts , which was created by Cardinal Mazarin , chief minister of France, in 1648. Exhibition at the Salon de Paris was essential for any artist to achieve success in France for at least the next 200 years. Exhibition in

2730-589: The Batignolles group . They chose to refer to themselves as a "group" rather than a " school " because, although they all had contempt for "official art", they all sought their own directions. The members of the Batignolles group had differing opinions about the Salon. Manet and Renoir believed that the Salon offered them the best chance at gaining recognition. Cézanne, on the other hand, believed that they should always submit their most "offensive" pictures to

2835-647: The Siege of Metz and the Battle of Sedan , resulted in the capture of the French Emperor Napoleon III and the decisive defeat of the army of the Second Empire ; a Government of National Defense was formed in Paris on 4 September and continued the war for another five months. German forces fought and defeated new French armies in northern France, then besieged Paris for over four months before it fell on 28 January 1871, effectively ending

2940-645: The Société anonyme , the Impressionists would not be dissuaded from pursuing their own style and would hold seven more Impressionist Exhibitions. A second exhibition was held in 1876, a third 1877, a fourth in 1879, a fifth in 1880, a sixth 1881, a seventh in 1882, and an eight and final exhibition was held in 1886. In 1974, the Louvre and the Metropolitan Museum of Art held an exhibition titled Impressionism: A Centenary Exhibition to celebrate

3045-628: The Treaty of Paris following the Crimean War a precondition for the union. But Imperial France was not ready to do this. "Bonaparte did not dare to encroach on the Paris Treaty: the worse things turned out in the present, the more precious the heritage of the past became". The French Army consisted in peacetime of approximately 426,000 soldiers, some of them regulars, others conscripts who until March 1869 were selected by ballot and served for

3150-658: The War of 1870 , was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia . Lasting from 19 July 1870 to 28 January 1871, the conflict was caused primarily by France's determination to reassert its dominant position in continental Europe, which appeared in question following the decisive Prussian victory over Austria in 1866 . According to some historians, Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck deliberately provoked

3255-422: The mitrailleuse , which could unleash significant, concentrated firepower but nevertheless lacked range and was comparatively immobile, and thus prone to being easily overrun. The mitrailleuse was mounted on an artillery gun carriage and grouped in batteries in a similar fashion to cannon. The army was nominally led by Napoleon III, with Marshals François Achille Bazaine and Patrice de MacMahon in command of

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3360-459: The 2nd Army in front and the 1st Army on its left flank, while the 3rd Army closed towards the rear. The aging General von Steinmetz made an overzealous, unplanned move, leading the 1st Army south from his position on the Moselle . He moved straight toward the town of Spicheren, cutting off Prince Frederick Charles from his forward cavalry units in the process. On the French side, planning after

3465-475: The Austro-Prussian War, were treading carefully before stating that they would only side with France if the south Germans viewed the French positively. This did not materialize as the four South German states had come to Prussia's aid and were mobilizing their armies against France. Napoleon III was under substantial domestic pressure to launch an offensive before the full might of Moltke's forces

3570-506: The Franco-Prussian War broke out before these reforms could be completely implemented. The mobilisation of reservists was chaotic and resulted in large numbers of stragglers, while the Garde Mobile were generally untrained and often mutinous. French infantry were equipped with the breech-loading Chassepot rifle , one of the most modern mass-produced firearms in the world at the time, with 1,037,555 available in French inventories. With

3675-459: The French defended their position just outside Frœschwiller. By afternoon, the Germans had suffered c.  10,500 killed or wounded and the French had lost a similar number of casualties and another c.  9,200 men taken prisoner, a loss of about 50%. The Germans captured Fröschwiller which sat on a hilltop in the centre of the French line. Having lost any hope for victory and facing

3780-578: The French had a chance to sweep away the key Prussian defense, and to escape. Two Prussian corps had attacked the French advance guard, thinking that it was the rearguard of the retreat of the French Army of the Meuse. Despite this misjudgment the two Prussian corps held the entire French army for the whole day. Outnumbered 5 to 1, the extraordinary élan of the Prussians prevailed over gross indecision by

3885-524: The French into declaring war by releasing an altered summary of the Ems Dispatch , a telegram sent by William I rejecting French demands that Prussia never again support a Hohenzollern candidacy. Bismarck's summary, as mistranslated by the French press Havas , made it sound as if the king had treated the French envoy in a demeaning fashion, which inflamed public opinion in France. French historians François Roth and Pierre Milza argue that Napoleon III

3990-443: The French into declaring war on Prussia in order to induce four independent southern German states— Baden , Württemberg , Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt —to join the North German Confederation ; other historians contend that Bismarck exploited the circumstances as they unfolded. All agree that Bismarck recognized the potential for new German alliances, given the situation as a whole. France mobilised its army on 15 July 1870, leading

4095-751: The General Staff were hand-picked from the Prussian Kriegsakademie (War Academy). Moltke embraced new technology, particularly the railroad and telegraph, to coordinate and accelerate mobilisation of large forces. On 28 July 1870 Napoleon III left Paris for Metz and assumed command of the newly titled Army of the Rhine, some 202,448 strong and expected to grow as the French mobilization progressed. Marshal MacMahon took command of I Corps (4 infantry divisions) near Wissembourg , Marshal François Canrobert brought VI Corps (4 infantry divisions) to Châlons-sur-Marne in northern France as

4200-517: The German border and repel any Prussian offensive. As Austria, along with Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden were expected to join in a revenge war against Prussia, I Corps would invade the Bavarian Palatinate and proceed to "free" the four South German states in concert with Austro-Hungarian forces. VI Corps would reinforce either army as needed. Unfortunately for Frossard's plan, the Prussian army mobilised far more rapidly than expected. The Austro-Hungarians, still reeling after their defeat by Prussia in

4305-668: The III Corps launched a risky attack. The French were routed and the III Corps captured Vionville, blocking any further escape attempts to the west. Once blocked from retreat, the French in the fortress of Metz had no choice but to engage in a fight that would see the last major cavalry engagement in Western Europe. The battle soon erupted, and III Corps was shattered by incessant cavalry charges , losing over half its soldiers. The German Official History recorded 15,780 casualties and French casualties of 13,761 men. On 16 August,

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4410-531: The Impressionist paintings in context as well as later Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings. In 2024, the Musée d'Orsay held an exhibition titled Paris 1874: Inventing Impressionism to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the First Impressionist Exhibition. The exhibition featured many of the works that were featured in the First Impressionist Exhibition along side many works that were featured in

4515-701: The North German Confederation to respond with its own mobilisation later that day. On 16 July 1870, the French parliament voted to declare war on Prussia; France invaded German territory on 2 August. The German coalition mobilised its troops much more effectively than the French and invaded northeastern France on 4 August. German forces were superior in numbers, training, and leadership and made more effective use of modern technology, particularly railways and artillery. A series of hard-fought Prussian and German victories in eastern France, culminating in

4620-606: The Paris Salon of the same year. The goal of the exhibition was to recreate the visual shock that contemporary viewers would have experienced at seeing the Impressionist works for the first time by showing Impressionist artworks alongside Salon artworks. The same exhibition, under the name Paris 1874: The Impressionist Moment , is currently being shown at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. . Much of

4725-437: The Prussian 40th Regiment of the 16th Infantry Division from the town of Saarbrücken with a series of direct attacks. The Chassepot rifle proved its worth against the Dreyse rifle , with French riflemen regularly outdistancing their Prussian counterparts in the skirmishing around Saarbrücken. However the Prussians resisted strongly, and the French suffered 86 casualties to the Prussian 83 casualties. Saarbrücken also proved to be

4830-557: The Prussian Army, when potentially 1,000,000 would be required. Under Marshal Adolphe Niel , urgent reforms were made. Universal conscription and a shorter period of service gave increased numbers of reservists, who would swell the army to a planned strength of 800,000 on mobilisation. Those who for any reason were not conscripted were to be enrolled in the Garde Mobile , a militia with a nominal strength of 400,000. However,

4935-508: The Rhine in Saarbrücken back across the river to Spicheren and Forbach. Marshal MacMahon, now closest to Wissembourg, spread his four divisions 20 miles (32 km) to react to any Prussian-Bavarian invasion. This organization was due to a lack of supplies, forcing each division to seek out food and forage from the countryside and from the representatives of the army supply arm that was supposed to furnish them with provisions. What made

5040-417: The Salon as a means of challenging established customs. Despite their differing views, the members of the Batignolles group regularly submitted their artworks to that annual Salon. All members of the group except for Cézanne had been accepted into the Salon at least once. Claude Monet and Frédéric Bazille first proposed that the Batignolles group hold their own exhibition at their own expense in 1867. The group

5145-486: The Salon in his gallery, did not room to host all of the rejected artists. After hearing about the controversy, Emperor Napoleon III visited Palais de l'Industrie where the Salon was to be held and consulted with the president of the jury. Two days later, it was announced that there would be a second elective Salon, a Salon des Refusés ("Salon of the Refused"), to exhibit the rejected artworks. The artwork to attract

5250-580: The Salon jury turned away an unusually high number of the submitted paintings. An uproar resulted, particularly from regular exhibitors who had been rejected. In order to prove that the Salons were democratic, Napoleon III instituted the Salon des Refusés , containing a selection of the works that the Salon had rejected that year. It opened on 17 May 1863, marking the birth of the avant-garde . The Impressionists held their own independent exhibitions in 1874, 1876, 1877, 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882 and 1886. In 1881

5355-636: The Salon marked a sign of royal favor. In 1725, the Salon was held in the Palace of the Louvre , when it became known as Salon or Salon de Paris . In 1737, the exhibitions, held from 18 August 1737 to 5 September 1737 at the Grand Salon of the Louvre , became public. They were held, at first, annually, and then biennially, in odd-numbered years. They would start on the feast day of St. Louis (25 August) and run for some weeks. Once made regular and public,

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5460-399: The Salon's status was "never seriously in doubt". In 1748 a jury of awarded artists was introduced. From this time forward, the influence of the Salon was undisputed. The Salon exhibited paintings floor-to-ceiling and on every available inch of space. The jostling of artwork became the subject of many other paintings, including Pietro Antonio Martini 's Salon of 1785 . Printed catalogues of

5565-498: The Salons are primary documents for art historians. Critical descriptions of the exhibitions published in the gazettes mark the beginning of the modern occupation of art critic . The French salon, a product of the Enlightenment in the early 18th century, was a key institution in which women played a central role. Salons provided a place for women and men to congregate for intellectual discourse. The French Revolution opened

5670-464: The Salons. After the French Revolution of 1848 liberalized the Salon, far fewer works were refused. Medals were introduced in 1849. The increasingly conservative and academic juries were not receptive to the Impressionist painters, whose works were usually rejected, or poorly placed if accepted. The Salon opposed the Impressionists' shift away from traditional painting styles. In 1863

5775-474: The abolishment of the Royal Academy in 1791, non-member artists were permitted to exhibit artworks in the Salon. With the exception of a short period of a few years following the French Revolution of 1848 , the artworks displayed at the Salon were chosen by a jury consisting of members of the Académie des Beaux-Arts . Being accepted to the Salon was vital for artists because the jury's decision affected

5880-400: The aggressor in the conflict to bring the four southern German states to side with Prussia, hence giving Germans numerical superiority. He was convinced that France would not find any allies in her war against Germany for the simple reason that "France, the victor, would be a danger to everybody—Prussia to nobody," and he added, "That is our strong point." Many Germans also viewed the French as

5985-485: The armies of France would take up a defensive position that would protect against every possible attack point, but also left the armies unable to support each other. While the French army under General MacMahon engaged the German 3rd Army at the Battle of Wörth , the German 1st Army under Steinmetz finished their advance west from Saarbrücken. A patrol from the German 2nd Army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia spotted decoy fires nearby and Frossard's army farther off on

6090-467: The artists that regularly visited the café were Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Frédéric Bazille , Edgar Degas, Camille Pissarro, and Paul Cézanne. Émile Zola and Edmond Maître were also occasional visitors. The famous photographer Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, better known by his pseudonym Nadar , also sometimes visited the café. The artists that frequented the Café Guerbois called themselves

6195-478: The border at Wissembourg. Upon learning from captured Prussian soldiers and a local area police chief that the Prussian Crown Prince's Third Army was just 30 miles (48 km) north from Saarbrücken near the Rhine river town Wissembourg, General Le Bœuf and Napoleon III decided to retreat to defensive positions. General Frossard, without instructions, hastily withdrew his elements of the Army of

6300-415: The border, attacked in overwhelming but uncoordinated fashion by the German 3rd Army. During the day, elements of a Bavarian and two Prussian corps became engaged and were aided by Prussian artillery, which blasted holes in the city defenses. Douay held a very strong position initially, thanks to the accurate long-range rapid fire of the Chassepot rifles, but his force was too thinly stretched to hold it. Douay

6405-402: The catalog. These artworks have been identified as being displayed at the exhibition through references in contemporary reviews. These hors catalogue artworks are numbered as "HC#" in the list below. Salon (Paris) The Salon ( French : Salon ), or rarely Paris Salon (French: Salon de Paris [salɔ̃ də paʁi] ), beginning in 1667 was the official art exhibition of

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6510-578: The comparatively long period of seven years. Some of them were veterans of previous French campaigns in the Crimean War , Algeria , the Franco-Austrian War in Italy, and in the Mexican campaign . However, following the " Seven Weeks War " between Prussia and Austria four years earlier, it had been calculated that, with commitments in Algeria and elsewhere, the French Army could field only 288,000 men to face

6615-401: The conclusion of defensive military alliances with these states. France had been strongly opposed to any further alliance of German states, which would have threatened French continental dominance. The only result of French policy was the consent of Prussia to nominal independence for Saxony, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, and Hessia-Darmstadt; this was a small victory, and one without appeal to

6720-436: The conservative press chose not to provide platform to those who opposed official arts policy. On April 25, the satirical magazine Le Charivari published a review of the exhibition by Louis Leroy titled "L'Exposition des impressionnistes" . The satirical review was written in the form of a dialog between Leroy and a fictional academic landscape painter named Joseph Vincent. In the review, as Leroy guides Vincent through

6825-467: The critical reception to the First Impressionist Exhibition was negative. Many of the critics commented that the paintings looked unfinished. The exhibition catalog lists thirty artists as participated in the First Impressionist Exhibition in 1874. A thirty-first artist, the Comtesse de Luchaire , was mentioned as participating in the exhibition in a review by Marc de Montifaud , but was not listed among

6930-419: The defeats on the frontier. A retirement from Metz to link up with French forces at Châlons was ordered on 15 August and spotted by a Prussian cavalry patrol under Major Oskar von Blumenthal. Next day a grossly outnumbered Prussian force of 30,000 men of III Corps (of the 2nd Army) under General Constantin von Alvensleben , found the French Army near Vionville, east of Mars-la-Tour. Despite odds of four to one,

7035-450: The disaster at Wissembourg had become essential. General Le Bœuf, flushed with anger, was intent upon going on the offensive over the Saar and countering their loss. However, planning for the next encounter was more based upon the reality of unfolding events rather than emotion or pride, as Intendant General Wolff told him and his staff that supply beyond the Saar would be impossible. Therefore,

7140-480: The dominant European land power. Bismarck maintained great authority in international affairs for two decades, developing a reputation for Realpolitik that raised Germany's global stature and influence. In France, it brought a final end to imperial rule and began the first lasting republican government. Resentment over the French government's handling of the war and its aftermath triggered the Paris Commune ,

7245-529: The effect on French public opinion that Bismarck had intended. "This text produced the effect of a red flag on the Gallic bull", Bismarck later wrote. Gramont, the French foreign minister, declared that he felt "he had just received a slap". The leader of the monarchists in Parliament, Adolphe Thiers , spoke for moderation, arguing that France had won the diplomatic battle and there was no reason for war, but he

7350-422: The exhibition only consisted of members of their own group, their exhibition might be seen by the public and critics as being put on by refusés and suggested that they invite outside artists and artists who had previously had success in the salon. Some of the artists thought that inviting outsiders would change the character of the exhibition. Pierre-Auguste Renoir endorsed Degas's plan to invite outside artists, as

7455-484: The exhibition to foreign artists. In the 19th century the idea of a public Salon extended to an annual government-sponsored juried exhibition of new painting and sculpture, held in large commercial halls, to which the ticket-bearing public was invited. The vernissage (varnishing) of opening night was a grand social occasion, and a crush that gave subject matter to newspaper caricaturists like Honoré Daumier . Charles Baudelaire , Denis Diderot and others wrote reviews of

7560-426: The exhibition, Vincent is shocked and aghast at style of the paintings. Leroy begrudgingly defends each painting by saying that, while they are not accurate depictions, they have an impression of what they are supposed to depict. Vincent repeatedly mocks Leroy's use of the word "impression", and begins to refer to the artists collectively as "impressionists". When Vincent finally reaches Cézanne's A Modern Olympia , he

7665-533: The field armies. However, there was no previously arranged plan of campaign in place. The only campaign plan prepared between 1866 and 1870 was a defensive one. The German army comprised that of the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia , and the South German states drawn in under the secret clause of the preliminary peace of Nikolsburg, 26 July 1866, and formalised in the Treaty of Prague , 23 August 1866. Recruitment and organisation of

7770-438: The government withdrew official sponsorship from the annual Salon, and a group of artists organized the Société des Artistes Français to take responsibility for the show. In December 1890, the leader of the Société des Artistes Français , William-Adolphe Bouguereau , proposed that the Salon should be an exhibition of young, not-yet-awarded, artists. Ernest Meissonier , Puvis de Chavannes , Auguste Rodin and others rejected

7875-465: The heights. The Battle of Wörth began when the two armies clashed again on 6 August near Wörth in the town of Frœschwiller , about 10 miles (16 km) from Wissembourg . The Crown Prince of Prussia's 3rd army had, on the quick reaction of his Chief of Staff General von Blumenthal, drawn reinforcements which brought its strength up to 140,000 troops. The French had been slowly reinforced and their force numbered only 35,000. Although badly outnumbered,

7980-610: The indecency of its subject matter. Manet was also widely criticized for painting technique, which some critics considered sloppy. Despite this criticism, other critics lauded his technique, and described it as "fresh" and "lively". The scandal surrounding Édouard Manet and the Salon des Refusés brought several younger artists into his social circle. Manet was a frequent visitor at the Café Guerbois , located at 11 Grande rue des Batignolles in Paris. There he regularly met with many of his admirers, friends, and fellow artists. Some of

8085-511: The long-term survival of the House of Bonaparte . A national plebiscite held on 8 May 1870, which returned results overwhelmingly in favor of the Emperor's domestic agenda, gave the impression that the regime was politically popular and in a position to confront Prussia. Within days of the plebiscite, France's pacifist Foreign Minister Napoléon, comte Daru , was replaced by Agenor, duc de Gramont ,

8190-457: The menace of the Bavarians is simply bluff" . Even though Ducrot shrugged off the possibility of an attack by the Germans, MacMahon tried to warn his other three division commanders, without success. The first action of the Franco-Prussian War took place on 4 August 1870. This battle saw the unsupported division of General Douay of I Corps, with some attached cavalry, which was posted to watch

8295-459: The most visitors at the Salon des Refusés was the painting Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe by Édouard Manet . Manet had painted it specifically for the Salon, and had hoped that it would bring him success. When it was rejected, Manet chose to display it at the Salon des Refusés in hopes that the public would side with him against the jury and prove the jury wrong. The painting proved to be controversial with among critics. Many critics criticized it for

8400-516: The official standards of the Salon and the Académie des Beaux-Arts would lead to artists seeking alternative venues for promoting their art. The Salon of 1863 was particularly controversial with artists. A new rule was established that limited artists to three artworks each. The jury was also stricter than it had been in previous years, rejecting three-fifths of all submissions. Even artists who had been regularly admitted were rejected. Louis Martinet , who had previously displayed artworks rejected from

8505-451: The one-hundredth anniversary of the first Impressionist exhibition. The goal of the exhibition was to exhibit some of the most significant Impressionist works that were painted from approximately 1860 thorough the late 1880s. Forty-two paintings were included in the exhibition. The version of the exhibition held at the MET included additional galleries of other contemporaneous paintings to help put

8610-406: The participating artists in the catalog. The exhibition catalog for the First Impressionist Exhibition lists artworks as numbered 1 through 165. Several of these entries contain multiple artworks each, and there are no entries listed for numbers 71, 72, and 73. Three artworks were shown at the exhibition hors catalogue ("out of catalog"), meaning that they were exhibited but were not listed in

8715-610: The proposal and broke way to create the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts , with its own exhibition, immediately referred to in the press as the Salon du Champ de Mars or the Salon de la Société Nationale des Beaux–Arts . Soon, it was also widely known as the Nationale . In 1903, in response to what many artists at the time felt was a bureaucratic and conservative organization, a group of painters and sculptors, led by Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Auguste Rodin , organized

8820-429: The public's perception of artworks. Paintings that had been accepted by the Salon were more likely to sell, and the public would often refuse to purchase paintings that had been rejected. Patrons would sometimes even return paintings that had been purchased beforehand if they had been rejected by the jury. Artists who were rejected by the jury often complained about corruption and unfairness. Disagreements among artists with

8925-667: The southeast in addition to the forces to the north and northeast. Moltke had indeed massed three armies in the area—the Prussian First Army with 50,000 men, commanded by General Karl von Steinmetz opposite Saarlouis , the Prussian Second Army with 134,000 men commanded by Prince Friedrich Karl opposite the line Forbach - Spicheren , and the Prussian Third Army with 120,000 men commanded by Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm , poised to cross

9030-634: The term "impression" in reference to the landscape paintings of Camille Corot , Charles-François Daubigny , and Johan Jongkind . The members of the Batignolles group had also previously used the term "impression" in reference to creating "impressions of nature". The First Impressionist Exhibition was a commercial failure. Money earned from entrance fees, catalog sales, commissions on painting sales, etc. amounted to 10,221.50 francs. Expenses from rent, decorations, insurance, wages, etc. amounted to 9,272.20 francs. The remaining 949.20 francs were added to 2,359.50 in outstanding shares. In December 1874, Renoir called

9135-400: The time he realized what kind of a force he was opposing, it was too late. Seriously flawed communications between Frossard and those in reserve under Bazaine slowed down so much that by the time the reserves received orders to move out to Spicheren, German soldiers from the 1st and 2nd armies had charged up the heights. Because the reserves had not arrived, Frossard erroneously believed that he

9240-443: The town of Wissembourg finally surrendered to the Germans. The French troops who did not surrender retreated westward, leaving behind 1,000 dead and wounded and another 1,000 prisoners and all of their remaining ammunition. The final attack by the Prussian troops also cost c.  1,000 casualties. The German cavalry then failed to pursue the French and lost touch with them. The attackers had an initial superiority of numbers,

9345-425: The traditional destabilizer of Europe, and sought to weaken France to prevent further breaches of the peace. The immediate cause of the war was the candidacy of Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen to the throne of Spain. France feared an encirclement resulting from an alliance between Prussia and Spain. The Hohenzollern prince's candidacy was withdrawn under French diplomatic pressure, but Otto von Bismarck goaded

9450-446: The various armies were almost identical, and based on the concept of conscripting annual classes of men who then served in the regular regiments for a fixed term before being moved to the reserves. This process gave a theoretical peace time strength of 382,000 and a wartime strength of about 1,189,000. German tactics emphasised encirclement battles like Cannae and using artillery offensively whenever possible. Rather than advancing in

9555-575: The war virtually without allies. The calculation was for a victorious offensive, which, as the French Foreign Minister Gramont stated, was "the only way for France to lure the wary Austrians, Italians and Danes into the French alliance". The involvement of Russia on the side of France was not considered by her at all, since Russia made the lifting of restrictions on its naval construction on the Black Sea imposed on Russia by

9660-484: The war. In the final days of the war, with German victory all but assured, the German states proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian king Wilhelm I and Chancellor Bismarck. With the notable exceptions of Austria and German Switzerland , the vast majority of German-speakers were united under a nation-state for the first time. Following an armistice with France, the Treaty of Frankfurt

9765-400: The word "impression" derived from the title of Claude Monet's painting Impression, Sunrise . Monet chose to call his painting an "impression" after Edmond Renoir (the brother of Pierre-Auguste Renoir), the editor of the exhibition catalog, complained that the titles of his paintings were too monotonous. Monet told him "Why don't you just put Impression! " Critics had sometimes previously used

9870-410: Was drowned out by cries that he was a traitor and a Prussian. Napoleon's new prime minister, Emile Ollivier , declared that France had done all that it could humanly and honorably do to prevent the war, and that he accepted the responsibility "with a light heart". A crowd of 15,000–20,000 people, carrying flags and patriotic banners, marched through the streets of Paris, demanding war. French mobilization

9975-516: Was in grave danger of being outflanked, as German soldiers under General von Glume were spotted in Forbach. Instead of continuing to defend the heights, by the close of battle after dusk he retreated to the south. The German casualties were relatively high due to the advance and the effectiveness of the Chassepot rifle. They were quite startled in the morning when they had found out that their efforts were not in vain—Frossard had abandoned his position on

10080-427: Was killed in the late morning when a caisson of the divisional mitrailleuse battery exploded near him; the encirclement of the town by the Prussians then threatened the French avenue of retreat. The fighting within the town had become extremely intense, becoming a door to door battle of survival. Despite an unceasing attack from Prussian infantry, the soldiers of the 2nd Division kept to their positions. The people of

10185-536: Was mobilized and deployed. Reconnaissance by Frossard's forces had identified only the Prussian 16th Infantry Division guarding the border town of Saarbrücken , right before the entire Army of the Rhine. Accordingly, on 31 July the Army marched forward toward the Saar River to seize Saarbrücken. General Frossard's II Corps and Marshal Bazaine's III Corps crossed the German border on 2 August, and began to force

10290-404: Was on the second floor of the building. A staircase led up to a series of large rooms on two floors which received light from the windows. While Nadar preferred more tradition styles of art, he sympathized with the group's anti-establishment stance. According to Monet, Nadar allowed the group to use his studio for free. On Pissarro's suggestion, the group formed a joint-stock company . The charter

10395-490: Was open for one month, from ten in the morning to six in the evening. It was also open from eight to ten in the evening. The entrance fee was one franc , and the catalog was sold for fifty centimes . Throughout its entire duration, the exhibition received about 3,500 visitors in total. This was significantly fewer than the Salon of 1874, which received about 400,000 visitors in total. Most of the media coverage of exhibition came from left-wing and republican publications. Most of

10500-444: Was ordered early on 15 July. Upon receiving news of the French mobilization, the North German Confederation mobilized on the night of 15–16 July, while Bavaria and Baden did likewise on 16 July and Württemberg on 17 July. On 19 July 1870, the French sent a declaration of war to the Prussian government. The southern German states immediately sided with Prussia. Napoleonic France had no documented alliance with other powers and entered

10605-439: Was pressured by a bellicose press and public opinion and thus sought war in response to France's diplomatic failures to obtain any territorial gains following the Austro-Prussian War . Napoleon III believed he would win a conflict with Prussia. Many in his court, such as Empress Eugénie , also wanted a victorious war to resolve growing domestic political problems, restore France as the undisputed leading power in Europe, and ensure

10710-489: Was signed on 10 May 1871, giving Germany billions of francs in war indemnity , as well as most of Alsace and parts of Lorraine , which became the Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine ( Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen ). The war had a lasting impact on Europe. By hastening German unification , the war significantly altered the balance of power on the continent, with the new German state supplanting France as

10815-503: Was signed on December 27, 1873. The initial signers of the charter were Monet, Renoir, Sisley, Degas, Berthe Morisot, Pissarro, Béliard, Guillaumin, Lepic, Levert, and Rouart. For the name of the group, Renoir and Degas wanted neutral name that would not be associated with a particular style or suggest a new "school" of art. Degas suggested that the group be called La Capucine after their exhibition space at 35 Bouleveard des Capucines, with

10920-402: Was that believed that the only way to succeed was to succeed at the Salon. For the location of the group exhibition, Manet suggest the studio of the photographer Félix Nadar at 35 Boulevard des Capucines, which was sometimes rented out for concerts or lectures. Nadar had recently vacated his studio for a larger one at 51 rue d'Anjou nearby, so it was available for the group to use. Nadar's studio

11025-553: Was unable to hold an exhibition then due to a lack of funds. Following the Salon of 1873 and the Exposition artisique des oeuvres refusées , a second Salon des Refusés , Monet once again proposed that the group hold their own exhibition. Bazille, who had died in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, did not live to participate in the exhibition that he and Monet had once envisioned. Edgar Degas expressed concern that if

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